4.

Software Requirements
Analysis and Specification

By
Chifundo Polska Mlangeni

Requirements 1
Background

◼ Problem of scale is a key issue for SE

◼ For small scale, understand and specifying
requirements is easy
◼ For large problem - very hard; probably the
hardest, most problematic and error prone
◼ Input : user needs in minds of people
◼ Output : precise statement of what the future
system will do

Requirements 2
Background..

◼ Identifying and specifying req necessarily

involves people interaction
◼ Cannot be automated
◼ Requirement (IEEE)= A condition or capability
that must be possessed by a system
◼ Req. phase ends with a software requirements
specification (SRS) document
◼ SRS specifies what the proposed system
should do
Requirements 3
Background..

◼ Requirements understanding is hard

◼ Visualizing a future system is difficult
◼ Capability of the future system not clear, hence
needs not clear
◼ Requirements change with time
◼ Essential to do a proper analysis and
specification of requirements

Requirements 4
Need for SRS

◼ SRS establishes basis of agreement

between the user and the supplier.
◼ Users needs have to be satisfied, but user
may not understand software
◼ Developers will develop the system, but
may not know about problem domain
◼ SRS is the medium to bridge the commn.
gap and specify user needs in a manner
both can understand
Requirements 5
Need for SRS…

◼ Helps user understand his needs.

◼ users do not always know their needs
◼ must analyze and understand the potential
◼ the goal is not just to automate a manual system,
but also to add value through IT
◼ The req process helps clarify needs
◼ SRS provides a reference for validation of the
final product
◼ Clear understanding about what is expected.
◼ Validation - “ SW satisfies the SRS “
Requirements 6
Need for SRS…

◼ High quality SRS essential for high Quality SW

◼ Requirement errors get manifested in final sw
◼ to satisfy the quality objective, must begin with
high quality SRS

Requirements 7
Need for SRS…

◼ Good SRS reduces the development cost

◼ SRS errors are expensive to fix later
◼ Req. changes can cost a lot (up to 40%)
◼ Good SRS can minimize changes and errors
◼ Substantial savings; extra effort spent
during req. saves multiple times that effort

Requirements 8
Requirements Process
◼ Sequence of steps that need to be performed
to convert user needs into SRS
◼ Process has to elicit needs and requirements
and clearly specifies it
◼ Basic activities
◼ problem or requirement analysis
◼ requirement specification
◼ validation
◼ Analysis involves elicitation and is the hardest
Requirements 9
Requirements Process..
needs

Analysis

Specification

Validation

Requirements 10
Requirement process..
◼ Process is not linear, it is iterative.
◼ Overlap between phases - some parts
may be analyzed and specified
◼ Specification itself may help analysis
◼ Validation can show gaps that can lead
to further analysis and spec

Requirements 11
Requirements Process…
◼ Focus of analysis is on understanding the
desired systems and it’s requirements
◼ Divide and conquer is the basic strategy
◼ decompose into small parts, understand each part
and relation between parts
◼ Large volumes of information is generated
◼ organizing them is a key
◼ Techniques like data flow diagrams, object
diagrams, Use cases etc. used in the analysis
Requirements 12
Problem Analysis
◼ Aim: to gain an understanding of the needs,
requirements, and constraints on the software
◼ Analysis involves
◼ interviewing client and users
◼ reading manuals
◼ studying current systems
◼ helping client/users understand new possibilities
◼ Like becoming a consultant
◼ Must understand the working of the
organization , client and users
Requirements 13
Problem Analysis…
◼ Some issues
◼ Obtaining the necessary information
◼ Brainstorming: interacting with clients to
establish desired properties
◼ Information organization, as large amount
of info. gets collected
◼ Ensuring completeness
◼ Ensuring consistency
◼ Avoiding internal design
Requirements 14
Problem Analysis…
◼ Interpersonal issues are important
◼ Communication skills are very important
◼ Basic principle: problem partition
◼ Partition w.r.t what?
◼ Object - OO analysis
◼ Function - structural analysis
◼ Events in the system – event partitioning

Requirements 15
Requirements Specification
◼ Final output of requirements task is the SRS
◼ Why are DFDs, OO models, etc not SRS ?
◼ SRS focuses on external behavior, while modeling
focuses on problem structure
◼ UI etc. not modeled, but have to be in SRS
◼ Error handling, constraints etc. also needed in SRS
◼ Transition from analysis to specification is not
straight forward
◼ knowledge about the system acquired in
analysis used in specification
Requirements 16
Characteristics of an SRS
◼ Correct
◼ Complete
◼ Unambiguous
◼ Consistent
◼ Verifiable
◼ Traceable
◼ Modifiable
◼ Ranked for importance and/or stability

Requirements 17
Characteristics…
◼ Correctness
◼ Each requirement accurately represents some
desired feature in the final system
◼ Completeness
◼ All desired features/characteristics specified
◼ Hardest to satisfy
◼ Completeness and correctness strongly related
◼ Unambiguous
◼ Each req has exactly one meaning
◼ Without this errors will creep in
◼ Important as natural languages often used
Requirements 18
Characteristics…
◼ Verifiability
◼ There must exist a cost effective way of checking if sw
satisfies requirements
◼ Consistent
◼ two requirements don’t contradict each other
◼ Traceable
◼ The origin of the req, and how the req relates to software
elements can be determined
◼ Ranked for importance/stability
◼ Needed for prioritizing in construction
◼ To reduce risks due to changing requirements

Requirements 19
Components of an SRS
◼ What should an SRS contain ?
◼ Clarifying this will help ensure
completeness
◼ An SRS must specify requirements on
◼ Functionality
◼ Performance
◼ Design constraints
◼ External interfaces
Requirements 20
Functional Requirements

◼ Heart of the SRS document; this forms the

bulk of the specs
◼ Specifies all the functionality that the system
should support
◼ Outputs for the given inputs and the
relationship between them
◼ All operations the system is to do
◼ Must specify behavior for invalid inputs too

Requirements 21
 Performance Requirements
◼ All the performance constraints on the
software system
◼ Generally on response time , throughput etc
=> dynamic
◼ Capacity requirements => static
◼ like the number of terminals to be supported, the
number of simultaneous users to be supported,
storage sizes etc
◼ Must be in measurable terms (verifiability)
◼ Eg resp time should be xx 90% of the time 22
Design Constraints
◼ Factors in the client environment that
restrict the choices
◼ Some such restrictions
◼ Standards compliance and compatibility
with other systems
◼ Hardware Limitations
◼ Reliability, fault tolerance, backup req.
◼ Security

Requirements 23
External Interface
◼ All interactions of the software with
people, hardware, and sw
◼ User interface most important
◼ General requirements of “friendliness”
should be avoided
◼ These should also be verifiable

Requirements 24
 Structure of an SRS :IEEE
Recommendation Identifies the product and
▪ Introduction application domain
• Purpose
• Scope Content and structure of
• Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations the rest of the SRS
• References Describe the external interfaces: system,
• Overview user, HW, SW; site adaptation and HW
▪ Overall Description constraints

• Product perspective
Summary of major functions
• Product functions
• User characteristics Anything that will limit the
• Constraints designer’s options
• Assumptions and Dependencies All the requirements go here. This is the
▪ Specific Requirements body of the document. IEEE provides 8
▪ Appendixes standard structures.

▪ Index 25
Specific Requirements
▪ How do we organize section 3 - Specific
requirements

▪ Depends on the system under consideration

▪ Examples suggested in IEEE Standard

26
 Organized by User
3. Specific Requirements
3.1. External interface requirements
3.1.1. User interfaces
3.1.2. Hardware interfaces
3.1.3. Software interfaces
3.1.4. Communications interfaces
3.2. Functional requirements
3.2.1. User class 1
[Link] Requirement 1.1
[Link] Requirement 1.2
3.2.1.n Requirement 1.n
3.2.2. User class 2
[Link] Requirement 2.1
[Link] Requirement 2.2
3.2.2.n Requirement 2.n
3.2.m. User class m
3.2.m.1 Requirement m.1
Etc.
3.3. Performance requirements
Fall 2003 3.4. Design constraints Univ. of Minnesota 27
 Organized by Feature
3. Specific Requirements
3.1. External interface requirements
3.1.1. User interfaces
3.1.2. Hardware interfaces
3.1.3. Software interfaces
3.1.4. Communications interfaces
3.2. System features
3.2.1. System feature 1
[Link]. Intro./Purpose of feature
[Link]. Stimulus response sequence
[Link]. Associated functional requirements
[Link].1. Functional req. 1
[Link].2. Functional req. 2
[Link].n. Functional req. n
3.2.m. System feature m
3.2.m.1. Intro./Purpose of feature
3.2.m.2. Stimulus response sequence
3.2.m.3. Associated functional requirements
3.2.m.3.1. Functional req. 1
3.2.m.3.2. Functional req. 2
3.2.m.3.n. Functional req. n
Fall 20033.3. Performance requirements Univ. of Minnesota 28
Use Cases Approach
◼ Traditional approach for fn specs – specify
each function
◼ Use cases is a newer technique for specifying
behavior (functionality)
◼ I.e. focuses on functional specs only
◼ Though primarily for specification, can be
used in analysis and elicitation
◼ Can be used to specify business or org
behavior also, though we will focus on sw
◼ Well suited for interactive systems 29
Use Cases Basics
◼ A use case captures a contract between
a user and system about behavior
◼ Basically a textual form; diagrams are
mostly to support
◼ Also useful in requirements elicitation as
users like and understand the story
telling form and react to it easily

Requirements 30
Basics..
◼ Actor: a person or a system that interacts with the
proposed system to achieve a goal
◼ Eg. User of an ATM (goal: get money); data entry operator;
(goal: Perform transaction)
◼ Actor is a logical entity, so receiver and sender actors
are different (even if the same person)
◼ Actors can be people or systems
◼ Primary actor: The main actor who initiates a UC
◼ UC is to satisfy his goals
◼ The actual execution may be done by a system or another
person on behalf of the Primary actor

Requirements 31
Basics..
◼ Scenario: a set of actions performed to
achieve a goal under some conditions
◼ Actions specified as a sequence of steps
◼ A step is a logically complete action performed
either by the actor or the system
◼ Main success scenario – when things go
normally and the goal is achieved
◼ Alternate scenarios: When things go wrong
and goals cannot be achieved
Requirements 32
Basics..
◼ A UC is a collection of many such
scenarios
◼ A scenario may employ other use cases
in a step
◼ I.e. a sub-goal of a UC goal may be
performed by another UC
◼ I.e. UCs can be organized hierarchically

Requirements 33
Basics…
◼ UCs specify functionality by describing
interactions between actors and system
◼ Focuses on external behavior
◼ UCs are primarily textual
◼ UC diagrams show UCs, actors, and dependencies
◼ They provide an overview
◼ Story like description easy to understand by
both users and analysts
◼ They do not form the complete SRS, only the
functionality part

Requirements 34
Example
Use Case 1: Buy stocks
Primary Actor: Purchaser
Goals of Stakeholders:
Purchaser: wants to buy stocks
Company: wants full transaction info
Precondition: User already has an account

Requirements 35
Example …
◼ Main Success Scenario
1. User selects to buy stocks
2. System gets name of web site from user for
trading
3. Establishes connection
4. User browses and buys stocks
5. System intercepts responses from the site and
updates user portfolio
6. System shows user new portfolio stading

Requirements 36
 Example…
◼ Alternatives
◼ 2a: System gives err msg, asks for new
suggestion for site, gives option to cancel
◼ 3a: Web failure. 1-Sys reports failure to user,
backs up to previous step. 2-User exits or tries
again
◼ 4a: Computer crashes
◼ 4b: web site does not acknowledge purchase
◼ 5a: web site does not return needed info
Requirements 37
Example 2
◼ Use Case 2: Buy a product
◼ Primary actor: buyer/customer
◼ Goal: purchase some product
◼ Precondition: Customer is already
logged in

Requirements 38
Example 2…
◼ Main Scenario
1. Customer browses and selects items
2. Customer goes to checkout
3. Customer fills shipping options
4. System presents full pricing info
5. Customer fills credit card info
6. System authorizes purchase
7. System confirms sale
8. System sends confirming email

Requirements 39
Example 2…
◼ Alternatives
◼ 6a: Credit card authorization fails
◼ Allows customer to reenter info
◼ 3a: Regular customer
◼ System displays last 4 digits of credit card no
◼ Asks customer to OK it or change it
◼ Moves to step 6

Requirements 40
 Example – An auction site

◼ Use Case1: Put an item for auction

◼ Primary Actor: Seller
◼ Precondition: Seller has logged in
◼ Main Success Scenario:
◼ Seller posts an item (its category, description, picture,
etc.) for auction
◼ System shows past prices of similar items to seller
◼ System specifies the starting bid price and a date when
auction will close
◼ System accepts the item and posts it
◼ Exception Scenarios:
◼ -- 2 a) There are no past items of this category
* System tells the seller this situation
Requirements 41
 Example – auction site..
◼ Use Case2: Make a bid
◼ Primary Actor: Buyer
◼ Precondition: The buyer has logged in
◼ Main Success Scenario:
◼ Buyer searches or browses and selects some item
◼ System shows the rating of the seller, the starting bid, the
current bids, and the highest bid; asks buyer to make a bid
◼ Buyer specifies bid price, max bid price, and increment
◼ Systems accepts the bid; Blocks funds in bidders account
◼ System updates the bid price of other bidders where needed,
and updates the records for the item

Requirements 42
Exception Scenarios:
◼ -- 3 a) The bid price is lower than the current
highest
* System informs the bidder and asks to rebid

◼ -- 4 a) The bidder does not have enough funds in

his account
* System cancels the bid, asks the user to get
more funds

Requirements 43
 Example –auction site..

◼ Use Case3: Complete auction of an item

◼ Primary Actor: Auction System
◼ Precondition: The last date for bidding has been
reached
◼ Main Success Scenario:
◼ Select highest bidder; send email to selected bidder and seller
informing final bid price; send email to other bidders also
◼ Debit bidder’s account and credit seller’s account
◼ Transfer from seller’s account commission amount to
organization’s account
◼ Remove item from the site; update records
◼ Exception Scenarios: None

Requirements 44
Example – summary-level Use Case

◼ Use Case 0 : Auction an item

◼ Primary Actor: Auction system
◼ Scope: Auction conducting organization
◼ Precondition: None
◼ Main Success Scenario:
◼ Seller performs put an item for auction
◼ Various bidders make a bid
◼ On final date perform Complete the auction of
the item
◼ Get feed back from seller; get feedback from
buyer; update records
Requirements 45
Requirements with Use Cases
◼ UCs specify functional requirements
◼ Other req identified separately
◼ A complete SRS will contain the use
cases plus the other requirements
◼ Note – for system requirements it is
important to identify UCs for which the
system itself may be the actor

Requirements 46
Developing Use Cases
◼ UCs form a good medium for
brainstorming and discussions
◼ Hence can be used in elicitation and
problem analysis also
◼ UCs can be developed in a stepwise
refinement manner
◼ Many levels possible, but four naturally
emerge

Requirements 47
Developing…
◼ Actors and goals
◼ Prepare an actor-goal list
◼ Provide a brief overview of the UC
◼ This defines the scope of the system
◼ Completeness can also be evaluated
◼ Main Success Scenarios
◼ For each UC, expand main scenario
◼ This will provide the normal behavior of the
system
◼ Can be reviewed to ensure that interests of all
stakeholders and actors is met

Requirements 48
Developing…
◼ Failure conditions
◼ List possible failure conditions for UCs
◼ For each step, identify how it may fail
◼ This step uncovers special situations
◼ Failure handling
◼ Perhaps the hardest part
◼ Specify system behavior for the failure conditions
◼ New business rules and actors may emerge

Requirements 49
Developing..
◼ The four levels can drive analysis by starting
from top and adding details as analysis
proceeds
◼ UCs should be specified at a level of detail
that is sufficient
◼ For writing, use good technical writing rules
◼ Use simple grammer
◼ Clearly specify all parts of the UC
◼ When needed combine steps or split steps

Requirements 50
Requirements Validation

◼ Lot of room for misunderstanding

◼ Errors possible
◼ Expensive to fix req defects later
◼ Must try to remove most errors in SRS
◼ Most common errors
◼ Omission - 30%
◼ Inconsistency - 10-30%
◼ Incorrect fact - 10-30%
◼ Ambiguity - 5 -20%
Requirements 51
Requirements Review
◼ SRS reviewed by a group of people
◼ Group: author, client, user, dev team rep.
◼ Must include client and a user
◼ Process – standard inspection process
◼ Effectiveness - can catch 40-80% of req.
errors

Requirements 52
Requirements 53
Requirements 54
 Library System
◼ Library use cases including borrowing a book, returning a
borrowed book, and paying a library fine
Data Flow Modeling
◼ Widely used; focuses on functions
performed in the system
◼ Views a system as a network of data
transforms through which the data flows
◼ Uses data flow diagrams (DFDs) and
functional decomposition in modeling
◼ The SSAD methodology uses DFD to
organize information, and guide analysis
Requirements 56
Data flow diagrams

◼ A DFD shows flow of data through the

system
◼ Views system as transforming inputs to
outputs
◼ Transformation done through transforms
◼ DFD captures how transformation occurs
from input to output as data moves
through the transforms
◼ Not limited to software
Requirements 57
Data flow diagrams…
◼ DFD
◼ Transforms represented by named
circles/bubbles
◼ Bubbles connected by arrows on which
named data travels
◼ A rectangle represents a source or sink and
is originator/consumer of data (often
outside the system)

Requirements 58
DFD Example

Requirements 59
 DFD Conventions

◼ External files shown as labeled straight lines

◼ Need for multiple data flows by a process represented by *
(means and)
◼ OR relationship represented by +
◼ All processes and arrows should be named
◼ Processes should represent transforms, arrows should represent
some data 60
Data flow diagrams…
◼ Focus on what transforms happen , how
they are done is not important
◼ Usually major inputs/outputs shown,
minor are ignored in this modeling
◼ No loops , conditional thinking , …
◼ DFD is NOT a control chart, no
algorithmic design/thinking
◼ Sink/Source , external files
Requirements 61
Drawing a DFD for a system..
◼ Never show control logic; if thinking in
terms of loops/decisions, stop & restart
◼ Label each arrows and bubbles;
carefully identify inputs and outputs of
each transform
◼ Make use of + & *

Requirements 62
Leveled DFDs
◼ DFD of a system may be very large
◼ Can organize it hierarchically
◼ Start with a top level DFD with a few bubbles
◼ then draw DFD for each bubble
◼ Preserve I/O when “ exploding” a bubble so
consistency preserved
◼ Makes drawing the leveled DFD a top-down
refinement process, and allows modeling of
large and complex systems

Requirements 63
Data Dictionary
◼ In a DFD arrows are labeled with data items
◼ Data dictionary defines data flows in a DFD
◼ Shows structure of data; structure becomes
more visible when exploding
◼ Can use regular expressions to express the
structure of data

Requirements 64
 Data Dictionary Example
◼ For the timesheet DFD

Weekly_timesheet = employee_name + id +
[regular_hrs + overtime_hrs]*
Pay_rate = [hourly | daily | weekly] + dollar_amt
Employee_name = last + first + middle
Id = digit + digit + digit + digit

Requirements 65
DFD drawing – common errors

◼ Unlabeled data flows

◼ Missing data flows
◼ Consistency not maintained during
refinement
◼ Missing processes
◼ Too detailed or too abstract
◼ Should not Contains control information

Requirements 66
 Structured Analysis & Design
Method (SSAD)
◼ Structured system analysis and design
(SSAD) Process Model– we will focus only on
analysis
◼ Was used a lot when automating existing
manual systems
◼ Main steps
◼ Draw a context diagram
◼ Draw DFD of the existing system
◼ Draw DFD of the proposed system and identify the
man-machine boundary
Requirements 67
Context Diagram
◼ Views the entire system as a transform
and identifies the context
◼ Is a DFD with one transform (system),
with all inputs, outputs, sources, sinks
for the system identified

Requirements 68
DFD of the current system
◼ The current system is modeled as-is as a DFD
to understand the working
◼ The context diagram is refined
◼ Each bubble represents a logical
transformation of some data
◼ Leveled DFD may be used
◼ Generally obtained after understanding and
interaction with users
◼ Validate the DFD by walking through with
users

Requirements 69
Modeling the Proposed System

◼ No general rules for drawing the DFD of the

future system
◼ Use existing system understanding
◼ DFD should model the entire proposed system
- process may be automated or manual
◼ validate with the user
◼ Then establish man-machine boundary
◼ what processes will be automated and which
remains manual
◼ Show clearly interaction between automated
and manual processes
Requirements 70
Example – context diagram

Requirements 71
Example – DFD of existing sys

Requirements 72
Example – DFD of proposed system

Requirements 73
 Petri Nets
◼ Petri nets have proven to be a particularly
effective mechanism for modeling the dynamic
aspects of processes.
◼ Petri Nets have three specific advantages:
◼ Formal semantics despite the graphical

nature.
◼ State-based instead of event-based.

◼ Abundance of analysis techniques.

 Petri Nets
◼ Originate from C.A. Petri’s PhD thesis (1962).
◼ They were originally conceived as a technique for
the description and analysis of concurrent
behaviour in distributed systems.
◼ They have a simple graphical format and a
precise operational semantics that makes
them an attractive option for modeling the static
and dynamic aspects of processes.
 Applications

◼ Applications in many different areas, such as

databases, software engineering, formal
semantics, etc.
◼ There are two main uses of Petri nets for
workflows:
◼ Specifications of workflows.

◼ Formal foundation for workflows (semantics,

analysis of properties).
 Petri Nets: Basics
• A Petri Net takes the form of a directed bipartite graph where the nodes
are either places or transitions.
• Places represent intermediate states that may exist during the operation
of a process. Places are represented by circles.
• Places can be input/output of transitions. Transitions correspond to the
activities or events of which the process is made up. Transitions are
represented by rectangles or thick bars.
• Arcs connect places and transitions in a way that places can only be
connected to transitions and vice-versa.
or

place transition arc

 Summary
◼ Having a good quality SRS is essential for Q&P
◼ The req. phase has 3 major sub phases
◼ analysis , specification and validation
◼ Analysis
◼ for problem understanding and modeling
◼ Methods used: SSAD, OOA , Prototyping, Use
Case Modeling
◼ Key properties of an SRS: correctness,
completeness, consistency, traceablity,
unambiguousness
Requirements 78
 Summary..
◼ Specification
◼ must contain functionality , performance , interfaces
and design constraints
◼ Mostly natural languages used
◼ Use Cases is a method to specify the
functionality; also useful for analysis
◼ Validation - through reviews

Requirements 79