. : q Physica Sciences . Retha Louw & Debbie WatsonCONTENTS The Grade 10 November am Detaled content per term Shils for Psial Sciences Formula Sheets for Grade 10 rade Table NOTES with QUESTIONS and ANSWERS: Modulo 1: Matter and Materials ‘Questions Answors Movdulo 2: Waves, Sound and Light. Questions Answers Module 3: chemical change, Questions Answers Module 4: Electricity and Magnatiem Questions Answers Module S: Mechanics Questions Modul ‘Questions ‘1-05 ALAS 24-244 (06-7 8 AB staat ‘08-12 18-15 4046 ‘ar2-a16 M5-A19 51-828 ‘a16-c21 420-126 61-65 a2 nat THE GRADE 10 NOVEMBER EXAM ‘lighting of questions cross cogelive levels a 7 ny (Ours) Level Lev marks Duration per paper Content Maris 75 Mechanics (Wodule 5) 40% 10% 19% 35% 2 180 0 2 Paper 4: Physics focus (Module 4) (Chemical Change (Module 3) 10% 2 (iodule 6) Chemistry ‘ocus 70 (Module 1)DETAILED CONTENTS PER TERM ACCORDING TO CAPS “Tis sudy guido is basa on the CAPS curcuum fo Grade 10 Physical Soleneer, sppieabe ae rom 2012 The fallowg sa department recone ncaton of the content which shuld bo overed tm bye, Baar his Inmind a you wok wih ths Anew Saris guide ad become acgusited wth what oars thoughout Be yea Module Module 4: Mattor and Materia 1 > Revise Matter and Classification > Thw mates of hon on cbs campoted Page 44 > Stato of Matter and the Kinetic Molecular Theory >» The Atom: Basic Building Blocks of All Matter 2 Mad of re stom» Nic essa eet > Periodic Table ‘rengemens 129 ang olen Geos 1, 2,17 an 18 Chemical Bonding > Covent bong onc bond and meal bondeg Madule Waves, Sound and Light 2 Pulses on a String oF Spring Page Module 2a Waves > Longituinal Waves SOnasstha > Wave, reac. empl, pero, we speed » sound »Souna vee > Pach, nee, guy (oa) > Electromagnetic Ration + Nato ot Ea pail nary os photon ltd Fequany and wavelength > Waves, Legends and Folkiores 1 136 lees (release substance) ae do ove! ong Med hemical Chany 234 » Phystea > Sopaaton of garcesinpysel change and cee! ange > Consent fats ands> Representing Chemical Change —— aad > blecedchrical equations Rioaete Noches Module 4: Electricity and Magnetism 4 > Inoticten year ond ear Magnetism > Motion in One Dimension > Instantaneous Speed and Velocity and > electrostatics > naanlanous vey, tantancus speed Equations of Motion Toki fargo » Desert ot maton nwt, dograns, graphs end quatens > hatgequntzaton > Electric Ciruits Module 5: Mechanics 5 525 > EE ea tees ore) » Energy easement of vate (pd) and caont 1 tees pt ser Mot Chants Sytem oom ule 2: Chemical Change a > Ober cnenzalrescen ypes- water ston > Quantitative Aspocts of Chemical Change Nonna an he mele concptSKILLS REQUIRED FOR PHYSICAL SCIENCES ‘Selene asa tele oF suay velop rom the human need fo beter unrated sn oxlain the wal in ution wo ve. Physiol Seances ved int 0 ‘iscipnes, namely Physics and Chemsty. Physics deals mary with th study ot tne ws of he unterse ane Chemisty wth the stay ef matler and mater In both lsiptnes itis nacossary todo scenic imvastgations, solve problems. nd forte ndings Mathers pays a vary important rl to help us th Scientific notation > In slonce we oon work with very smal and vor large numbers, om the ‘ase of an atm the aso th oath, > Insane notation, a number i xoresead a8 a product of two numbers, pic ape ae cer Example: 25710" ; -400% 104 ‘+ Mis any aunter tam 110 9,998..(4e eerfoX98te contort of 10") zz Conversion of ordinary notation to scientific notation > Mowe tha comma util rare Is only one piace (dat) before the comma, + iggy tar 0a 10" opments poner of 1.00 + Hogatve numbers ge ngatve sgn ( before to eo otto > ifthe comma has to move plecas tothe ight, then the moan is: N10" > tre comma has o move psce5 othe eft, then the notation is: Nx 10" (Porggaaeynperite nse ot) Bp “nd ony anal number a nagatve exponent For example 25789,4 = 287004% 108 Example: Convert tre fosowing numbers to scant notation 1) 20008 2) c,o000007e9 2) 180% 108 \ postive oxpanant negate exponent Conversion of scientific notation Into ordinary notation > Take away te 10° ond move the comma a paces ta tn eft (ora ngatve ‘exporant orn placa sth ght fora posive exponat For example: B78 10's 0378 comma moves plac othe at or 2.5410" = 25.400 mma moves places othe ight Addition and subtraction with scientific notation > Mako al the exponents ofthe powers weh bas 10(nvaues) th same, > Ad the coticonts (Nahi) > ust py the power of 1010"For example: os 7 (2.67 10%) + (405.10) 1105310 = + 50,005 102 + 1080.005 10 1052.67»<10 > The exponents of tho powars of 10 (ras) nowd not be the same > In muitipieation: > Muti the cooficients (N-values). >a exponents of pewors with baso 10 (o-value) Forexample: 16310" a2% 10" = nga.) 10 = 512109 > In division: >" Dido the coetflans (Nau) > Subact exponents of the powers wih hae 10 .alues) fom each athe. Foran: 2218" ‘th 9 clan Diferont eaters work > arr oe sey a a yor Powers and roots of numbers in scientific notation > Powers a0" Powers of powers: mulpy the exponent fous: (10 bathe aly 4g Sere ‘tip ho exponents ose Brac oe ‘wb hose factor inside th rocket. > 2x08? > Roots Roots of powers he exponen) n-alues) are ve by the nunber of the ret, 9 225% 1 = 225 Vio (Die axpanont by 2 ara square Waa root and by 3 for cube rot et Fee ” eames | 2 Conversion of units Foc calelatons a schoo! evel we make use of SI unis throughout (io. ttematonaly chosen uns) fo measure and describe physical quate. Basic units “Thoro are soven basi Suns. Thase basi unis can intr be sad 6 odiceotor unis Below isa abe withthe sven basi uns Basie quantity Name Symbol length move « aes ogra 0 oct curont ampare A oh ntensity candela od amount of substance mole molGeneral conversion factors The prefies used with units have specal meanings and give ita specie oder cof magnitude. Conversions canbe dane between those uns, The more {commen prefs used at school evel are he flowing Prefix Symbol | Expone Prefix | Symbol | Exponent doce da 10 ect 4 to! ecto nt cont Cm ke [oe ma m0? mon Mth meow 10) 0 sw ano nto? tera Tot io > oe Conversion of units | > Distanceliength The SI un or astance Is the mote (rn) A distance veo in metres can be x0 x10 tt xt Wao helo doc m= doch cath ll 1000 “010 0 cr Exams: Convert (1) $02 mmtom: 2) 430mtom 5.902 +1000 oF 5902.10" 43-100 oF 49x 102 = 5.902m = 0,043 (9), 700 nm to: ea » incest in square unis unas, » for conversion multi or dvde the area valve bythe cor 0.9. by 10", 100% > inceate ia ec unts (unt), » for conversion: mult of vie the vlure {he aclor 29 by 10 100, ee, (2) 1.5m? — mm? (2) 20cm? — m? ()'207 1068 = omna0nF (fy S002 = 05? Taam boppe ood tes > ase —> Temperature +The Suto tmperatio is Kolin). +The other temperate scale commonly used degrees Celsius), + AKolvin ompertio (7s converted to «degree Caeue temperature (by adding 273, 9 Teter 2 Tae rovers suse to doduce a temportue in rm ho Yomperature Be ete teeny eons > The S nit for pressure i the Pascal (Pa). > Pressure is dened as force per unit ares (2 and thorofoe 1 Pascale = IN. © sum? » Conversions between Pascal (a) and klbpascal (xP ar ton requ, Forexample: 110Pa = 110-1000 or 110,109 = 0,11 Pa ims oncom ese) | Changing the subject of a formula When a callin ee fotowed 140 sv a problem, the flowing saps can be > Make ist ofthe iforstin given, and whale beng asked, eg n= 2:@= OS madm® calculate V > Do a substutn noe formula and caeuata enn the unknown value, Marks ara usualy glen for v > if pretered, the subject of the forma can es be v= aon? ‘andthe substiuton done atlerwards, 6a ven > muy bo se by he om! Rate, ratio and proportion Rate > The rate at wich something happens te num fi iin = chango por second(s")Forexample: Rate ofchange in velocity = “(ms Ponor at at ich works done) = ( eacton ral = NN convention ofa reactant Seal = hange in “ tale = dds by tino (8) Example ‘toy completes a retiinar (straight ine) dtance of 50 m in 7 seconds, rat of changin pasion feocty) = AE = 22 = 7-4ms Ratio ‘Arata betweon quanttes (fr example between X and ) inca the ‘agate ofthe ona quanty relate otha other can nob expressed 2353 tacn, fr exarpe: Wxeves X= 3 moans that ws ay = 5% ys Se or re dy Proportion ’ proportion i usod to deseo ho relationship betwoon two quanti, Wo ‘dating botwoon two tyes of proprtinaliy, namely > diac proportion and > Direct proportion ay are dct proportonalo each ae (x «yn the fling cases: » sf incraaes,yincoases by the same proporbon oF > sfvdocreases,y desrentes by th same proportion ye kala 2k oO) > The graph of versus yi striae though the oni, [Aleorer collects the folowing data for wo quantities, namly, x any. “The dat is tmearisod in obo zy |e sas 1 Tm corependng rp ks ke this os 1st 7 - 4s 2d 4 5 2 a Indirect proportion «andy ae indectiviverselypropetionl to each other Inthe following cases > telncreases, y decreases by he same proportion or > it docreaes, y increases by the same propation ths an inverse change) +-ny phat aaa egy = = » tho graph of x vrs ya hyperbola,Example: ‘Aleamardoas anotorexporinent and cosets data forte wo quantios ‘randy, Tho datas summarised na tbl: The coresponding ara looks ke his apeereieen, a ters. 7 st 5 ; The use and meaning of a constant ‘constant ea cuanity ha vay kes 008 asd valve within aspect Inthe previous eston twas shown that a proporton can be writen 3s an ‘equation by introducing specie constant eg oct proportional tox yar y=k Setupanonuaion or Eu (oF racin dy 1 = Planks conston! ‘Arveaton with const = nf ‘neray fa poten oF [pRperts b eonebnan pee Teco = pond EM raat, qton Newton's Law of Gravity and Fy « 4 Fy (rvtatons oreo of traction) Fi nveray ropa ‘revtatena! free of atraction Beta a an ct ‘table wi the most imartant constants an hor values appear on page Trigonometry In any rectangular tangle, the folowing tigonometic rates canbe recardod td used fo calla lengths of das or angle, This a ction coved n ‘mathemates but which has use aplstions in Physi CConsier £8: AB = hypotenuse AAC = oppost side BBC = ajoant side woe ea (8 ‘sin B, cos Band tan B ‘Sunenee a foro Fo Nis exsted on an obec at an ang of 60" roaive oth horizon Calle he component athe cos 60" Fs 4g F cos 60Practical inves igations ‘When a proccalnvestiatn is done and expermenta proof gathered i oder recess olowod, ocees is kn a he aelontifi method! Steps the question to be investiga > State your hypothesis, other words say what you expect the relalonship tien the variables wil bo Ged 9 be exec). > Plan and design the oxperinert > Determine tn variables an deci whi factors ust be Hop canstant. Ind vrai > tis aay shown ons oe ph, £ Dopendont varabe: > Te vari tht must be measured whieh changes a8 he inepenaone vie changes) » he says nical on haya ofthe > Some fatrs wil nunc the resus and must be Kat constants hat » Decide ona method, apparatus an slaps thal wi be flloed, sults » alloc and abut the cata, > Represent the date apically. > Analyse the data, tables ond raphe ‘Try rdalationstp betwean the varabes or answer a snd make a conelion questions > Test your hypotness, Laboratory precautions ‘The chamlcals and appartusinalatorstory must aays be hanced with eat care. Tora ae baste stey moasuros tal must aways bs adored Pay atrtion to any of he foowng danger sian: |: i g EB gs t BE kin Ms. — BED Poresous tome ‘S00 pt or questions ons ston. The answers aw an page At1: MATTER AND MATERIALS REVISION OF MATTER AND CLASSIFICATION n takes up space, consist Tre ae many ferent ypes of mat wih spect characteris, Matis trade up of pat oi The word ‘substance'refers to one spect ype of mater. The materials that re pt of our everyday If from ths eanoa wo woar tote filng m our teth sonal of one er ve types Of mai, Therefor, the spacfe properties of 2 mato dopond ons composion and ‘eterna the purpose for which we can use. which objects we could manufacture for ti deo perform a certain uncon, Mater 1s can have the following properties: Properties Description Example of material ‘auetng we good conduc ot heat » oppor van aso tlenees How esi tbesklonis [seis ci Matleaity! ow easly canbe hammered ot fred > a quo as bong pi ating pit “The properties of materi are used to clay malo to groups: Gam) nores [a MATTER AND MATERIALS(AD mocrures | Artiste etre whon wo or more substances are combing and mixed MATTER AND MATERIALS. | phystcaty, winout chanical bonding together > sation > atilaton For example: Ifeny amount of sa and sugar is mio, eBchsustanc relin ts unique ropes, The mature can be separated again by ang water oo tel he Sugar dssoves. Tho san, which ineube, canbe removed by faation ‘The sugar canbe recovered by usng a process of evaporation, We distinguish beiweon homogeneous ans heterogeneous mixtures Homogeneous mixtures ‘Atbomogeneous mixture appears the same and has tho same constant ‘omposion throught the mture. The substances can ro longer be ‘dstnguishod tom each che. Deron solutions are oxamios of hamegonoous mites ‘same statophase). The substance comprising tho largest quantity is {ho soa and the heresies wich fe eas) hose Examples: Liguld sotations: > solid dlasolved in aliquid, 0.9, suger ost n wae: crystal a seonot > Louis disoted ia onch other, 9 lookin water > gas dssolved in a laid, 9. soca water i carbon dioxide diasoted in ‘rater > Tho ai around us i a mtu of gas, 9. nitagen, oxygen and smal ‘Wantiesefearbon donde, te 62s solotions: Solid solution > Metal aoe aro forma when one metal dissolves in another, 6. soo ‘oblained by mong von wih other metals and carbon, norabyrentorang Heterogeneous mixtures In heterogeneous mtu, the pares of the substances inthe mitre stay ‘separate and can bo distinguished fom each ther, Usual he mutt ono Luni, tte patos are nol evenly dstuted, and sonetmes comprse ‘move than one sat. Exam » sand and water > ron lings and suphur » oll and vinegar > ob and ik > A suspension of clay and sand wth water Suiignwccnertmemrceesse" |b eo onwih vga eed say - Consider ne flowing symbolic eprasentaons ofthe elements oxygen (0), Sentech 20] RO] ug] Rag ©: com | GO Ql eo ca oo @ + nd which ara hetragencous A suspension a mite of soe stn na his 9. musey te. ‘Answer: A: homogeneous B: hatrogensous (140 fs mixed wih C partes) (homogeneous (tha qase= 0, He and COs are mated) | : hmegeneous (CO, is maid wth 0) 12PURE SUBSTANCES: ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS Boments and compounds ae regarded as pure substances. Elements Compounds {we ot mor tn of stor hat > ements on const of sig aos the bpe lemons ne cumpound ies, The prope ofa compo ier iti (ema) femhoe of ts conponen senor, fam roe cmp lemons by etn yt oats Test for purity Some ways of esting to check substances pu Is tough The melting or boling polnto a substance: ‘Arius of pura substances cn be separated nt ts component Sistances by sing the diferent rating baling pois of Ihe substan inthamatre, 2g » al (a mtu of, Oz and ther gases) can be laufed unr high pressure ané thon hese. The ga wi the loos Dong point wl atl and dose, oe > Paper chromatography, whic canbe usod a saparate a mine of pure The tre canbe Gasotved ina sohent in which 8 sip of ter papers suspended, » The itor pape wit abso tho various substances at eiforentrates, >The front colonic in black can be erie nhs way. nk pone onl Sates ae not pure clu, bt mtn tarts nr be separated by Cramton a CCheamararapy er to aot soparate 1°} al mitre for further uso, (rio anayso a maitse, ~ ou — “Sep The folowing tables substances ae mates or pure substances, is a mate's futher classed a homogeneous or netrogencous, a8 2 ue substance, ls clssiiog as an elment or 8 compound EE stare Pure substance Ssubetances Homogensous Heterogeneous Element » salad ossog NOTES mt MATTER AND MATERIALSnores (al MATTER AND MATERIALS NAMES AND FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS Names and symbols of clomonts {otis cal groups, There are B main group (Group Vil}. a8 wel as ‘ hoteona ous, which ae cles parlods The elmants nthe Pedic Tabo are rprecenad by symbols. Many of tha Symbol re dev frm heft ater ofthe Latin or English nama, he ‘name of more than one element starts wth tho same ler, then the second Tetris added —tho ft tof always upper caso and the Second Tower caso. CAG Ge > Coin © Pe Below isa ist of tho more camnon elements and their symbols ‘hr [agen | |Frie—| Wo [hoon Bown | M_Hylogen | Oxygen Be Gentan Hg Mery | PD Land Names and formulae of compounds ‘A chemical compound develops when two or mor lemons chemically Combine na constant rai. The Yormula of compound ea combination of ho "symbole of he relevant element, aswell asthe rato which toy combina, 139, H.O isthe forma for water, consising of H-atom and 1 atom, ‘There a ferent ypes of chemical bonds that an take place between atoms cfeloment (soe p19), One such ype of Bond an Fone bond ng whic an atom > donates (ote) an electrons and forma positive on Le a eation, > can accep (gtn) an electrons and fom a negative ln, ean anon “The oppositely charged ion ae atracted to each other a electosat frees som forces) and pack togther in a crystal ato. B.S tm anne oss otsThis onic charge i aso cae the valency (valence number) The most mportant on a sg atoms af shown nha Poi Tao bolow Writing of name if formula is given > The abow calls have the same nama asthe coresponding element, 9,8 sothamion,coppe on, ete Inanions, the lament name f changed fond inde eg, onde, sulphide, Ruorde, ae, ‘With to exception ofthe trogen fn (Hho hydronium on (HsO") and the ammonium on (MH), al eatons are derived om metal atom. Some ration elements can form more han ne cation, 9 Fe or Fe" depends on the eter substance i rears wih and te typo of chomica bond that forms, The Roman aumeralin brackets ar tho metal name Ileats he vlancy ofthe maa atom nth bond, Hon) ica @ Fe and onl} a Fo” fon occuring Inthe compo. Groups of atoms combined covalent (ep. 1.31) can as a whola bo ‘args postive or negatively. They ae called plyatemicions. Excop fo 0" and NH", mest thse ons aro nopatwoly charge, 0.9. OM, COs 'S0,", and are elcroatealy tracted to postvely charged meal noms ‘hal are present to form neutral nie bonds Below is a i wih the names and formulae of some inpotat platonic ons Take not ol ho name erin ale Or ti oxygen present ne fn tao ions contin tho samo non-metal wath the same ene charge bu aiflarent umber of ©-aoms, he on wth ane more Oss wl nd on ate andthe ‘ther ene ont “4 Gharge aaa Ls ceo ee ra eee nce een tr ee Into tbe bow the cont ful and rae for sa orc bonds {twee 2 ctl on noe poems ane) a nan ESE ae Eaton wot [soto Somerton NO, Potasshum nitrite f Caton C2805 (Cdeum apa [Siete | fear fomce Jose eortman'|| 2notes (al ma + conn ong Oa st neo. Mawnamen/cesrennecn =| Bb ‘Tho Heat wen ft he above and nether compound of at 0, Sand th logan (F, Cr Br 10.9, HO, (0g. hycrogn clr yeti acl (HC. > mers, the H-atom swt ia 9, amon (Naren ‘eampounds th metas, 9. possum hyde), ctl nya) > Hyaroxges or compounds containing an OH” on and usualy re ‘rong base 2. sadn hyo NeOM, Magnes hydrox (a0). » Compounds wih 2: - futur, are cae sulphides 50} on ao cate suphites 'S0¢" in. ar cod sulphates Writing of formula if name Is given The folowing res can be applied to determine the mule of compounds: > Fist wit he caton element with pestve charg) fokowod by he anion, > Te rumor of posi chargos and nogatvechargs shou be equal and 56d upto zero form a neta compound > tthe chargs of tw combining ons up o zor, thay are combining in ‘onerto-one rat, > tt1do0s not a upto 20, ne or bath lone must be neroased to tha he re charge er (eee crossover rete). Example: 4) Galelam ox » Valonoy: Ga (+2) and 02) » The charges add upto 010: +2+-2 = 0 “The lens combine na one-to-one aio, namely CaO 3) Aluminium oxide: > Valeney: A (+8) and 0 (2) The charges +3 and -2 60 no add upto 200 My 20 » sTolomais AG (9) = 6) SP Mra = 0 4) Coppert}hloride: » Valoney: Gu(22) and Ct (1) » The chargs +2 and 1 donot 284 upto 200 stow by he Roman maa 5) Calelum nitrate: Ca, NOs arate (N0s) apoyo | Psy fomandfehended 98 unt.) Therefore take two NOs tons foreach Ca fn, The NOs' i place in bwackels wit 9 subsp 2, Le. Ca(NOs. The use of profixes in names ‘Som compounds are rot ni bons, but sovalet (se p. 1.) an form ‘mal mola. Tho female of these compaunds Sis nla subecipts ‘how the aloof alomsn the compen, 69. CO; COs. When wring the ames of ho compounds, the feng ree neato the umber of some ofthe sme ype ‘mon [4 [tate |a arorbe |2 [pent | 5 [3 Thee [6 16carton monoxide CO = carbon donde Vie = vanadium pentoxide carton bisdphide (ate ‘brats toto number of S-atoms) sulphur trioise questions: {Give the names othe folowing compounds: 14 Na 12 Fels 18 Peso, 1 GaINOss 15 Nor 18 (NS 2. Give te fouls of he follwing compounds 21 nyoohorc ace 22-poeasism hyrone 2.3 zie sulphate 24 magnosium bromide 25 aluminkm sulphide 26 carbon aachloide Answers: 411 sod fuorse 1.2 wonjliehoide 13. aod sulphate 414 calcun itato 1.8 lagen dose 1.6 ammonium supide 2a Hot 22 KOH 23 2180, 24 Mere 25 Als 26 col, METALS, METALLOIDS AND NON-METALS. Element se assed a melas, metallid or non-metal based on their ™ soratanmette Metals > Properties: Meals have ho folowing distinctive properties: > ty ae sai arom temperature, except mercury, hich ull > high mating points > astiny, mete appearance > strong > maleable and dct, and can be dram no wees » good conductors of hat » good constr af ociety ‘Aw uses of maa at Property exploited 20d conduction of est jewellery steal bears stergih Position on Periodic Table: eas comorse $ of ll ements and are found on hee ste of the Peve Tabi. Tha gaup of moan the mide are called the rensiton Non-metals > Properties Nen-metls nave many ifort propertas. Bow ae a ow properties thal thay rave n commen: > thy ae sotds or gases at oom amporature, except bromine, whichis > malacular solide usualy have low meting and bling pons; network Sols such as damendo: graphite nave very hah meting pints > epadue (dl appearance (except dlamoad and grep), many ferent 17 Capit ©The dower NOTES ma MATTER AND MATERIALSLo uation aonstas ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, Vo cates any INSULATORS [+ poreonsicomot ele. non ne (et ee |] 8 mreencrm nantes cin cietsiieton Exampiss——~—~Ulppnatun Use: Analects cone + Wat st, > Eee conn eo > Thy archon ad nit ole th conn on and Stmceenatere’” Sepeartom > pogo sochety olan fo eo) pupots paniresing und cndicing | (eshaiecropeyo Sonat o sneha sovene Feihoeny 5 Notas > Eee eco » Oiaren one have unk oper tr ied fr apd Mewamctte emg ste near | » Position on Periodic Table: > Freq > ined she bods on Thenonnae compen a mh sma uber elomenis rte sheen convents ee ee oneal Motalloids Sel Srna |). erupt tants, ao oun as anima have sone opr ot SOR + comme > Uns tris eng sation ure pops on ela Shows Desens ance soe » catenins See nanan 7 ty bok he elas, bul coud nyo opaqat Tome danand__ tes onc ee oe Semen nate» Siow > sinning + they ee sonics Rebecpen cont oa an acy Dt an poner, butts wal as Seats ig? Semana > Eaetenc ees ~ conduct aleciricty better when they are heated and therefore they fer th bet scout ‘mma note cond cence mh ances io roe 3 E 1 sren msi, rane brn), con (i, oman 62) §2Sonc (ec ontnony etka Ge ard paca ey Sc oe 2 German ae probably te most popular meals expect oto a "4 g Sonavonnrsacaea neiyreg mvensoon mizetipe oA yj 2 Steam ata Se ile » Posons on Peto Table renin ov gran on 17 aig 9 he de 18Te ‘THERMAL CONDUCTORS ‘ot choot has high interna eneny (enrayof the consttuont pats). it fowmos ilo contac wih a old eos, themal energy can be anserod fom the holo he cost ebook, Clavstes in Examples Usoslapparatus (unsure: be > ic borer Dove not alow battopses "pou fe gases (aa god sa A simple test foro substance’ conductivity of host. Prt poe of wor onto one ad of he subst, Poco MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS Classification Examples Usosfapparatus frdsooat co} on” canbemoneicd 88 ‘oppo (0). trangnoso fr ara Neormaate niet inn atiracied by magnets. Sypwtances) > The Ear’ coe ines moten ton ancl and farcons Ike an enoment bar magnet. (Se ston an magnet > Fenomagnatic ubtances contin magnetic domo (groupe atoms) that are akon accrdng ote magnet ed of ‘hoax when nagnatoed » Salt magree from tol are oasiy magnateed an r rove ett eet Z MATTER AND MATERIALSSTATES OF MATTER AND THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY || * tHe states oF maTTER Particulate nature of matter The nvestgaten af ditsion and Brownian motion odes important ‘dence indeatng tat al substances are made up of separa, sna patios. | > bittusion Dison isthe spntanaous movement of partelas from an area of high conceive to an area of ow ‘oncantatin unl equstrum reached Examples: > Ia few dops of foot cxloutng ar aod to a beaker of waar, the colour \wilgradualy move for the area of igh cancanvaton tothe area ow Concontation thes spread rougrout the whale beaker > The gas fenmed during 2 oo3-makng process avy spreads rough the house so hat can be smet man adjoining roan or ousio the Neue. & A Grins were moving asa resut of calisons wth he suounding water mmoles, “The random moverran of he mcrascopie paces of a substance, ‘eto he colsons wth the partes of he suroundng gas or Tau, isk a8 Brownian motion. By tapping smoke in 2 smal ass container and viewing under a ‘microscope, th random movernant of he smoke parle, de Calsons wih sureunding ar motcules, can bo bserved MATTER AND MATERIALS nit The Three states of matter ll matier acaxs inane of hes states, namely a soi, ligul r Solid (6) que CO HS (Gntereas tion "Tho meas of ity face of oof gud cleat waco i igh vec tle Rist (tkyicous) g& "loner sel > ery (in) Freezing point, melting point, boiling point ‘The sate substance iin depends on is reezng point, melting point anc poling point 6 nating or cooing a substanca, a space tporsure reached whofe io substance changes sate. This temperatura vrs for diferent Sbstances and also depend onthe extemal pressure on he suostance, 2 Freezing point: The lemperaire at whch a equ Hosa Yom a deemed niacin“Therfore the feszingimeling pont of aspect substance ithe same Solid 2 Ligue Boling pont: The temperature at which a a ots and pasos rio the gaseous sal, oat @ ‘ich a vapour eandenses forma qi quis ‘Vapour ‘me avapoation of qui may take ace to tho boing pont of he ststrcn.Molnee earth suas ots {gud obtan enough enor fo reek away and pss othe gees ‘Sale. The provoss rng which od boks ae paras the peur sae, ony akes lace athe bang pat fhe sbstonce freezing point = OC | imeing pont = 01 Boing point = 100° & Temps Identify the state of a substance if the melting point and boiling point are given ‘Tha sao of a substance dopons on wneter the onperatire of he subetance fe lower thanks meng ob, higher han ts bong pot belweun the wo values: rm iran wa tron One Co } ‘Temelting point malting point <7 24°C and chon isin ts gaseous state at 2°C Bromine: meting point = -8°C and boing point = 5950 BC «1 = 69 a eon sin it ui! ate ot2886 fodine: meting point = 11380 {Ue TIS and iodine sin the sd sta 23% State change The atferent changes in stat (Wanson fom one sata into anche) axe named Freezing: quid + sos Evaporation; Squid + gas Melting: 5050 + oui Condensation: gas —~ liquid Sublimation: soi ~ gas Deposition: gas > sais Oe NOTES mt| ‘With heating: a ‘overtenprte 69 Tam enperati, There ace a number f substances that can change crt from the sl tate to the gasoous late (e.g, COxs) —» COa()) without rs becoming a, This rove is called sublimation. The verse process, ding which a gas changos ‘recy ino a sod, oun a8 deposition ‘Demonstration of state changes othe flowing practical investigation o determine the efecto apie’ heat on ee and war. Heating curves and cooling curves of water Method: »Satup a ipod stand wth gauzo over a Bunsen burr » Fil ahoatreitant ass booker with #100 mi water and eka fom bork oe. > ‘Strthe contents wal nl ake te temperature reading on 2 thommometer, > lan the Bunsen burner > tot the stop watch the same ine ad ake temparatre roading every 20 seconds, wo stiring continual. Tabula the data and craw an appropiate graph (MATTER AND MATERIALS | Tie eecond) © Temperate 6) a Pd faran Te tamperatre a0 1 ‘departs onthe amour a 100 ‘toon 0 oF te reap ‘romperature ) The tmparatre of tha oa inrensed to O° wherein X remained Constant (°C) uni al oo had mod. Thon hee sas a constant temperatro incre por tise neva ul a tomperature of 10°C ‘was reached. Th water saved bollg. Atti stage the heat om the uncon burn didnot neease the termperatre en further (mained ‘constant a TOO) bul a change of sa ook place. Therefore, @ ‘rast of hea reuls eh a tomperature Inzease ora changeSolids, liquids and gases accor Molecular Theory ‘he Kinete molecule theory gives deserption of mater a a microscopic Ibvl- namely hat a8 mari composed of smal moung pares. Ths used iho dierent states aswell as he anaton betveen states, o,explans the servalons ata macrosconie level, eg Brownian 19 to the Kinetic Particles Solid Lid as bees [oes] {© Hoon and Parcs vat ny Pars move fesy Patios move KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY (KNIT) | | | anne cmon ara] a Sel oes esas Explanation of temperature increaseldecrease and state change in terms of the KMT Temperature > The temperature ofa substance is dieclyproparienal tothe average ‘roti nor othe partes, Mitsuo eine aeage Exe parce we les have gained sufclont nergy ©. by heating, te nthe intemalecla forces of atacion bebween ta further apan (For example, the pakcls dlech rom terete in th std stato and chango i tho baud state) > The potion ofthe particles relative to wach other, changes dung a state -safiifcation and latent heat of evaporation, etc * MATTER AND MATERIALSa a é H f THE ATOM: BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF ALL MATTER [Amat is made up of stoms, e.g your own bod, ha, organs ano ‘ar you breathe. Atomic hoor represents tho latest sonic view of th ‘omposton and ture ofan atm, fundamental tothe understanding of the teraction between substances andthe formation of paula compounds onthe ‘THE PERIODIC TABLE ‘Tho Poros Table comprises a special arangoment of tha more than one hdd erent known elon, The eoments sre arranged in ote of Inereasing atomic number in hoiena ome, called periods, and vrical ‘cunns, called groups. Thre i lear rations between the atomic ‘Shclire ofan eloment ad is positon on tha Perc Tabe. Thee alsa Patol (perdi epetion) of earn properties ane alomic sructire of he ‘lments a grou que aome move, (E=ammmma & ‘A models menial imago o¢ representation of something that canna bo seen ‘ands iu to understand The atomle mode such a raprossntaon othe ‘hice and nature of he stom, based on carta oberetions end ‘xperimenta ress for when siete wanted fo fd axglanatons. ‘The atomic modal is constant boing changed as now exporimeta videnco is Calcd: Baow a tmeine a ra summary ofthe mes portant lage ‘he development of te atomic medal pt he current wave mocharical adel Sclontst and discovery Date Model Democritus (Grok pzopner «70-30 0) Jot Dation (1788-180) 114 Hone Beaver > Discovery fda: aba, eta an gamma) ay, Joseph. Thomson (1856-1897) een (an to) rmact Rutherford 18711997) > Sal poste atomic nucleus wih’ ting Nols Bob (198-1982) pra ner, Loui de Broglie Ein Setadinger » Wve mechanical met: osertin of pceton ct dames Ghadwiek (1801-1874) 1922 09) 33Rutherford’s gold-foll experiment > th scatord a pareles wero rated bythe postive partes in the > Ruther sti theory (1911) was based onthe rests ofthe setting momentous fexporimerts he conduc > nhs experinont. he simod a beam of postively charged paris (He ens) cmloded ty, because hen athe ‘adstd bya adoactve element, a a vary thn lee fg eee ee se notes (ina A fuorescant screen ws placed around io inca the path ofthe ‘parle trough the gold ol (sal ass of ight formed on the screen | Rutherford's atomic model where the paties hit) > The atom is composed ofa postivly charged atomic nucleus, whieh ‘comprises avery smal vlumo, bul tho greator part ofthe mass of te atom, dees > ts surounded by an empty space that contains negatively charged & Neepe > The loco havea vory small mass compared tthe nucleus and are relatively far rm the mclus sane The alocrons move randomly around the nls at According tts theo th elacrostatic orcas between te nus and rang te setting experiment loco provide the aczaleraton needed to keep tha elacrons arn the rues plac. However, there was one abecon to thi theory — an Sozeoratng pail wil constant rae nergy, reaulting na decrease in the spe ofthe elacon so tha nay sprala a the postive nucle, Bob's atomic model Tie decors of decay by ® the Cans paved way or Bohs made focuses onthe arangarant of aactons around the slomic = rcrtreatinea’ gy | risa Hoga @) BL | + sete n mos unde donc des neh toed ot Stowrlowl wine! rye Tio nano ond eso ‘The deetions in which the > leone mowing in parrots th sans oy nd tipartias were seated ‘nonay emits > tho enorgylvel ooo othe nucleus has the lowest energy an isthe fist {oe ile with soctrons. As the distance fom the alu increases, he > Mot ofthe apartios pasod straight rough the gold fl From hs, nergy othe loves ncoases by acatain quay ach lene, Futhoror concluded that mest of he atom consisted of mpl spc Conclusion > an alacton can move fram one anergy level 9 anaes o is > small number of «parties changed direction (were satlared) and ew horgy incertan feed quantities, caled packets or quanta ‘wre actualy seatlore backwards From his he concluded ha: a " p “ » fan lacton gains energy, loan be promtd frm the ground sate > ath conte ofthe atom was asa atomic nucleus that contained al of pth ack tek he ata pede the mass and positive charge ofthe atom as argh ©The AnneMATTER AND MATERIALS +. tan alockon crops dam fom a higher energy level to lower (nore Coloured ines (spor ines) of 9 spect colour tequensy) ‘= t bain tho lovel closest fo the uous wih he owest energy. Tho ovo ae ed wh 2 1) £ The Wave Mechanical Atomic Model > Somer developed an aquaton by mans of advanced mathematics, dowcbing he behavou and enerien of electrons > isnot possible to determine the exat posiion ofan electron at a gan ‘moment, but according to Scrbdingor's model, moving electron forms & ttroelmensional wave or spaco wave (ald an ox) > An orbital scribes te most kel rea where an oleon may be found a ATOMIC MASS AND DIAMETER Actual mass and diamot of an atom {sed fo compare the mass of efferent atoms. ‘Noms are so extromely smalthe hey cannot be observed even wit the most Dower microscopes, Therefore, the usual nt or mass. grams an logan are not uae to dante the mass ofan atom. Consist fverage mass and lamar of few atoms: Eloment Diameter Average atomle mass (ka) gen 12310" 265% 10% ag Evidence of atomic size and mass from Rutherford's experiment “Te way in which tho o-patiesn Rerores gold ol experiment were Scattored (09 p.1. 15) conuincad him that > very smal micious (+ 100-00 as sma than the ator isa is located ithe canto of ho atom, > 9% of he mass of he atom is found in the mucous. > the atomic nuiou consis of smal postive parts, i. protons (in 1982, (Chadwick azo ‘lacoveod the exisanco of neutrons (uta pares) a the nucleus. Protons and neutrons have approxima the same mass, namely hat ofthe Hest (1857 > 10°” kg). > the greater pat ofthe volume of an atom consists of moving electrons (secon vs) Te massa eecvon= +f; ofr. 9.4110" hg10 oxpross tho mass af an 1 conseuanty, slots had to tnd anchor un Som oof sbotome paren The unt was, Ithed boen agreed to choogo the cafon-12 atom asthe standard and a mass Jf 2au war gien tok The C-12 alam has prions and nouons fe uous (oe8 next section), Tha mast ofthe atoms of hor elements was | ‘compared tothe C-12 atom, e.g. the mass of an H-atom (with only 1 proton) is one twat ofthe mass af to C-12 atom, nami tame (1 0) The ase of the Moratm s+ to times greater han thal of th C-12 atom therefore 2 Relative atomic mass Later the atomic mass unit was replaced bythe relative etomic mass unt (i), Wve atomle mass (A) i only comparative igure and has the same rureral value the atomic mas un, but na nt, The relative atomle mass (A) sho rato ef th average imaes ofan atom to; of th mass ofthe C-12istop0. 8 KR | STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM: | Protons, neutrons, electrons “Tho alms ofa elements he Perode Table all contain a certain uber of {ho twee subatomicpariles, Le. protons, neutrons and sleet. The masses and charges of the pares are he folowing an | Mee | aoe a | =| : sar Con substance that consists of rly ono type of atom > The ype of elements datrminad bythe number of protons inthe rule alom ath neato bye atomte umber (2), > Tho atomie massimass numberof an clomont depends onthe number tome mass (Q) > ley, 6. ZE shows where the atomic number and omic mass of an ‘lament E can bo read ff the Prod Table ‘The atomic number (2) >» The elements ae ranged on he Period Table according ote atc numbers (2), te, aecrtng ot rambo of poons nth some nucleus > Areuial sont hax‘an equal nuniver of peices aed eloctoan hassel charge ot 210) » Theteor 7 = the poston f the element on he Prodi Table the numberof protons nthe nous = the namber of electrons around the nics (of neta sox) >» tfone ormore sacs ar removed here aro ere protons than ‘doctors and the atom has ancl positive charg » Metal alors realy oe thor valence eecoos 2 mata and thon for posi ons or cans » The onic charge = + (numb of donated) = + graup number) tn man group elements) Example Sodium (Na) hasan alomic numberof 1. Theelor, a neva Nato has ‘Tt protons and electrons. ranNa-ators loses an elecvon stl has ‘reine tt ony flakes: Consaguty sro ngi sua, (numba of electrons gainod) ‘group umber in man group elements) mins > Te one charge Example Chora (has anatomic numberof 17. Therefore a neta Ct atom has 17 protons and 1 electrons a Ci-alom gain an eer, ts hae MATTER AND MATERIALSMATTER AND MATERIALS Therefore, some atoms ter to donate electrons, and oer ‘poeta accopt doctors face more about ths in the next secon), The atomic mass (A) Tho atomle mass or mass rumor (A inca tho numberof prtons 2) and neurone (Ni, ealehely (ogeter called the nueloons, ne somes of ‘neloment The protons ar inthe clos oth alo Atomic rc can x ity an of sc ‘amount of nor, which eo be vey deuce, Examples: We zetiast N=A-Z ° ISOTOPE & & A ‘Some elements occur naturally as a mixture of diferent isotopes Tnotopes are alms ofthe same clement with ha sare ame Tumbr, ut cferent atomic mates, Le number of neutons, Such ams stil have the same numberof protons and electrons and thus the Calculate the average atomic mass “The peranlage abundancefncidence of the diferent slopes in nature i ued totalulat the average flav aon mass ofan element. Chiorne accra the wo topes chine 35 and ehorin-37. Out of 100 t-atoms, +75 ibe C-26 and +25 wi be C27. (Tek percanage | aeundance ven 9875/54 and 245% respectively) 055» 29)+ 245 97) | Teevmge late sone misotn = 355. ‘This explins why the average relate atomic mass snot always a hole number Tho {E notation for different isotopes Numbor of particles | 4, ae Isotope Symbol + gy Abundance, atomic mass comerss | eu | 20 kaa Clete the average magnesia, Ls omic mass of the thee otope8 of Isotope % Abun Ma a0 10%Answer: 20 24)+ (40 25) 10x 25) =m ELECTRON CONFIGURATION From the pocading atomic models we saw hat elsctons are nogatvoly ‘charg pales hat have vtually no mass ‘According tthe Borate moda, lactone mave in gar energy owls found th nuloue Electrons can asa mova baween leva by accepting fod mounts of energy (+E) during exctaton to higher enery lel, oF anatngesing enecay (AE) when tuning 1. lower enory love Atoms can ‘eo aosopt or dante electrons during on formation, ‘Thereor, electrons ae very toh hemi change during chemical Think Fader eat stops in poe postions for amir up or don No bowen posts (ener) ‘The way in which he elections ae tvanged around the alec cleus, is own asthe electron coniguration, Setvtcnger developed a theory according o which locos in an anergy level forma &- wavedke matin. K dascrbes the area of goats probably fr Fring an electron and eld an otal, ‘Thee at our iferentypee of rials, namely pan orbit, each vith own 3.0 shape These orale shoud not be viewed ws areas with rod oundarios, but ao dated by the movement athe electrons. Orbitals [Atsckoo love we many ook a the fling ofthe s- and pcx wth lactons orbital potbitals > spot symnatic shape + ea pritalcom > nly one ext per ny |» they we signed (avenged) a igh eng to ‘The Afbau princip! “Tha way in which tho elton the main nergy vee are arranged and move abeutin the smaller areas orbital, sca the electron cxnfigraion som. We epresant (show) elaton caniguatine by means of energy rams oF Aufbau dlagrams. Soveral important ls ae used 10 ores : g ; & E 5| BB | + electrons ate represented by arrows (1) in the orbitals, > The highast energy love (n-value fan oral has 2 locos we say hat tis fl and wo calthoslacrons an OOO The name of an arial als us the number ofthe energy level (0 involved a ale > > Electrons fill orbitals with the lowest energy first in order to obtain the rt mestmnaapnnce metres (11) C1 ws Seta atoen eoreris eras flectron, before it gains a second electron to Pe by os “Bi obials have higher energy than the 4, therefore the 4s filled before the 3 | > he maximum number of electrons per energy levels indicated by the = a oe ‘i i orale ar et reed, a 2 aay = 6 o 3 23" E 4 26 = 32Exam Now apply the rules and de tha elocton filing for H.C, PK OOO; -O— ==} —— O=<—— OOO, Other » Spectroscopic electron configuration ‘Nahorthand notation, Le th electron confguration er, encation, of the ‘stom is also used to represent the way he socren ae tuted inthe ‘ral. Wits down gach s-ovel wth the number {san exponent ofthe sub love Le. jectron configurations. 3p) ea: [H) ts! $0) ts%2stzp* py ts?25? 29 ap? So) ts! 26298 36a ast crane in hat level | 7a ES ats ata xt ay rats est > Shorthand electron configuration ‘Somatias a shorthand elcronconfigraton i used namoly, placa the ine lectrons ofthe element withthe preceding neble gas allowed by to ‘udermast vel wi he valence electrons 2.9. $0) (Me) 25% 2p 1 sao gs prcotog 5) tol 3p" 6) as! a » Electron configurations of ions Positive ins: > come no exstnce due tothe os of eocrons by neutal atoms, (on sora) > wortore obtain he electon cniguration of te praceding noble gas in the Pedic Tato, 0.9, Na’) 188258 29° oF Ne" [Nel Negative fons: > como lo oxistenen by means of the adion of eecrons to neal tons » have ena chasg of [-1,-2oF-3 dapendiag on how many elacvons re ‘coapted othe valence ove, > torte obtain te lactonconraton of he alway nog. 08 Jn) t6'25?29" or MP) (Na) {B5*) tet 20? a8 a6 ap? or SSH) Uk} 421 Cari © TedGroups and periods ‘The olmants inthe Perc Table are arranged in such a way that 16 vertical supe and 7 hezaral ows Or periods are termed. THE PERIODIC TABLE ‘THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE POSITION OF ELEMENTS AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE Groups > Tho groupe are numbaced fm 1-18. Wa dsgishtetveon main group foments (Gr. |- Vilar 1-2 and 13- 12) and anion elements (Gt 3-12) The ssn ces Ort Merle, err reset as he er of Imes tof ate mane a a he set wh Ser | Phy and cherica oprzs wre rouse gees, Gape wer ohn Q wenmeccee| mise dence edo» av lana needed Viiaant errs sores os Lan, yea road atte vast etn ha ctnicsunberat |» tuageag cn oan uth rsa anche peprtan inca ententnte nats Tra gpg come dar ya an cana ope Tod, he dona ar aranged one Prd Tete cdg o > Aton gums hoe oda nae Tie Steamer ects nee anton ie en ee cr ances eae 3 be prepared inthe 5 roup (= 18) a6 non ‘ements, Bol hich ocr natal. eet, laboratory. Moet ofthese ave metals (270) 2 omen GE epesonn mee mls and seven are melo. (eemimetals) (Soe provous gecton Group Vit?) halogens prs) Group Vi (18), noble Ger) gases : Periods > The seven horizntl roms with clemanss are cae perlds, and numbered from 7 > Theis cord has ony two ements, 0. H and He, pavods 2 and 3 nave B loments, and perods 4 ana'S Be ane ee et sr Fees f a ‘propertias of the elements. | S282 > The peers oan skeen 8 wal si poston o parc 89 © ia Donal me ssa abso uss ame ob em S) re 5 E | enense Z Cari © dsr 1224 ‘The electron configuration and the Periodic Tab! > Teowamosteneaylevelcfancanet etesanessinepwiod | itwe slat at the H-atom and move tough the Proc Tato, ach element | UBS Naber fine faSone more protun and Nerfre one ee lecten, han ti revo oe. Example (Neer a ine Pood Table below fo acon confgreton fhe auommost ont m0) elas?) = fen norbe e [ovale the amet ae shown. ° ” iii 8 a ee ta ei tac i | Tho Pri Tato can be divided no four Bock. dor ook, fe ~ | Tha nants ut ye seen hb emo — Be ee | Groups and bik mt ‘Groups i -Vi (13-18% pbk ma Groups 3-12 bec (ao called he tanto lemons) a Lanthanide and Actinide seri: (ck a > Ao wih af ied eta onary ove er unstated roe by om (Group th Melemens) rm > secoptng electrons and ting up the hae ve, «9. N, 0, Ct (Group Vi element) » mace lacton pais tween hil 9.6 0, (gp VA. ~ {See ston on eromeal boing p) - a > Atoms wh comply fled tr enaray evel, nema thence gases a Toa Group 18 are very tae and most do nateact. > From thet can be concuded tat: & (RSS ‘ . » Each atm af specie slement hasan ner laconic sche that ha G, [Tre umber of elects tht an atom has to os, gin 4 boon filed nto recoding pao ands the samo a he stuctue of he {a7 | crater norerto obi a stable noble gas stuctre Z foe ee ne ' calls the valney or valance numberof atom, 3 » The numberof valnce electrons of an elements equal othe group +36 E rmber ga. ate i | > ‘A elemens nthe same group have the same valence electon structure. 2 A E 123 aright ©The AnerValeney of the main groups Valence evens 123 45 8 OT Valeney wijsa peat eal a) eae vores (al PERIODIC REPETITION OF PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS erccaetenacigreerat | Tharefor, contin pattors in tho changos ofthe physical and chemical ropeies can be seen, This rats Io the atomic stuck of the elements, Wo wa lok rey at the elements In pods 2 and 3 and investigate the Density > The densiy or the packing ofthe atoms of an lemon is determined by tha bonds between the sem ofthe element > In petiod 2 the density ofthe sols thum, baryiam, baron and carbon increases inthis sequence, Nlogen, oxygen, uorne and neon are gases, vith the dont of neon being the lowest >» Tharoor, tho density ofthe metals increases and tht of non-metal decreases across bis pod, ) MATTER AND MATERIALS melting and boiling points > The meting ad boing pois ofan element depend on how much energy is rnoedd overcome the ores of atracton between the pares > Asa gonorl uo, the sos have high malting pols. There an intense inming pint fram Lito. 'N,0,F and No are gases at oom iamperature ar have meting pos <0, ‘tha decease in meting pois rom N to Ne, > The same rand is oven wh ego tohe period 3 elements > The high peak vies of and SI naeate tong bonding forces betaon ‘Within a parislr group, the mating polis decrease down the group | © (compare Ua Na, 8 and Mg, B an AL, Cand). wit egar othe helogane, tor ean ncroae in mong pine down the group olin pont F< C< Gr > Tepe or boing pits coresponds otha of the mating po elo [ime Pel ij 424Atomic radius Periodicity in formulae of: Hatides The group Wi elemonts FC, Brand are krown asthe halogens. They react sconably easy wih ctr elements. In compounds wth tls they fom [erect tnown a halide, Tho ais whch th hie combine with OOo (Bae amon es” | le “in oteajtva fm eta Tho atone asus the distance between the atomic nucleus andthe ‘Bitrmost rita with electrons. ts aso haf fhe dstance between wo Som net naxgjacant tors, Mota stoms (M) + Halogen (x) Group umber —1(8) (2) CIS) wc) Valoney 42 4 Compound MK MKS oo, Lich | Bec Fs Kor oF, AICI, Nal CalpABrs oxides ‘Compounds of oxygen wth moa are formed na similar way to produce metal ‘oxides, or example “Theres dear pid wend wih regard to stom acu: tal atoms () +) Oxygen (0) >The tonic rad neeases down a gr: Cryer TTC CTC a > Moving dow inthe group, are energy love sade each tne Vatoncy Hoe 8 2 +The valence electrons ar further away fom the putous and ae yhezesingly shielded om te nucleus by te growing numberof eels Compound | MO | MO MO ‘thinner lostons 9, UO, MgO AO» + Therefor, the force of traction delween the nuceus and the vane Uoctrons weakens an the atomic ads creases, > The atomic ois decreases rom > ight in apd. Moving othe ight +n energy levels, and thus the nor aletrns of tho atoms, remain + one valence electron i added othe same outer one lve ine umber of protons inthe ileus, Le the nusear charge, ieee. > the force of atacton betwen the ruclus ad electrons consequently Increasos andthe aoc rads docrases MATTER AND MATERIALS[Bf conpaunss mex whan nenetas ond wih yee re examples of covalent bong. S00 abs bon B | [eroupe elment | Valonoy | + "syn | Valney "> | Onde E wey |e | a fel o | a co 2 veg |e | v4 [«| 0 | 2 cor wag [st ) i+) 0) |) ao, vos) oN [+0 | 2 No vos) oN “a +) eo 2 Noe p [+s [+] 0 | a] =| Py | Se | sale [6 [2 Te wan] a | 4 [*| ©) 2 |=) ao Prose note: rats, depending on th valncyo he on-ta » ach imo, oxgan i th more alectnagtve lant nthe ampound hereto th valency of oxygen i takon (2) and > nie naming process, the ros mam, ee. ao used ko indote the narborof O-tams nthe compound. (60: carbon monoxide CO»: carbon donde (See , 16) MATTER AND MATERIALS IONISATION ENERGY, ELECTRON AFFINITY, ELECTRONEGATIVITY ‘The chemical behaviour of aloms ding chemical eacons determined to 8 larg extent by thee aby to lso, gan or atact lectone, ie. by te vals of ‘hel ionisation energy, electron afinity and electromegativiy Jonisation energy \When atom oss an doctors) ost on med The cel hope ewan ony ap amare dcton Tessa ory eet oreo ar) eh Suc fom opulence an, clo te oisaton egy “The lonsation energy an ination of he tonal lecton is ‘bonded tothe alam the stonger the bonding fora, the more ener that 'saqueedoreriove an olocen, and ihe higher te lnisan ene. We distinguish btweon te fist, second and third irisaton enries > The 1 nisin eng isthe energy requtedto ee the telecon froma noutl som (4) (+ energy M+), > The 2 and 3 ionisation enerjes are he energios require to ee tha 2” and 3" eloctons respeciely. © 9. M+ energy — M+ e+ energy —+ (he 2" and 9" onsaton energy values ae greater than the tonsa energy because the remaining cons ae aac moe stongy bythe pestve stom nuclaus) The colon! econ, irthost om he nabus, hos he gros eno fs bonded most nowy and removed st 126Grph of rat ionization energies imo for elements 20 “Trends in the periods and groups: From the procoding graph of he 1 nition energies af the et 20 elements, the fllowen trond canbe sen notes (it > There isan eco in onsation energy a you move Hom to Hight inthe potiod og FomH= Ho, i= No, Na Ar ot ‘Reason: The numberof protons inthe nus of he atom, ithe nuclear charge, icteases as you move otha ight the paid. Ate sama ime, the radius ofthe sto decreeses and thus a stronger atracvs for ‘exerted on he valence elacvors and a higher lnlsaton energy is required {o remove the elecron ce —— ss © © © OOee6 tion nero edo") > The noble gasses hav very high ionisation enor. > Reason: Tho ot of those alements ae comply filed # 7] With elcrons. Ks aso fo rmove anolacton from aha ied ene level thn rom a ful ove, 2 str _| 1022 | 104 | 1310 | vee | 067 > The onisatonenargles decrease down the group om se4_| roo | 1017 | 1008 | 1257 | 120 Reason: A new outer energy levels added as you move down the group 10 « Tong pom] meal ‘Sew period. Therefor thee are mor nor alton shin the Foren of atracton of tha io valence electrons, Ole lecvons are > From Be ~ Band rom Mg Al here isan unexpected decreas in Tension energy Reason: Bs) 13°2¢ 58) 18 2629! | 1 eutormost sn 2p subsovlwtchis uth rom the nce. has a higher energy than that o he 25 subaval ofthe atom and threor oss ‘orgy reguled to remove the valonea elton fom B han fom Bo. Tho ‘sare apps to My and A (MATTER AND MATERIALS 7Gl) ~ tr2eisas02 ovat fom Oanson PS tac be | tenon g OOO» O00» * @» Ox ™ Ou 0) O« The O-atom has a 2p-obia with an elton pa, Paired lacs rapel each Electron affinity & [To acronatan Cute cure nowy i xo Usual, Eye's energy tats beng released. The greater the Ey ofan element ‘eestor te change tat sue an atom wit acepl an eecon during 3 x@re ‘The graph of the secon ainty vals fmol ortho serena 1-20 From the above graph ofthe elec frites ofthe rst 20 elements, he folowing wend can be seen > Thoresan ereas0 nthe elocon-aty values om eto ght inthe pote, 09. fom LI-+For fom Na > Ct. Cari ©The Ameo MATTER AND MATERIALS > Toreor, the non metals have higher electra aiy values than the metas Reason > Welaes to e decrease atomic aus and neease in ale charge (and therefore a stonger oreo of aration onthe electons 3 neighbouring atom) of te atoms rom ko ght > Moreover, the nonmetal toms in Groups V, VI. and Vl ae sho of ony ‘ow olectrons (8, 261) atta a stable nadie gas sto and Ns readily acct + The halogon (Group Vl have the highest lacton-affny values, > Te noble gasos have vory low oocronafinty vals, Le. theres aba Atop trom P= Ne, Ch Ar Reason: The noble gases havea ful outer energy level an do na wat 0 szcopt any 6 > The values in a group differ very litle, i ¥ won clorenats how sorte Electronogativity “he eloctronegatviy(E ftom (the sement in & ‘The elecronegativty of an element can oly be determined in compar that of anotor element and is rete a relative vlum. The eocone ‘aes (calclstes aosordng tthe Pauling seal) appear on the Pose Tale (soe tho ko). ‘The graph ote electronepatvty "ne sacl an covert bong, ference is _made tothe sai of an ace pa Sao p13.From the above graph af the elocronegatty values forthe st 20 element, the fllovang Wend canbe obsorved > Thoteis a clear incea89 in the Ey vauos fom ft to ght tho paid, Le whan nreasng atomic ruber (and bus nuear charge} and docoasing omic radus Florine (F), wth the smalls atomic radius, has the largast Ey ama Rosson: > The Ey valuos are cect relatos to the eacron coniguraton of ho ‘toms oan element. During bending he atoms involved strive aan a fi outer energy level (ie. lactone ste ofa nate 93), ‘This means that he non-metal tothe righ of the abe are mor inclined toracoat octane and exert stongor fon of lation on m shared ‘con par (ger Ey vale). ‘The moa on the let ae more indie to dona electrons and exert a | weaker force of atractononanelecton pa (ie Ey values) > The Eng af the elomentsdocroasos down a group Reason: Going down a group (with each now pate) the atoms acquire @ ‘ou outer snergy love. Tare a reator shielding by the Inner elecuors fd to force af atacton of he nus ona shared olcion pa Povo Table wih letonegatity BR RS ie a 129 cn SIMILARITIES IN THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS IN THE SAME GROUPS E.g. Groups 4, 2, 17 and 48 (1, Il, Vil, VIN) NOTES =a Relationship between chemical properties and electronic structure [As soon alten, tment into same groups have the same outer electronic ‘Sete and tus the same numb of vlonce alco, ‘Consier the election coniguatons of Groups 1 (2 (I), 17 QM, 18 (i ‘Group | Group2(W) Group 17(¥H) Group 48h ‘Akall metals Alain earthmetals—Halogers Noble gases 1 ie}2e" Bo: Mal 26° ph Ne: He 2° 2° Na (ee |Ma 22 Ce Neh 6 36? Aa? ag Ke wwids! (cu ast Be Duds! ap? Ke Aa > Group 18 olmanis (noble gases) have an octet structure wth maximum (of 8 vlonce electrons. i reprosonts avery stable © srucire ‘Aeconing othe octet ue, oer atoms reac in such 2 way (e.g. by accpting or donsting eactons) 28 o acquire ‘he doeact reo gos sete valence eetons). > The numberof bands an atom can frm, depends on the numberof valance lectons: » Group 1 and 2 clamonts can acaur tho preceding noble gas stuctre by danating thoi valence etocrone and forming postive ion, e.g. Gri MMe eg Gra Mo M828 eg My Wa? +20 > Group 17 elements, nt, can ase the folowing nese gas Sct byscsepng an electron nd ming a negate on. Kee =x e9.Ci+0— cr > Sometimes onleton sharing ists ace betwen oneal tans. 0 sive th stone noble goes. The runber of bond (6 pas at, 8a sharod) again depends on the numbor of halos ois. (See ovaont nding on p13), MATTER AND MATERIALSMATTER AND MATERIALS Reactivity of elements in Groups 1, 2, 17 and 18 “Te reatiity ofan elomont is the measure of how force an atom of the ‘oman! reacts wih atoms of her substances. That again depends on ho Tensstion energy (haw easly serons oe removed rom tho som) and ‘ecronegatty (how songly the atm atvacs olor to) “The reactivity of metas (Group 1 and2} decease fom oto ght inthe riod end increanes dwn he group. The racy ef halogens (Group 17) 0 {urn decreases dow th group Group 4: Alkall metals ‘Akal metas (2.9L Na, K > thoy ve sot metas with ashiry, metalic appearance ) have the foowing progenies: > they have low donstes (oat on water) > they are good conductors ef heat and electity > mey ae very active, and > thaeore donot occur ely nate +a stored under ol set spontanacuty th oxygen and water vapour in the olmoephere) they bun trata oxygen and form mata oxides 4L1+ 0p + 2140 > thoy reat vlonty with hot wate and form hyeropen gas and a meta hyo, 2Na + 24,0 + 2NaOH + He (alain sluion) > they have a ow tonsaton energy, Le. rut tte enorgy to donato ‘valence electron and fom a ation (+ chargo). > thoi react incresses dow tha group because the Soniaton enecios docrease down the group. Thess reactone of aa metals wih watorcan be Seen on YoUTU fo fo sn youtbo om ant sere for ot ott wat. Sou race mo ‘ett han hh ad ho hydegen gas Oa fms ean tt bun, otestm immed strts bum fret ad usm wil ox. Warning: Rathr doo ry ths yous! Group 2: Alkaline earth metals ‘The akaine earth metals nce tho folowing elements: berm, ‘magnesium, caloum, sontum, baum adm (acoactve), ‘They have the following properties: metals wah sivary appearance ood conductors of heat and eect canbe strain helmet form a react low ith exygan in ho aan fom a metal onde: Fon enn, he reaction with exygan is much fastor,e 2Mg(s) + Oa(a) + 2MaO%s) tho acy ofthe action wih oxygen erases down the group because the ionisation energy decreases down the group In powder or {hoi veactty wth water nceas0s down the group. Tey react wth war fom Hula) and a metal ydronde, 9, (Cal) + 24,010) -+ CafOHe)+ Ha) Group 47 (Vil: Halogens, The elameons torino (F), cod (i), bromine (0, en (and astating (A) bolong to group 17 and are cated he Nal Halogen atoms of he same loment combine in twos to foo eatomie > Fa and Cl re yolom green gises atom lemperatire ond are voy > Br. Yo-rown qu ts vor vat oveporatos asi). > leh shiny dark purple (lest black) crystal hat ublate easly at ‘normal tomperatres o form purple umes. ‘Thay have ver ow meting and boing pees. The atomic adus as well mag and boing pont erease down fhe group, ‘They have high eletronogativtos. > They nave 7 valenoe electrons an can thus tan a noble gas trate by contin one elecron an oming anion (charge) sity decreases down th group.orn (Fpl yaw a ard a very tox chemical | sitetanen the mas ractve and eocronagatve of to clement, Furi fs usedn fe uranm enchant process HE (hrregen Buon) are sod incon reas find. ‘Chine gas is produced ora lerge seein he cio aa | Indy ant ns ito range of applicators, 0. compounds auch = HO and bsechig agent, 0 wel 3 /asts, pans, et lone i teeas aciv, Asano ‘voor rodoaciveelamont and cto std. | Group 18 (vith: Nobte gases |The laments elu He), neon), eran (A, keyeon (Ke), enon (Ke) and ‘aon (Ro) belong fo grou #8 and ae cal the noble gates. They have the ‘oling properties: > They ate extremely unreacve and occur as mancatomi toms, This sue to theif valence electron stucue, Hum has two velnoe electron in tho {stort energy level) ang tie other noble gases al have 8 alance lacrons an ett srt). > Modetnsrships and balloon ae ied wth He gs, thas a low density | ‘and ans, buts ala safe because ts non-tentve (Hea) was used the past bt otlen exploced}. > Noon's also chomicaly unrasctve ans known fr glawegin a heated ‘tata and terfore used in son gts. > Few compounds wih Kr and Xe ar known, This ats that the | Snereaeos dow the group, Motals, non-motals and motalloids Inthe povous section p,1.3. and 1.718) he three man groups in which ements ae divided, namely, metas, metllods and non metal, wore ‘Sscussod Tho elements in groupe 3:12 aro eae the tanason meteor Blotk elements, Thos a gradual wanton inthe peal and chemiet fropertes as you move fom te metals to tenon iets om etn = agg | & CHEMICAL BONDING i COVALENT, IONIC AND METALLIC BONDING 5 > Ina previous ston we se how the properties ofan elament are Aoterined mainly byt electron structure, and more spectcay by the ‘lence electrons of an atom. iso the vance elector wh 0 Invsved inthe frmation of bonds between some, ‘Noms can cnly eact wih each oer and fam bonds when they approach tach othe and ede Mull atracton and epson forces develop btwean the atomie uc andthe secon eloudeof adjacent atoms the forces ofatacton are geatr than the frees of repulsion, can fad othe formation ofa more stale predut (lower nat energy sie), and [As lady shown, ll atoms tater the more sable noble gas Shite. Their lectonogabwiy vals indete how ongy an atomic ruckus wil atrat electrons owarde to atin a noble gos Situ > Thote ae twee posible combination of ements and! therefore mainly twee posse bonding typos, namo, > non-metal + nonmetal» covalant bonding real bonding > meal + non-metal — ionic banding Covalent bonding {Covalent bonding tes place when wo alms approach oach other and thle hailed ers ert. ha wo aco nthe are between tho tao atomic rc form an electron par (a nein pa) and belong to bot ators, Single bonds > AnH atom has ony ane oleton nthe te oa and needs another ‘lectron filth roa the second H ston valance ort! overs ‘fe the ota fhe ts, hy can share te electron pai betweon Toe Due so that bo have a ile Tet orl OO: O- 8 (eae va an MATTER AND MATERIALS 431 oe