Logical semantics

Has several meanings

"I am hungry" can have several meanings

They also interpret sentences based on 2 logical interpretations

1. The Truth condition semantics,,, It gives truths on same meaning for the same condition,, it also
define meaning in a given proposition by explaining when a sentence is true

2 model theoretic semantics,, It special form of truth condition that gives possibility of something
happening or not ( something can change overtime)

GOALS OF SEMANTIC THEORY

1. To determine y meaning is mo complex than simply words in a sentences

2. To unravel the importance of sentence structure in relation to meaning

3. To review relationship btwn words and sentences.. for example "The essay was difficult" and "The
essay exercise was difficult".

4. To understand how words or sentences convey meanings and how people use language or words to
communicate with each other

Theories of semantics aims to resolve the difficulty of how people have the ability to create and
understand limitless number of sentences even those they have never heard before, although people
depend mo on memory but the brain is capable of understanding utterances that do not appear to be
directly to memory. These theories focus on how language works

For example

[Link] Lion is riding the bus

[Link] dog is brushing the teeth

[Link] Mountain is whispering to the boys

***These sentences are grammatically correct but they are wrong sentences

Examples of logical semantics

MEANINGS

Meaning, means literal or core sense of a word

1. Conceptual meaning... AKA Linguistic meaning, Descriptive meaning, Denotative meaning, Dictionary
meaning

This is the core or basic sense of a word,, there's nothing read into the term, no subtext, it is just straight
forward literal, dictionary meaning of a word

It is a frame work for semantic analysis.. it is aim of providing characterisation of conceptual elements by
which a person understand words and sentence to provide an explanatory semantic representation and
it is connected to cognitive semantics.

2. Connotative meaning... AKA Associative meaning

Refers to the emotional imprecations and association that a word may Carry. It is associated with
intension and sense, can either be cultural or personal, (AKA types,, can also be positive, negative or
neutral.

It is more extra associated, implied, suggested secondary meaning

¹.Positive connotative is when a word involve feelings or emotions that regarded as positive. For
example " The preacher is a conversationalist

². Negative connotative refers to word that regards negative feeling and associations

³ Neutral refers to a word that expresses neither positive or negative feeling or association

There are some words that have one meaning but the meaning can change from positive, negative or
neutral

Benefits of using connotative

A. They add different dimensions to a text or a plot

B. They are descriptive

C. They pull out emotions easily

D. They set a tone when writing or speaking

E. They clarify a person's intension with his her usage of words

** Without connotative meaning language could sound blank/ blunt and boring

Connotative also add essences to yo thoughts ideas and descriptive

3. Affective, A.K.A Emotive meaning,, it reflects person feelings of the speaker in contrast to the active of
listener or content of the speech
These meanings explicitly conveyed through conceptual or connotative meaning of words. Usually
expressed by the speaker to express his or her emotions like: emotions of happiness, sadnesses, respect,
disrespect. However social norms may vary from society to society

Factors of affective meaning

¹. Intonation,, means tone voice) May vary the meaning of the word, ur tone determine yo feelings
about something. It is also the meaning that crops up alot in psychology. They use emotions and moods.
Affective disorders are characterised by mood swings. Expression are sometimes used to prevent
affective meaning

4. Reflected meaning,, is the phenomenon whereby a single word or phrase is associated with more
than one Sense or meaning. Reflected meaning, are AKA colouring meaning and mostly used by
comedians as wordplay and they present humorous feeling and their are used in either right or wrong
environment. They also present ambiguity("you are a star in your activity". )(

5. Collocative, groopings of words that usually appear together. It also consist of association of words
based on account of the meaning which tend to occur in a specific environment (example affection and
fondness they share similar meanings,, pretty, handsome ,, spice, toiletries such as shampoo, soap,
tissue toothpaste, toothbrush, cosmetics) , this means that one word has several meanings.

6. Stylistic,, AKA social meaning, they are meanings that occur in specific society or group and review
social background of The speaker. Social meanings differs from conceptual meanings due to other
factors like cultural Norms( how chewa use words will be different from Tonga), education ( the way
people speak matters on their level of education background),, age( as you grow order your language
change. Social meanings depends on the combination of words in a sentence and can have significant
impact on communication. Cultural differences such as language differentiate use of words gestures,
phrases, body language or to say kinesics they have an impact on how we communicate with each other.
Social meaning is essential for a successful dialogue. However they can also change overtime due to
various factors such as cultural shift ( such as intermarriages, disaster like war, commercial),
technological advancement( Introduction to improve technology like phones) and social movement
(business)

7. Thematic,,, Refers to the argument on which a verb assigns. It also deals with thematic roles

ROLES IF THEMATIC

1. Agent,, is the entity that intensionally carries action of the verb which is the doer of the action

2. Theme,, is the entity that directly receives the action of the verb. It also means where the emphasis is
upon

3. Experiencer/sufferer/ patient/ goal/ receiver,, is the entity that undergoes an emotion, state of being
or a perception expressed by the verb.
Thematic meaning is mainly a matter of choice if alternative grammatical construction, it is done throw
focus, theme or Emotive emphasis. It also referrs to the way in which a speaker or a writer organises the
message interms if ordering, focus and emphasis, can also be conveyed through stress and intonation

John donated the prize

The first prize was donated by John

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEXICAL RELATION SENTENTIAL RELATION

Lexical relation deal with lexical items contain information about categories

Sematics of lexical categories are explained it showed in a lexicon or dictionary.

LEXICAL items are classified semantically based on weather the meaning is drived from a single lexical
unit or surrounding environment or stuation.

Types of lexical items

1. Synonymy,, Refers to words that are pronunced or spelled differently but contain the same meaning
(joy, happy, glad, excited, all these mean the same but different in pronunciation and spelling as well) is
a morphime that means exactly or nearly the same as another word.

Lexicography is the study of words.. No synonymys have exactly the same meaning bcoz synonymys
words can unique on their own semantically interms of usage. Synonymys are source of euphemism.

Uses of synonymys

A. To express variety of nouces of meaning for different registas of speech or writing

B. They are used in different technical fields for specific technical meanings or reasons

C. They are used to avoid repeation in close proximity caused elegantly variation.

2. Antonymy, Refers to words that are related by having opposite meanings to each other. They are also
known as opposites. They are binary relationship between two members of the opposites. The
relationship of the opposites is known as opposition. Each word in a pair of opposites is the antithesis of
the other. A word may have more than one antonymys

Types of antonymys

1. Grading Antonyms (or Gradable Antonyms)

Grading antonyms represent opposite ends of a continuum or spectrum. They differ in degree, intensity,
or quantity.
Examples:

- Hot (very high temperature) vs. Cold (very low temperature)

- Fast (very quick) vs. Slow (very sluggish)

- Big (very large) vs. Small (very tiny)

Characteristics:

- Exist on a continuum

- Differences in degree or intensity

- Allow for intermediate values

2. Complementary Antonyms (or Binary Antonyms)

Complementary antonyms represent absolute opposites, with no intermediate values.

Examples:

- Alive vs. Dead

- True vs. False

- Yes vs. No

Characteristics:

- Absolute opposites
- No intermediate values

- Mutually exclusive

3. Relational Antonyms (or Conversational Antonyms)

Relational antonyms represent opposite relationships or perspectives.

Examples:

- Buyer vs. Seller

- Teacher vs. Student

- Employer vs. Employee

Characteristics:

- Represent opposite roles or relationships

- Depend on context and perspective

- Not necessarily opposite in meaning

Additional notes:

- Some antonyms can belong to multiple categories (e.g., "hot" and "cold" can be both grading and
relational).
- Antonyms can be context-dependent (e.g., "light" and "dark" in a literal vs. figurative sense).

- Understanding antonyms helps clarify meaning, highlight contrasts, and enhance communication.

Linguists study antonyms to:

- Analyze semantic relationships

- Understand language structure and meaning

- Examine context-dependent language use

- Develop linguistic theories and models

These categories help us better comprehend the complexities of language and meaning.

3. Hyponymy. And hypernymy shows relationship between general and a small specific term these two
terms shows SEMANTIC relationship between the term belonging in a set defined by another term. The
one is subtype and other supertype. Hypony Is a phrase whose SEMANTIC is more specific than it's
hypery. Superordinate.... Hypernymys are used to refer to nouns but they can also be used in other
parts of speech. They are also asymmetric meaning they are not regular or equal. A Hyponymy is a
transitive relation.... that if X is Hyponymy of Y, and Y is Hyponymy of Z then X is Hyponymy of Z. A
Hypernymys is an umbrella which comprises Hyponymys

Here are definitions, explanations, and examples of Hyponymy and Hypernymy:

Hyponymy

Hyponymy is a lexical relationship where a word (hyponym) has a more specific meaning than another
word (superordinate).

Characteristics:

- The hyponym is a subset of the superordinate

- The hyponym inherits properties from the superordinate

Examples:

- Animal (superordinate)

- Dog (hyponym)

- Cat (hyponym)

- Lion (hyponym)

- Tree (superordinate)

- Oak (hyponym)

- Maple (hyponym)

- Pine (hyponym)

Hypernymy

Hypernymy is a lexical relationship where a word (hypernym) has a more general meaning than another
word (hyponym).

Characteristics:

- The hypernym encompasses multiple hyponyms

- The hypernym provides more general information

- The hypernym is a superset of the hyponym

Examples:

- Vehicle (hypernym)

- Car (hyponym)

- Bus (hyponym)
 - Truck (hyponym)

- Fruit (hypernym)

- Apple (hyponym)

- Banana (hyponym)

- Orange (hyponym)

Key differences:

- Hyponymy: specific → general (e.g., Dog → Animal)

- Hypernymy: general → specific (e.g., Animal → Dog)

Understanding Hyponymy and Hypernymy helps:

- Clarify word meanings

- Identify semantic relationships

- Organize vocabulary

- Improve language comprehension

In linguistics, these relationships are essential for:

- Lexical semantics

- Word sense disambiguation

- Natural language processing

- Information retrieval

These concepts enable us to better grasp the intricate connections within language and enhance our
communication.

4. Homonymy

Here's a definition and explanation of Homonymy, along with examples:

Homonymy is a lexical relationship where two or more words:

1. Are pronounced and/or spelled the same

2. Have different meanings

3. May have different grammatical functions

Types of Homonymy:

1. Homographs (same spelling, different meaning)

2. Homophones (same pronunciation, different spelling and meaning)

Examples:

Homographs:

- Bank (financial institution) and bank (riverbank)

- Bat (flying mammal) and bat (sports equipment)

Homophones:

- To/Too/Two

- To (preposition)

- Too (also, very)

- Two (number)

- Knight/Night

- Knight (medieval warrior)

- Night (time of day)

- Fair/Fare

- Fair (just, reasonable)

- Fare (price, transportation)

Characteristics:

- Same pronunciation and/or spelling

- Different meanings and/or grammatical functions

- Can be confusing without context

- Homonymy highlights the complexity of language

- Context disambiguates homonymy

- Understanding homonymy improves language comprehension

Linguistic significance:

- Lexical semantics

- Word sense disambiguation

- Natural language processing

- Language teaching and learning

Homonymy demonstrates the nuances of language, showcasing how multiple meanings can coexist
within a single word or pronunciation.

Sentential relations, Refers to relationship between two or more sentences.

Types of sentential

Here are explanations and examples of the three types of sentential relations:

1. Coordinating Relations
Coordinating relations connect two or more clauses of equal status, using conjunctions like and, but, or,
nor.

Examples:

- I like reading books, and my sister enjoys writing stories.

- She wanted to attend the party, but he couldn't make it.

- You can choose between chocolate or vanilla ice cream.

Types of coordinating conjunctions:

- Additive (and, also)

- Adversative (but, however)

- Alternative (or, nor)

- Copulative (and, both...and)

2. Corrective Relations

Corrective relations introduce a correction or contradiction to the first clause, using words like however,
instead, or on the contrary.
Examples:

- I thought it was raining, however the sun is shining.

- She said she'd attend, instead she stayed home.

- He expected to fail, on the contrary, he passed with flying colors.

Types of corrective relations:

- Contrastive (however, on the other hand)

- Reversal (instead, conversely)

- Concessive (although, despite)

3. Subordinating Relations

Subordinating relations connect a dependent clause (cannot stand alone) to an independent clause (can
stand alone), using subordinators like because, since, or if.

Examples:
- I went to the store because I needed milk.

- Since you're tired, let's take a break.

- If it rains, we'll cancel the picnic.

Types of subordinating conjunctions:

- Causal (because, since, as)

- Conditional (if, unless, provided)

- Temporal (when, while, after)

- Concessive (although, though, even though)

THEORIES IN SEMANTICS

1. Referential Theory (also known as Extensional Semantics)

It also deals with intuition that linguistic expressions are size of something other than themselves

Referential Theory posits that meaning arises from the relationship between words and the objects or
concepts they refer to in the world.

Example:

- Word: "dog"

- Referent: A canine animal

Key points:

- Focus on reference and denotation

- Words as labels for objects/concepts

2. Behavioral Theory (also known as Stimulus-Response Semantics)

Behavioral Theory suggests that meaning is derived from the behavioral responses associated with
words.

Example:

- Word: "food"

- Response: Hunger satisfaction

Key points:

- Focus on behavioral responses

- Meaning derived from stimulus-response associations

- Words as triggers for actions/reactions

3. Ideational Theory (also known as Intensional Semantics)

Ideational Theory proposes that meaning arises from the concepts or ideas associated with words.

Example:

- Word: "justice"

- Concept: Fairness, equality

Key points:

- Focus on mental concepts and ideas

- Meaning derived from intensions (concepts)

- Words as representations of mental states

4. Verification Theory (also known as Truth-Conditional Semantics)

Verification Theory asserts that meaning is determined by the conditions under which a sentence is true
or false.

Example:
*Sentence: "It is raining."

- Verification: Looking out the window to confirm

Key points:

- Focus on truth conditions

- Meaning derived from verification procedures

- Sentences as truth-bearers

5. Use Theory (also known as Pragmatic Semantics)

Use Theory suggests that meaning arises from the social and communicative context in which words are
used.

Example:

- Word: "hello"

- Context: Greeting a friend

Key points:

- Focus on social and communicative context

- Meaning derived from language use

- Words as tools for communication

These semantic theories highlight different aspects of meaning:

- Reference to the world (Referential)

- Behavioral responses (Behavioral)

- Mental concepts (Ideational)

- Truth conditions (Verification)

- Social context (Use)

SEMANTIC ROLES

U will write a story fiction or non fiction explaining about yo task

Semantic roles are labels used to describe the roles played by entities in a sentence or event. Here's a
breakdown of the semantic roles you mentioned:
1. Agent:

- The entity that performs or initiates the action.

- Typically, the subject of the sentence.

- Example: "The dog (Agent) chased the cat."

2. Theme:

- The entity that undergoes the action or is affected by it.

- Can be the direct object or indirect object.

- Example: "The dog chased the cat (Theme)."

3. Source:

- The entity from which something originates or is derived.

- Often marked by prepositions like "from," "out of," or "since."

- Example: "The package came from (Source) Amazon."

4. Goal:

- The entity toward which something moves or is directed.

- Often marked by prepositions like "to," "toward," or "into."

- Example: "The ball was thrown to (Goal) John."

5. Location:

- The place where the action or event occurs.

- Can be a physical or abstract location.

- Example: "The meeting will be held at (Location) the conference room."

Other common semantic roles include:

Example: "I (Experiencer) saw the beautiful sunset."

- Instrument: The entity used to perform an action.

Example: "The knife (Instrument) was used to cut the bread."

- Manner: The way in which an action is performed.

Example: "She sang beautifully (Manner)."

- Time: The point or period in time when an event occurs.

Example: "The concert starts at (Time) 8pm."

- Result: The outcome or consequence of an action.

Example: "The result (Result) of the election was surprising."

SEMANTIC CHANGE

1. Borrowing

Importance of lexical borrowing

It indicates cultural contact between two linguistic group

Examples of lexical borrowing

. Television

.......................................

Types of semantic change

2. Amelioration... Refers to change from negative to positive.

AKA.. melioration,, to meliorate

Examples

Terrific.. means something that brings fear. But now it means wonderful or awesome
Pretty... In middle English it means manly or gallant (brave), but now it means something beautiful

lord.... Means a keeper of bread but now it means Master

Importance of amelioration

To illustrate how socia persept have changed

To show how language develops over time

3. Pejoration.... Is a process of degeneration if word meaning overtime. Or changing from positive to

It is when a word starts taking a negative connotation

Examples

Attitudes.. means position or pause but now it means confronting or uncooperative

Silly... It means Happy or fortunate, but now it means innocent, holy and now it has completely changed
to negative meaning foolishness, idiocy

Loser.... It means lost a game, but now it doesn't do with the game it means undesirable or damaged

Reasons gor pejoration

1. To delegate others

2. To facilitate easily

3. To make listeners feel tarnished

3. Narrowing... It is a process by which meaning of world becomes more specific overtime... Or a process
of specifying something over a long period of time.. or process of decreasing the meaning of something

Examples

Meat... It means any food you eat and like but now it means to flesh if animals.

Hound or hond... It means a generic dog or a hunting dog, but now means to Chase in a cloud

Wife... It means any woman weather married or not,, but now it is for specific it means women that are
married

Skyline.... It means any horizon but now refers to skyscrapers. It has nothing to do with horizon

4. Broadening...is when meaning of a word becomes more generally overtime, it is inclusiveness of

Business... It means a state of being busy or anxious, but now it includes all kinds of work or occupation

Cool... It was a word originally used in jazz music. A specific type of music,, but now it is used in various
context including greetings

Place .... Means a broad Street but now means any area or open space

Cause of broadening

1. Major shift in politics of a country or social landscape

2. Revolutions

3. Wars

4. Civil rights movement

5. Popularity

6. Technology

7. Analogy of language

Types of broadening

1. Sociocultural... It happens when there's a major shift in a country's politics or social landscape

Examples

1. Guy... Came popular in England following a failed gun powder plot by a soldier called Guido Guy
Fawkes, so because of his, Guy means ridiculous a weird but now it means a friend

2. Psychological... Happens when a word or item becomes popular, mainly in Brand products

Examples

1. Kleenex (one that produces tissues, towels )

2. Colgate.. any toothpaste we call it Colgate

3. Surf... We refer to any washing powder

4. Jik.. referring to any detergent

5. Shifting... Means when overtime a word takes on additional meanings AKA semantic progression or
development or semantic drifting
. It happens when::

1. Senses are added or altered.

2. New words are recruited

3. Societal values change

Examples

It includes all examples in Narrowing, Broadening And Phonetic interference

1. Girl,, it means any child weather boy or girl but now means only females

2. Fun, it had a negative connotation to mean cheat or trick but now has become positive meaning
something that brings happiness

3. Stench.. it means a smell but now has negative connotation mean bad, unpleasant smell

4. Gay... Carefully having happy time next time but now means homosexual