Sunday, 8 September y

kinematics and accelerated motion

Distance Displacement formula unit

Distance

• Definition: Distance is a scalar quantity that represents the total

length of the path traveled by an object, regardless of direction.
• Formula: No specific formula since distance is just the total path
length.
• Units: The SI unit of distance is the meter (m).
• Key Points:

◦ Distance has only magnitude (no direction).

◦ It is always positive or zero.
◦ Distance cannot decrease over time; it either stays the same
or increases.
Displacement

• Definition: Displacement is a vector quantity that represents the

shortest straight-line distance between the initial and final positions
of an object, along with its direction.
• Formula:
Displacement(s)=Final Position(xf )−Initial Position(xi )
• s=xf −xi
• Units: The SI unit of displacement is also the meter (m).
• Key Points:

◦ Displacement has both magnitude and direction.

◦ It can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on the
direction of movement relative to a chosen reference point.
◦ Displacement considers the shortest path, not the actual path
taken.

Comparison of Distance and Displacement

• Distance: Only measures how much ground an object has covered

during its motion.
 • Displacement: Measures how far out of place an object is; it's the
object's overall change in position.

Graphical Representation

• On a position-time graph:

◦ Distance can be calculated by adding up the lengths of all

segments of the path.
◦ Displacement is represented by the straight line connecting
the starting and ending points.

Velocity

• Definition: Velocity is a vector quantity that measures the rate of

change of displacement with respect to time. It tells us both the
speed and the direction of an object's motion.
 • Formula:
Velocity=Displacement/Time Taken

• Units: The SI unit of velocity is meters per second (m/s).

• Key Points:

◦ Velocity includes both magnitude and direction.

◦ Velocity can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on the
direction of motion relative to a chosen reference point.
◦ Average Velocity: =Total Displacement/Total Time

Comparison of Speed and Velocity

• Speed: Only considers how fast an object is moving; it does not

include the direction of motion.
• Velocity: Considers both the speed and the direction of the object's
motion.
• For an object moving in a straight line in a single direction, speed
and the magnitude of velocity are equal. However, if the direction
changes, the velocity changes even if the speed remains constant.
Acceleration

• Definition: Acceleration is a vector quantity that measures the rate

of change of velocity of an object with respect to time. It indicates
how quickly an object speeds up or changes direction.

• Formula:

Acceleration(a)=Time Taken(Δt)Change in Velocity(Δv)

• Key Points:

◦ Acceleration can be positive, negative, or zero.

◦ Positive acceleration: Occurs when an object speeds up in
the positive direction.
◦ Negative acceleration (often called deceleration): Occurs
when an object slows down or speeds up in the negative
direction.
 ◦ If acceleration is constant, it means that the velocity of the
object is changing at a steady rate over time.

Deceleration

• Definition: Deceleration is not a separate physical concept but a

specific type of acceleration. It refers to acceleration that causes a
decrease in the speed of an object.

Key Points:

• Deceleration occurs when an object slows down.

• It represents acceleration in the direction opposite to the object's
current motion.
 • Even though deceleration is described as "negative acceleration," it
still follows the same principles and equations of acceleration.

Graphical Representation

• On a Velocity-Time Graph:

◦ Positive Slope: Represents positive acceleration (speeding

up).
◦ Negative Slope: Represents deceleration (slowing down).
◦ Zero Slope: Represents constant velocity (no acceleration).

Average Speed
 • Definition: Average speed is a scalar quantity that represents the
total distance traveled by an object divided by the total time taken,
regardless of any variations in speed during the journey.

• Formula;Average Speed=Total Time TakenTotal Distance Traveled

Key Points:

Average speed considers the overall journey from start to finish,

regardless of changes in speed along the way.

It does not provide information about what happens during the journey —
for example, if the object sped up or slowed down at certain points.

Average speed is always a positive value.

Instantaneous Speed

• Definition: Instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at a

specific point in time. It measures how fast an object is moving at a
particular moment.

Key Points:
 • Instantaneous speed is obtained by considering an infinitesimally
small interval of time.
• It is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity (if you ignore the
direction).
• Unlike average speed, instantaneous speed can change from one
moment to the next.
• It can be visually interpreted as the slope of the tangent to the
curve at a specific point on a distance-time graph.

Graphical Representation

• On a Distance-Time Graph:

◦ Average Speed: Can be calculated by taking the total

distance over the total time from the graph.
◦ Instantaneous Speed: Represented by the slope of the
tangent line at a specific point on the graph.

1. Distance-Time (D-T) Graph

• Axes:

◦ x-axis: Time (t)

◦ y-axis: Distance (d)

• Properties:

◦ The graph shows how the distance traveled by an object

changes over time.
◦ Gradient (Slope): Represents the speed of the object.

▪ Steeper Slope: Higher speed.

▪ Shallower Slope: Lower speed.
▪ Horizontal Line: Object is at rest (constant distance).
▪ Curved Line: Changing speed (acceleration or
deceleration).

• Area Under the Graph:

 ◦ The area under a distance-time graph does not represent a
physical quantity directly; it is just a graphical representation
of distance.

• Key Points:

◦ Straight Line with Positive Slope: Constant speed.

◦ Straight Line with Zero Slope: No motion (object is
stationary).
◦ Curve Upwards: Increasing speed (acceleration).
◦ Curve Downwards: Decreasing speed (deceleration).

2. Velocity-Time (V-T) Graph

• Axes:
 ◦ x-axis: Time (t)
◦ y-axis: Velocity (v)

• Properties:

◦ The graph shows how the velocity of an object changes over

time.
◦ Gradient (Slope): Represents the acceleration of the
object.

▪ Positive Slope: Positive acceleration (speeding up).

▪ Negative Slope: Negative acceleration or deceleration
(slowing down).
▪ Zero Slope (Horizontal Line): Constant velocity.

• Area Under the Graph:

 ◦ The area under a velocity-time graph represents the
displacement of the object.
◦ Positive Area: Displacement in the positive direction.
◦ Negative Area: Displacement in the negative direction.
◦ To calculate the area:

▪ For a straight line: Use simple geometric formulas (e.g.,

area of a rectangle or triangle).
▪ For a curved line: Integration may be required.

• Key Points:

◦ Horizontal Line Above the x-axis: Constant positive

velocity.
◦ Horizontal Line Below the x-axis: Constant negative
velocity (moving in the opposite direction).
◦ Line with Positive Slope: Increasing velocity (positive
acceleration).
◦ Line with Negative Slope: Decreasing velocity (negative
acceleration or deceleration).
3. Acceleration-Time (A-T) Graph

• Axes:

◦ x-axis: Time (t)

◦ y-axis: Acceleration (a)

• Properties:

◦ The graph shows how the acceleration of an object changes

over time.
◦ Gradient (Slope): Slope is not particularly useful in an
acceleration-time graph since acceleration is already the rate
of change of velocity. The slope of an acceleration-time graph
would represent the rate of change of acceleration (also called
"jerk"), which is not commonly required at the A-Level.
• Area Under the Graph:

◦ The area under an acceleration-time graph represents the

change in velocity.
◦ Positive Area: Increase in velocity.
◦ Negative Area: Decrease in velocity.
◦ To calculate the area:

▪ For constant acceleration: Simple geometric formulas

can be used.
▪ For variable acceleration: Integration is required.

• Key Points:

◦ Horizontal Line Above the x-axis: Constant positive

acceleration.
◦ Horizontal Line On the x-axis: Zero acceleration (constant
velocity).
◦ Horizontal Line Below the x-axis: Constant negative
acceleration (deceleration).
◦ Positive Slope: Increasing acceleration.
◦ Negative Slope: Decreasing acceleration.
Summary of Graphical Properties

• Gradient in Graphs:

◦ D-T Graph: Gradient = Speed.

◦ V-T Graph: Gradient = Acceleration.
◦ A-T Graph: Gradient = Rate of change of acceleration
("jerk").

• Area Under Graphs:

◦ V-T Graph: Area = Displacement.

◦ A-T Graph: Area = Change in Velocity.
Examples of Motion Types

• Accelerated Motion:
An object’s velocity increases over time.
Example: A car speeding up as it merges onto a highway.

• Decelerated Motion:
An object’s velocity decreases over time (negative acceleration).
Example: A bicycle slowing down to stop at a red light.

• Constant Motion:
An object moves at a steady speed in a straight line, meaning
velocity doesn’t change.
Example: A train moving at a constant speed of 60 km/h on a
straight track.

Plotting Graphs of Different Motion Situations

1. Constant Motion (Zero Acceleration)

 • Displacement-Time Graph:
A straight line with a constant slope. The slope indicates the object's
velocity.
Graph: Straight, diagonal line

\text{Graph: Straight, diagonal line}

Graph: Straight, diagonal line

• Velocity-Time Graph:
A horizontal straight line, as velocity remains constant.
Graph: Horizontal line

\text{Graph: Horizontal line}

Graph: Horizontal line

• Acceleration-Time Graph:
A flat line at zero, since there's no change in velocity.
Graph: Line at zero

\text{Graph: Line at zero}

Graph: Line at zero

2. Accelerated Motion (Positive Acceleration)

 • Displacement-Time Graph:
A curve that gets steeper over time, indicating increasing velocity.
Graph: Upward curve

\text{Graph: Upward curve}

Graph: Upward curve

• Velocity-Time Graph:
A straight diagonal line sloping upwards. The slope of the line
represents acceleration.
Graph: Diagonal line upward

\text{Graph: Diagonal line upward}

Graph: Diagonal line upward

• Acceleration-Time Graph:
A straight horizontal line above zero, showing constant acceleration.
Graph: Horizontal line above zero

\text{Graph: Horizontal line above zero}

Graph: Horizontal line above zero

3. Decelerated Motion (Negative Acceleration)

 • Displacement-Time Graph:
A curve that becomes flatter over time, indicating decreasing
velocity.
Graph: Downward curve

• Velocity-Time Graph:
A straight diagonal line sloping downward as velocity decreases.
Graph: Diagonal line downward

• Acceleration-Time Graph:
A straight horizontal line below zero, showing constant negative
acceleration.
Graph: Horizontal line below zero

Graph: Horizontal line below zero

Concept of Uniform and Non-uniform Acceleration

1. Uniform Acceleration

• Definition: When an object's velocity changes by equal amounts

in equal intervals of time, the object is said to be under uniform
(constant) acceleration.
• Characteristics:
 ◦ The acceleration remains constant throughout the motion.
◦ The velocity increases or decreases at a constant rate.
◦ Graphically:

▪ In a velocity-time graph, it is represented by a

straight line with a constant slope.
▪ In an acceleration-time graph, it appears as a
horizontal line.

• Example: A freely falling object under gravity (assuming no air

resistance) accelerates uniformly at 9.8

m/s
2

9.8 \, \text{m/s}^2
9.8m/s2.

2. Non-uniform Acceleration
 • Definition: When an object's velocity changes by unequal
amounts in equal intervals of time, the object is said to be
under non-uniform (variable) acceleration.
• Characteristics:

◦ The acceleration varies at different points in time.

◦ The rate of change of velocity is not constant.
◦ Graphically:

▪ In a velocity-time graph, it appears as a curved line

(indicating changing slope).
▪ In an acceleration-time graph, the line fluctuates,
showing varying acceleration.

• Example: A car speeding up or slowing down in traffic with varying

forces applied, or a rocket that increases speed as fuel burns.

Concept of Falling Objects Due to Gravity and Free Fall

1. Falling Object Due to Gravity

 • Definition: When an object falls towards the Earth, it is influenced
by the gravitational force, causing it to accelerate.
• Gravitational Acceleration:

◦ On Earth, objects experience a constant acceleration due to

gravity, denoted by
g=9.8m/s2.
◦ This means the object's velocity increases by 9.8 m/s for
every second it is falling, provided air resistance is negligible.

• Key Points:

◦ The force of gravity pulls objects downwards.

◦ Objects of different masses fall at the same rate when air
resistance is not considered.
◦ Air resistance can affect falling objects, slowing them down.

2. Free Fall
 • Definition: Free fall occurs when an object is falling solely under
the influence of gravity, with no other forces acting on it (e.g., no
air resistance).

• Key Characteristics:

◦ The only force acting on the object is gravitational force.

◦ The object experiences uniform acceleration, which is equal to
the acceleration due to gravity (g=9.8m/s2).
◦ In free fall, the initial velocity may be zero if the object is
dropped, or it can have an initial value if thrown downward.

Important Notes:

• In a vacuum (where there is no air resistance), all objects,

regardless of their mass, fall at the same rate.
• On Earth, air resistance can oppose motion, causing objects to reach
a terminal velocity, where the force of gravity equals the force of
air resistance, and the object stops accelerating.
Motion in Two Dimensions: Projectile Motion (A-Level
Physics)

1. Projectile Motion Definition

Projectile motion refers to the motion of an object that is thrown or

projected into the air, subject only to the force of gravity (assuming no air
resistance). The motion occurs in two dimensions: horizontal and vertical.

2. Key Characteristics of Projectile Motion

• Horizontal motion and vertical motion are independent of each

other.
• The only force acting on the projectile (in ideal conditions) is
gravity, which affects only the vertical motion.
• The horizontal velocity remains constant (no horizontal
acceleration).
• The vertical velocity changes due to gravitational acceleration
(g=9.8m/s2).

3. Components of Projectile Motion

• The motion can be broken down into two components:

 ◦ Horizontal direction (x-axis):

▪ Constant velocity:vx =ucosθ

◦ Vertical direction (yy-axis):

▪ Accelerated motion due to gravity:vy =usinθ−gt

Horizontal Motion (No acceleration):

x=vx t=(ucosθ)t
Vertical Motion (Accelerated by gravity):

vy =usinθ−gt

Trajectory of an Object Moving Upward and Falling

Below the Initial Point (A-Level Physics)
In projectile motion, an object can be projected upward and eventually fall
below its starting point due to the force of gravity. Here's how we describe
this motion:

1. Key Characteristics of the Trajectory

• The object follows a parabolic trajectory.

• The object moves upward, slows down as it reaches its maximum
height, and then accelerates downward due to gravity, passing
below its initial point.