External Ballistics Page 1 of 9

A Short Course in External Ballistics

(Well, ok. Maybe not so short.)

There is a lot of misleading information and myth flying around (“bull-istics”) on the subject of the
external ballistics. The tables below will hopefully shed some light on how that bullet really travels once
you’ve pulled the trigger. All tables are rounded to the nearest 10 feet per second and drops are rounded
to two places, unless I am trying to show small increments. Greater precision is meaningless in the
“real” world. Even for the best of marksman a 1/2 minute of angle difference is effectively meaningless
at realistic ranges. The majority of information is presented on rifle cartridges but the principles hold
true for shotgun and pistol as well.

Remember Fr. Frog’s Rules of External Ballistics:

1) There ain’t no magic bullets!

2) Divide the range at which someone claims to have shot their deer by 4 to get
the real
range.
3) Always get as close as possible.
4) Don’t believe manufacturer’s claims.
5) In the battle between velocity and accuracy, accuracy always wins.
6) Most gun writers are pathological liars.

Please note that this a moderately long page and runs about 14 screens worth at 800 x 600 screen
resolution, so you might want to print it out. (Landscape orientation works best.) MS FrontPage says 20
seconds to load at 5 6.6k.

The Bullet’s Path

Many people believe that bullets fly in a straight line. This is untrue. They actually travel in a parabolic
trajectory or one that becomes more and more curved as range increases and velocity drops off. The
bullet actually starts to drop when it leaves the firearm’s muzzle. However, the centerline of the bore is
angled slightly upward in relation to the line of the sights (which are above the bore) so that the
projectile crosses the line of sight on its way up (usually around 25 yards or so) and again on its way
down at what is called the zero range.

Terms relating to external ballistics include:

Back Curve This is that portion of the bullets trajectory that drops below the critical zone beyond the
-

point blank range. Past this point the trajectory begins to drop off very rapidly with range and the point
of impact becomes very difficult to estimate.

Baffistic Coefficient This is a number that relates to the effect of air drag on the bullet’s flight and
-

which can be used to later predict a bullet’s trajectory under different circumstances through what are
called “drag tables.” Drag tables, or “models” apply only to a particular bullet, so using them to predict
another bullet’s performance is an approximation. The most commonly used drag model is the Gi model
(sometimes referred to--not really correctly--as Ci) which is based on a flat-based blunt pointed bullet.
The “standard” bullet used for this model has a ballistic coefficient of 1.0. A bullet that retains its
velocity only half as well as the model has a ballistic coefficient of .5. The Gi model provides results

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External Ballistics Page 2 of 9

close enough to the actual performance of most commercial bullets at moderate ranges (under about 500
yards) that it is commonly used for all commercial ballistics computation.

A word to the wise. Many manufacturer give rather generous BCsfor their bullets because: a) they want
to look good--high BCs sell bullets; b) they were derived by visual shape comparison rather than actual
firing data; or c) they were derivedfrom short range firings rather than long range firings (which are
more d~fflcult to do). You should confirm your calculations by actualfiring ~fyou require exact data.
Several manufactures have recently “readjusted” some oftheir BCs to more closely conform to actual
firing data. For a more in-depth discussion ofballistic coefficients see the section below.

Bore Centerline This is the visual line of the center of the bore. Since sights are mounted above the
-

bore’s centerline and since the bullet begins to drop when it leaves the muzzle the bore must be angled
upwards in relation to the line of sight so that the bullet will strike where the sights point.

Bullet Trajectory This is the bullet’s path as it travels down range. It is parabolic in shape and because
-

the line of the bore is below the line of sight at the muzzle and angled upward, the bullet’s path crosses
the line of sight at two locations.

Critical Zone This is the area of the bullet’s path where it neither rises nor falls greater than the
-

dimension specified. Most shooters set this as ± 3” to 4” from the line of sight, although other
dimensions are sometimes used. The measurement is usually based on one-half of the vital zone of the
usual target. Typical vital zones diameters are often given as: 3” to 4” for small game, and 6” to 8” for
big game and (Gasp!) anti-personnel use.

Initial Point The range at which the bullet’s trajectory first crosses the line of sight. This is normally
-

occurs at a range of about 25 yards.

Line of Sight This is the visual line of the aligned sight path. Since sights are mounted above the
-

bore’s centerline and since the bullet begins to drop when it leaves the muzzle the bore must be angled
upwards in relation to the line of sight so that the bullet will strike where the sights point.

Maximum Ordinate This is the maximum height of the projectile’s path above the line of sight for a
-

given point of impact and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the zero range and it is detennined
by your zeroing range.

Maximum Point Blank Range This is the farthest distance at which the bullet’s path stays within the
-

critical zone. In other words the maximum range at which you don’t have to adjust your point of aim to
hit the target’s vital zone. Unless there is some over riding reason to the contrary shots should not
generally be attempted much past this distance. In the words of the Guru, “It is unethical to attempt to
take game beyond 300 meters.” If you do, you should write yourself a letter explaining why it was
necessary to do so. An approximate rule of thumb says that the maximum point blank range is
approximately your zero range plus 40 yards.

Mid-range Trajectory This is the height of the bullets path above the line of sight at halfway to the
-

zero range. It does not occur at the same range as the maximum ordinate height which can be greater.

Minute of Angle (MOA) A “minute” of angle is 1/60 of a degree which for all practical purposes
-

equates to 1 inch per 100 yards of range. Thus 1 MOA at 100 yards is 1 inch and at 300 yards it is 3
inches. The term is commonly used to express the accuracy potential of a firearm.

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External Ballistics Page 3 of 9

Zero Range This is the farthest distance at which the line of sight and the bullet’s path intersect.
-

Bore Centerline

Botk
M~dmum Point Bkink Ronge Gurve

The bore’s angle in relation to the line of sight is exaggerated in this drawing for clarity.

A Brief Discourse on Ballistic Coefficients

This is probably the best article I have read on ballistic coefficients. It was written by Jim Ristow of
Recreational Software, Inc. and is reprinted here with his permission. It was designed to encourage a
discussion about ballistic coefficients and to explain why good BCs are crucial to getting accurate
results from ballistic software. The illustrations and tables were not part of the original article.

A Little History
In 1881 Krupp of Germany first accurately quantified the air drag influence on bullet travel by test firing
large flat-based blunt-nosed bullets. Within a few years Mayevski had devised a mathematical model to
forecast the trajectory of a bullet and then Ingalls published his famous tables using Mayevski’s formulas
and the Krupp data. In those days most bullet shapes were similar and airplanes or missiles did not exist.
Ingalls defined the Ballistic Coefficient (B.C.) of a bullet as it’s ability to overcome air resistance in
flight indexed to Krupp’s standard reference projectile. The work of Ingalls & Mayevski has been
refined many times but it is still the foundation of small arms exterior ballistics including a reliance on
BCs.

The shape of the projectile used in the Krupp

firings. It is 3 calibers long and has an ogival head
with a 2 caliber radius.

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External Ballistics Page4of9

E~; I ~
Modern bullet designs. Much different than the Krupp bullet. Would you
expect them to have the same drag characteristics?

By the middle of the 20th century rifle bullets had become more aerodynamic and there were better
ways to measure air drag. After WWII the U.S. Army’s Ballistic Research Lab (BRL) conducted
experiments at their facility in Aberdeen, MD to remeasure the drag caused by air resistance on different
bullet shapes. They discovered air drag on bullets increases substantially more just above the speed of
sound than previously understood and that different shapes had different velocit)} erosion due to air drag.
In 1965 Winchester-Western published several bullet drag functions based on this early BRL research.
The so-called “G” functions for various shapes included an improved Ingalls model, designated “Gi”.
Even though the BRL had demonstrated modern bullets would not parallel the flight of the “Gi”
standard projectile, the “Gi” drag model was adopted by the shooting industry and is still used to
generate most trajectory data and B.C.’s. Amazingly, the “Gi” standard projectile is close to the shape of
the old blunt-nosed, flat-based Krupp artillery round of 1881!

The firearms industry has developed myriad ways to compensate for this problem. Most bullet
manufacturers properly measure velocity erosion then publish B.C.’s using an “average” of the
calculated Gi based B.C.’s for “normal” velocities. In other words, the only spot on the Gi curve where
the model is correct is at the so-called “normal” or average velocity. These B.C.’s are off slightly at other
velocities unless the bullet has the same shape, and therefore the same drag as the standard Gi projectile.

Some ballistic programs adjust the B.C. for velocities above the speed of sound, others use several
B.C.’s at different velocities in an effort to correct the model. While these approaches mitigate some of
the problem, B.C.’s based on Gi still cannot be correct unless the bullet is of the same shape as the
standard projectile. Also, the change to air drag as a function of velocity does not happen abruptly. Drag
change is continuous with only small variation immediately above or below any point along the
trajectory. Programs that translate the Ingalls tables directly to computer or use multiple B.C.’s can
produce velocity discontinuities when drag values change abruptly at pre-determined velocity zones.
The resulting rapid changes to ballistic coefficient do not duplicate “real world” conditions.

The Solution
Shooting software is finally appearing based on methods used in aerospace with drag models for
different bullet shapes. Results are superior to traditional “Gi fits everything” thinking, but now shooters
must learn B.C.’s are different for each model.

This is a scary proposition for most bullet companies who know many shooters pick bullets based only
on their B.C.’s. For example, A boat tailed bullet with a Gi based B.C. of .690 may actually have a G7
based B.C. of only .344, since the G7 drag model accurately describes its performance. But, everyone
“knows” that .690 is “better” than .344. However, using the wrong drag model will yield trajectory data
that indicates incorrect drop. Fortunately the differences only become important at very long range
(>500 yards) but there is a difference. As an example the GI M80 Ball bullet (149 gr FMJ boat tail) has
a verified G7 BC of .195. The commercial equivalents of this bullet are listed as having a Gi BC of
between .393 and .3 95. You can see the differences in the plotted trajectories using both the Gi and G7
values and a program that handles both types.

Gi = .393 G7 .195

I
I
I
I
I

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External Ballistics Page5of9

I Ranqe Vel. Path Vel. Path

0 2750 -1.5 2750 -1;5
100 2522 4.8 2520 4.9
200 2306 5.70 2302 5.7
300 2100 0.00 2094 0.00
400 1905 -13.6 1898 -13.7
500 1722 -36.8 1710 -37.0
600 1553 -71.8 1530 -72.3
700 1401 -121.3 1360 -122.6
800 1269 -188.4 1200 -191.7
900 1161 -277.2 1074 -285.1
1000 1078 -391.8 1014 -408.4

Modern ballistics uses the coefficient of drag (C.D.) and speed of sound rather than traditional
Ingalls/Mayevski/Sciacci s, t, a & i functions. This avoids velocity discontinuities and when combined
with a proper drag model is far more accurate to distances beyond 1000 yards. A by-product of modem
ballistics research is that the C.D. can be estimated fairly accurately from projectile dimensions and used
to define custom drag models for unusual bullet shapes. (See caveat below.)

The drawing below shows how the various drag models vary.

Note the difference between the Gi and the G5, G6, and GI

The Coefficient of Drag for a bullet is simply an aerodynamic factor that relates velocity erosion due to
air drag, air density, cross-sectional area, velocity, and mass. A simpler way to view C.D.’s are as the
“generic indicator” of drag for any bullet of a particular shape. Sectional Density is then used to relate
these “generic” drag coefficients to bullet size. The “Sectional Density” of a bullet is simply it’s weight
in pounds divided by it’s diameter squared.

Sectional Density = (Wt. in Grains) /(7,000 * Dia.* Dia).

You can see from the formula that a 1 inch diameter, 1 pound bullet (7,000 gr.) would produce a
sectional density of 1. Indeed the standard projectile for all drag models can be viewed as weighing 1

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External Ballistics Page 6 of 9

pound and having a 1 inch diameter.

Another term occasionally found in load manuals is a bullet’s “Form Factor”. The form factor is simply
the C.D. of a bullet divided by the C.D. of a pre-defined drag model’s standard projectile.

Form Factor = (C.D. of any bullet) I (C.D. of the Defined ‘C’ Model Std. Bullet)

So What Is A Baffistic Coefficient?

Ballistic Coefficients are just the ratio of velocity retardation due to air drag (or C.D.) for a particular
bullet to that of its larger ‘G’ Model standard bullet. To relate the size of the bullet to that of the standard
projectile we simply divide the bullet’s sectional density by it’s form factor.

Ballistic Coefficient = (Bullet Sectional Density) I (Bullet Form Factor)

From these short formulae it is evident that a bullet with the same shape as the ‘G’ standard bullet,
weighing 1 lb. and 1 inch in diameter will have a B.C. of 1.000. If the bullet is the same shape, but is
smaller, it will have an identical C.D., but a form factor of 1.000 and a B.C. equal to it’s sectional
density.

The following are the most common current drag models used in ballistics:

Gi.i Standard model, flat based pointed bullet 3.28 calibers in length, with a 1.32 caliber length
- -

nose, with a 2 caliber (blunt) nose ogive

G2 Special model for a long conical point banded artillery projectile -5.19 calibers long with a .5
-

caliber 6° boat tail. Not generally applicable to small arms.

G5.i For Moderate (low base) boat tails 4.29 calibers long with a .49 caliber 7° 30’ boat tail with
- -

2.1 caliber nose with a 6.19 caliber tangent nose ogive

G6.i For flat based “spire point” type bullets 4.81 calibers long with a 2.53 caliber nose and a
- -

6.99 caliber secant nose ogive

G7.2 For “VLD” type or pointed boat tails 4.23 calibers long with with a .6 caliber long 7° 30’ Tail
- -

Taper and a 2.18 caliber long nose with a 10 caliber tangent nose ogive. Most modern US military
boat tailed bullets match this model.

G8.1 Flat base with similar nose design to G7 -3.64 calibers long with a 2.18 caliber long nose
-

and a 10 caliber secant nose ogive. The US M2 152 gr .30 cal bullet matches this drag model.
Close to the G6 model.

Gs For round ball Based on 9/16” spherical projectiles as measured by the BRL. Larger and
- -

smaller sphere characteristics are effectively identical.

RA4 - For 22 Long Rifle, identical to Gi below 1400 f/s

GL Traditional model used for blunt nosed exposed lead bullets, identical to GI below 1400 f/s
-

Gi Converted from the original lngalls tables. Essentially Gi

-

Gc 3 caliber long flat nosed cylinder, Identical to GI below 1200 f/s

-

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External Ballistics Page 7 of 9

To see what shapes these drag models are based upon, click here.

For Best Accuracy, Calculate Your Own Coefficients!

Accurate B.C.’s are crucial to getting good data from your exterior ballistics software. A good ballistic
program should be able to use two velocities and the distance between them to calculate an exact
ballistic coefficient for any of the common drag models. While you should really simultaneously
measure the velocities at the 2 points you can do very good work by measuring a minimum of 5 shots at
the near and far ranges and average each group.

This method of calculating a B.C. is preferred for personal use and can be used to duplicate published
velocity tables for a bullet when the coefficient is unknown or to more accurately model trajectories
achieved from your own firearm. A lot has changed in shooting software. If your software is more than
two years old, chances are it does not employ the latest modeling techniques or calculate B.C.’s and even
some of the newest software is not perfect as you can see from the next section.

To order RSI’s Shooting lab software you go to www.shootingsoftware.com. Please tell him Fr. Frog
sent you.

Sho~1Ing:
~

Bullet pictures courtesy Hornady Mfg.

Drag curves courtesy Jim Ristow

Some Caveats

We mentioned that CD can be estimated fairly well from certain bullet dimensions. However, because of
the effects of bullet wobble (precession due to rotation), nose tip radius or flathess, nose curvature and
boat tail, boundary layer interaction from cannelures and land engraving, etc. (all of which affect the
wave drag, base drag and friction drag of the bullet differently) it is really impossible to predict with
total accuracy the actual CD vs. Mach number. Also, while a ballistic coefficient can be computed from
velocity measurements at two points, differences in bullet wobble diminishes the validity of
chronograph testing for BC change over separate series of different muzzle velocities--it needs to be
done by separate measurements at different ranges for each shot. Why? Read on.

An elongated bullet, as opposed to a round ball, is inherently unstable aerodynamically. When made
stable gyroscopically by spinning, its center-of-gravity will follow the flight path. However, the nose of
the bullet stays above the flight path ever so little just because the bullet has a finite length and generates
some lift. This causes the bullet to fly at a very small angle of attack with respect to the flight path. The
angle of attack produces a small upward cross flow over the nose that results in a small lift force. The
lift force normally would cause the nose to rise and the bullet to tumble as the nose rose even more. That
is where the spin comes in and causes the rising nose to precess about the bullet axis. When the spin is
close to being right for the bullet’s length, the precessing is minimized and the bullet “goes to sleep” If it
is too slow the bullet will not be as stable as it should. (That is why Jeff Cooper says it’s wrong to shoot
groups at 100 yards for accuracy testing and suggests 300 yards. If your twist isn’t right for the bullet
used your group size will be larger at long ranges than would be expected by extrapolation of 100 yard
data due to bullet wobble.)

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External Ballistics Page 8 of9

Of course, any other disturbing force such as a side wind gust could cause a difference in bullet nose
precession but the effect would be quite small for a properly spin stabilized bullet. Most of the lift force
is on the nose of the bullet and is proportional to the square of the bullet velocity as well as the nose
shape and length. The new long-nosed bullets for long range match shooting can generate quite a bit
more lift occurring farther ahead of the center- of-gravity and can produce a nasty pitch-up moment.
That is why they require a faster than normal twist to stabilize them. Pistol bullets, being relatively short
and with little taper to the nose, require a slower spin for stability.

Let’s look at the rotational speed of a bullet. The formula for computing the rotational speed of a bullet
is
R=(12/T)*V

where

T=Twist
V = Velocity in f/s
R = Rotations per second

Now consider a bullet chronographed at about 3000 f7s muzzle velocity fired from a rifle with say a 10”
twist. It is rotating at around 3600 revolutions per second (216,000 rpm). Let the flight velocity decay to
2000 f’s. Now what is the bullet rotational speed? It doesn’t fall off much because the only things
slowing it down are inertia and skin friction drag which is pretty low, so the rotational velocity is only
slightly slower than 3600 rps. Then chronograph an identical bullet from the same rifle, this time with a
muzzle velocity of 2000 f’s. Its rotational velocity will be 2400 rps. Its stability will be different from
the bullet fired at 3000 f’s and allowed to slow down to 2000 f/~• They will not have the same drag at
2000 f’s although the bullets are identical. Therefore, two identical bullets fired from the same rifle at
different velocities, will not have the same drag coefficient or ballistic coefficient just because of the
way the measurements were taken. There are times when test data does not mean what you think it does.
Again, radar range testing is the only way to fly for trustworthy bullet drag data. [I am indebted to Lew
Kenner for this lucid description of bullet stability.]

Another factor is that it is not necessarily true that the drag coefficient of a particular bullet is

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External Ballistics Page 9 of 9

proportional to that of another bullet of the same design across the Mach number range, but this is what
a ballistic coefficient assumes.

Something else to worry about is the effect of the bullet tip shape/condition on the ballistic coefficient.
Because modern bullet have soft points they are subject to damage and manufacturing tolerances that
can alter the BC from bullet to bullet and across otherwise similar bullets, although this affect is small
unless there is a great deal of deformation.

For truly accurate results, individual bullet characteristics need to be measured on radar ranges as is
done by the military--much too expensive a procedure for the commercial bullet industry who doesn’t
really care about great accuracy in BC calculations--and the drag model from those measurements
applied only to the particular bullet tested. (If you have a spare $100,000 + and would like to buy me
such a setup, let me know.)

The good news is that for normal rifle ranges the drag coefficients and ballistic coefficients can work
satisfactorily for most purposes--so let’s proceed.

Click here to continue

To email me click here

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~ Rifle Power Page Misc. Questions

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Disclaimer

As far as I know all the information presented above is correct and I have attempted to insure that it is. However, I am not responsible for any errors,
omissions, or damages resulting from the use or misuse of this information, nor for you doing something stupid with it. (Dont you hate these
disclaimers? So do I, but there are people out there who refuse to be responsible for their own actions and who will sue anybody to make a buck.)

BACKTDtOP

Updated 2006-06-05

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AFTE Code of Ethics Page 1 of4

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I AFTE Code of Ethics*

PREAMBLE
Bf~~Div~tors j Board c~ ~ r~tor~
SSOCIATION OF FIREARM AND TOOLMARK EXAMINERS, I PLEDGE
LAND FAIR INVESTIGATION OF THE FACTS WITH WHICH I AM
Out~ cy~ th~ ~o~d ~4 D~r~r~ RAN OPINION STRICTLY IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE INFORMATION
JDIMIINU rr~JIvI ivii ~~.AMINATION OF THE FACTS AND PHYSICAL EVIDENCE, AND ONLY TO
THE EXTENT JUSTIFIED BY SUCH INFORMATION, TO RENDER AN OPINION ONLY WITHIN MY
FIELD OF COMPETENCE, TO MAINTAIN AN ATTITUDE OF INDEPENDENCE, IMPARTIALITY,
AND CALM OBJECTIViTY, IN ORDER TO AVOW PERSONAL OR PROFESSIONAL INVOLVEMENT
IN THE PROCEEDINGS, TO CONSTANTLY SEEK TO IMPROVED MY PROFESSIONAL
C~rtIficthon CAPABILITY BY EXPERIMENTATION AND STUDY AND TO IMPROVE STANDARDS AND
TECHNIQUES IN THE FIELD BY MAKING AVAILABLE THE BENEFITS OF MY PROFESSIONAL
ATTAINMENTS.
Code o~ Eth~os
INTRODUCTION

This code is intended to as a guide to the ethical conduct of individual workers

t~ont~t info in the field of firearms and toolmark examination. It is not to be construed that
these principles are immutable laws, nor that they are all-inclusive. Instead,
they represent general standards which each worker should strive to meet. It
AFT E H~ ~iory is to be realized that each individual case may vary, just as does the evidence
with which the examiner is concerned, and no set of guides or rules will
R&D precisely fit every occasion. A failure to meet or maintain certain of these
standards will justifiably cast doubt upon an individuals fitness for this type of
S~o~iE~ flfO
work. Serious or repeated infractions of these principles may be regarded as
inconsistent with membership in the Association.

It is the duty of any person practicing the profession of firearms and toolmark
examination to serve the interests of justice to the best of his ability at all
times. He will use all of the scientific means at his command to ascertain all of
the significant physical facts relative to the matters under investigation. Having
made factual determinations, he must then interpret and evaluate his findings.
In this he will be guided by experience and knowledge which, coupled with a
serious consideration of his analytical findings and the application of sound
judgment, may enable him to arrive at opinions and conclusions pertaining to
the matter under study. These findings of fact and his conclusions and
opinions should then be reported with all the accuracy and skill of which the
examiner is capable.

In carrying out these functions, the examiner will be guided by those practices
and procedures which are generally recognized within the profession to be
consistent with a high level of professional ethics. The motives, methods and
actions of the examiner shall at all times be above reproach, in good taste and
consistent with proper moral conduct.

I. SCIENTIFIC METHOD

A. The true scientist will make adequate examination of his material,

applying those tests essential to proof. He will not, merely for the sake
of bolstering his conclusions utilize unwarranted and superfluous tests
in an attempt to give apparent greater weight to his results.

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B. The modern scientific mind is an open one, incompatible with secrecy

of method. Scientific analyses will not be conducted by ‘secret
processes”, nor will conclusions in case work be based upon such tests
and experiments that will not be revealed to the profession.

C. A proper scientific method demands reliability of validity in the materials

analyzed. Conclusions will not be drawn from materials which
themselves appear unrepresentative, atypical or unreliable.

D. A truly scientific method requires that no generally discredited or

unreliable procedure be utilized in the analysis.

E. The progressive worker will keep abreast of new developments in

scientific methods and, in all cases, view them with an open mind. This
is not to say that he need not be critical of untried or unproved
methods, but he will recognize superior methods if and when they are
introduced.

II. OPINIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

A. Valid conclusions call for the application of generally accepted

techniques.

B. Tests are designed to disclose facts and all interpretations shall be

consistent with that purpose and will not be knowingly distorted. Where
appropriate to the correct interpretation of a test, experimental controls
shall be made.

C. Where test results are inconclusive or indefinite, any conclusions drawn

shall be fully explained.

D. The examiner is unbiased and refuses to be swayed by evidence or

matters outside the specific materials under consideration. He is
immune to suggestion, pressures and coercions inconsistent with the
evidence at hand, being interested only in ascertaining facts.

E. Scientific method demands that the individual be aware of his own

limitations and refuse to extend himself beyond them. It is both proper
and advisable that the examiner seek knowledge in new fields; he will
not, however, be hasty to apply such knowledge before he has had
adequate training and experience.

F. Where test results are capable of being interpreted to the advantage of

either side of a case, the examiner will not choose that interpretation
favoring the side by which he is employed merely as a means of
justifying his employment.

G. It is both wise and proper that the examiner be aware of the various
possible implications of his opinions and conclusions and be prepared
to weigh them, if called upon to do so. In any case; however, he will
clearly distinguish between that which may be regarded as scientifically
demonstrated fact and that which is speculative.

III. COURT PRESENTATION

A. The ethical expert does not take advantage of his privilege to express
opinions by offering opinions on matters within his field of qualification

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to which he has not given formal consideration.

B. Regardless of legal definitions, the examiner will realize that there are
degrees of certainty represented under the single term of “expert
opinion”. He will not take advantage of the general privilege to assign
greater significance to an interpretation than is justified by the available
data.

C. Where circumstances indicate it to be proper, the expert will not

hesitate to indicate that, while he has an opinion derived of study and
judgment within his field, the opinion may lack the certainty of other
opinions he might offer. By this or other means, he takes care to leave
no false impressions in the minds of the jurors or the court.

D. The expert will avoid unclear, misleading, circuitous or ambiguous

language that may be misconstrued or misunderstood.

E. It is not the object of the examiner’s appearance in court to present only

the evidence which supports the view of the side which employs him.
He has a moral obligation to see to it that the court understands the
evidence as it exists and to present it in an impartial manner.

F. The examiner will not by implication, knowingly or intentionally assist

the contestants in a case through such tactics as will implant a false
impression.

G. The examiner will answer all questions put to him in a clear,

straightforward manner and refuse to extend himself beyond his field of
competence.

H. Any and all photographic displays shall be made according to

acceptable practices, and shall not be intentionally altered or distorted
with a view to mislead the court or jury.

I. By way of conveying information to the court, it is appropriate that any

of a variety of demonstrative materials and methods be utilized by the
expert witness. Such methods and materials shall not, however, be
unduly sensational.

J. In all respects the examiner will avoid the use of terms and opinions
which will be assigned greater weight than are due them. Where an
opinion requires qualification or explanation, it is not only proper but
incumbent upon the witness to offer such qualifications.

K. The expert should not exaggerate or embellish his qualification when

testifying.

IV. GENERAL PRACTICE OF FIREARM AND TOOLMARK EXAMINATION

A. No services shall be rendered on a contingency fee basis.

B. It shall be regarded as ethical for one examiner to reexamine evidence

material previously submitted to or examined by another. Where a
difference of opinion arises, however, as to the significance of the

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AFTE Code of Ethics Page 4 of 4

evidence or to the test results, it is in the interest of the profession that

every effort be made by both examiners to resolve their conflict before
the case goes to trial.

C. Generally, the principle of “attorney client” relationship is considered to

apply to work of a physical evidence consultant except in a situation
where a miscarriage of justice might occur. Justice should be the
guiding principle.

D. It shall be ethical for an examiner to serve an attorney in an advisory

capacity regarding the interrogation of another expert who may be
presenting testimony. This service must be performed in good faith and
not maliciously. Its purpose is to prevent incompetent testimony, but not
to thwart justice.

*adopted 1980

- Revised Oct, 1986-preamble added and IV lID was combined with IV NC.

-Edited Aug, 1990-missing words added to NE and “that” corrected to “than” in

NIB.

topA

HQivi~ I The Association I M~rnbers A~ I M~m1iIpJ~f~

AFTE Journal I Online Payments I Examiner Resources I Training Seminar
Message Board I Job Postings I Forensic Links I

Copyright © 2001 Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners (AFTE).

All rights reserved. Revised: May 28, 2007.

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Bullet Identification FirearrnslD.com
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In The News
Birmingham, Al- ‘Fans of CSI:
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RELATED PAGES Bullet Identification

HOME
Introduction
Firearmlo Fundamentals Bullets collected for comparison to a specific
Bullet Identification firearm are examined first to see if they are of a
Caliber caliber that could have been fired from the M a.gic Bu iet
Bullet Basics submitted firearm. They are then examined to Blender
Rifling determine if the pattern of rifling impressions The original Magic
Rifling Impressions
found on the bullet match the pattern of rifllng Bullet Blender Buy
GRC Identification
contained in the barrel of the questioned firearm. online one payment
Cartridge Case ID $49.99.
Striated Action Marks
If these class characteristics agree the next step is www.lnfomercialCentraLc
Impressed Action Marks to try to make a positive match between the
individual characteristics that may have transferred
Contact the
webmaster
to the bullet from the barrel.
New fore nsicjiglit
source
Located within the rifling impressions on a bullet Convincing through
can be microscopic striations or scratches like those its powerful UV.
seen on the bullet below. They sort of look like a Portable, 60 mm
bar code donTt they? battery operation.
wwwlumatec.de

Forensic
Computer forensics
investigator in
Toronto analyzes,
interprets data.
www.ComputerForensic.c

Imperfections in the surface of the interior of the AFMISPM

barrel leave striations on the projectiles. Striations Microscopy
have the potential to be consistently reproduced in Nanoscale atomic
a unique pattern on every bullet that passes down force microscopes
the barrel of a firearm. The key word in the High resolution
previous sentence is unique, large samples scan
www.parkafm.com
Firearm examiners will attempt to find this unique
pattern by following the procedures outlined below.

Examinations conducted

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Bullet Identification FirearmslD.com
- Page 2 of 5

A submitted firearm will be fired several times using a water tank

~ like the one on the left to obtain
standards from the firearm. Lids on
the tank are closed and locked and
the muzzle of the firearm is placed in
the open tube at the end of the tank
and fired. Friction from passing
through the water slows the bullets
down and they end up on the bottom
of the tank about halfway down its
length. The tank is approximately 3
feet wide, 10 feet long and 3 feet high.

Fired standards, like those to the right,

are examined first to determine if in fact
the barrel is producing striated marks in
a unique and consistent pattern. Once a
consistently reoccurring pattern to the
marks is identified on standards, the
standards are compared to the evidence
bullets to see if the same pattern of
marks exists on the evidehce. To make these comparisons the
firearm examiner will use a comparison macroscope (below
right).

Notice that this is called

a macroscope and not
a microscope.
Microscopes typically
use objectives that are
lOOx and above.
Magnifications typically ~
used in firearms
identification are 5X,
lOX, 20X, 30X, and
40X. It is not unusual ~•

however to see these

lower powered scopes
referred to a
microscopes. In fact if
you see it referred to as
a microscope on this
webs ite just ignore it!

All firearm sections will

have a comparison
macroscope. The
comparison macroscope
consists of two
macroscopes mounted
side by side and connected by an optical bridge. There are two
stages on the lower part of the macroscope that the bullets to be
compared are mounted on. The bullets are attached to the stages

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Bullet Identification FirearrnslD.com
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using some type of sticky substance. Images of the bullets travel

up through the objectives, bounce off several mirrors in the optical
bridge, and are combined in a round field of view seen by looking
into the stereoscopic eyepieces. The resulting image will show the
bullets mounted to the stages, side-by-side, with a thin dividing line
down the middle. The images below show rifling impressions on a
32 caliber bullet at progressively increasing magnifications.

The stages that the bullets are attached to allow the bullets being
examined to be rotated on their axis and moved up, down, to the
left, and to the right. The bullets are rotated around to see if any
microscopic similarities are present. Most positive identifications are
made on striations that occur in land impressions and the best
marks are usually near the base of the bullets like those seen
below.

For an animated and interactive demonstration of this process see

the 3-D Bullet Identification Demo.

Not all bullet identifications are like those seen in the above image.
Firearm examiners will examine the entire bullet for striations that
agree with the standards. Bullets can have as many as six, eight or
even twenty-two different land and groove impressions and each
one may have areas of agreement between the striations. Taking
an image of striations, like the one seen above will usually not be
representative of the actual overall positive identification. It really

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Bullet Identification FirearrnslD.corn
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comes down to the experience of the firearm examiner and what

they perceive to be the overall uniqueness of the striations that are
present.

One of the biggest problems in making an identification is that few

evidence bullets are submitted intact. Most are badly distorted,
wiped and/or fragmented. The fragment seen below may not look
like much but even small fragments and badly damaged bullets can
still retain sufficient marks for an identification to be made.

Until the questioned bullet is examined microscopically by a trained

firearm examiner you just don’t know if it has marks of comparative
value. The comparison image below shows the above bullet
fragment (right) compared to a standard (left) fired from the
submitted firearm.

Results
When comparisons are made between firearms and fired
ammunition the results can read as follows:

Exhibit 1 (bullet) was identified as having been

fired from Exhibit 2 (revolver).

This conclusion is reached after all class characteristics

agree and a sufficient correlation between individual
characteristics is found.

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~1Iet Identification FirearrnslD.corn
- Page 5 of 5

Exhibit 1 (bullet) could neither be identified nor

eliminated as having been fired from Exhibit 2
(revolver). All comparisons were inconclusive.

This conclusion is reached if class characteristics agree

but there is an insufficient correlation between
individual characteristics.

Exhibit 1 (bullet) was not fired from Exhibit 2

(revolver).

This conclusion is reached if class characteristics

disagree.

Additional examples of bullet comparisons can be found in the

image galleries.

In some cases, a firearm may not be recovered for comparison.

When this happens firearm examiners can examine bullets for
general rifling characteristics (GRC) in an attempt to
determine what brands of firearms from which the bullet may have
been fired. Check the GRC links above for more information on this
type of examination.

We have now discussed how bullets can be identified as having

been fired from a firearm but what about the cartridge cases.

Click the Next button below to learn about Cartridge Case

Identification.

Home I Top I Next

FirearmslD.com is a non-profit web site that exists solely as an educational and/or investigative aid.
This site is not affiliated with any government agency, professional organization, or commercial entity.
Copyright @1998-2007, Jeffrey Scott Doyle, All rights reserved.

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Unisa Online ethics -
Page 1 of3

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home > about IJNISA> services and facilities> service departments> departments>
internal auditing > ethics

ethics

Code of Ethics (Ref: The Institute for Internal Auditors)

The purpose of the Institute’s Code of Ethics is to promote an ethical culture in the
profession of internal auditing.

A code of ethics is necessary and appropriate for the profession of internal auditing,
view printable version founded as it is on the trust placed in its objective assurance about risk management,
control, and governance. The Institute’s Code of Ethics extends beyond the definition
email: of internal auditing to include two essential components:
internal auditing

unisa call centre: • Principles that are relevant to the profession and practice of internal auditing;
0861 670 411 (nationally)
÷27 11 670-9000 • Rules of Conduct that describe behaviour norms expected of internal auditors.
(internationally) These rules are an aid to interpreting the Principles into practical applications
and are intended to guide the ethical conduct of internal auditors.
terms and conditions
legislation &
© university ot south africa
The Code of Ethics together with the Institute’s Professional Practices Framework and
other relevant Institute pronouncements provide guidance to internal auditors serving
last modified; 2007/04/25 others. Internal auditors refers to Institute members, recipients of or candidates for hA
professional certifications, and those who provide internal auditing services within the
definition of internal auditing.

Applicability and Enforcement

This Code of Ethics applies to both individuals and entities that provide internal
auditing ser~’ices.

For Institute members and recipient of or candidates for hA professional certifications,

breaches of the Code of Ethics will be evaluated and administered according to The
Institute’s Bylaws and Administrative Guidelines. The fact that a particular conduct is
not mentioned in the Rules of Conduct does not prevent it from being unacceptable or
discreditable. and therefore, the member, certification holder, or candidate can be
liable for disciplinary action.

Principles

Internal auditors are expected to apply and uphold the following principles:

Integrity

The integrity of internal auditors establishes trust and thus provides the basis for
reliance on their judgment.

Objectivity

Internal auditors exhibit the highest level of professional objectivity in gathering,

evaluating, and communicating information about the activity or process being

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Unisa Online ethics
-
Page 2 of 3

examined. Internal auditors make a balanced assessment of al the relevant

circumstances and are not unduly influenced by their own interests or by others in
forming judgments.

Confidentiality

Internal auditors respect the value and ownership of information they receive and do
not disclose information without appropriate authority unless there is a legal or
professional obligation to be do so.

Competency

Internal auditors apply the knowledge, skills, and experience needed in the
performance of internal auditing services.

Rules of Conduct

Integrity

Internal auditors:

• Shall perform their work with honesty, diligence, and responsibility.

• Shall observe the law and make disclosures expected by the law and the
profession.
• Shall not knowingly be a party to any illegal activity, or engage in acts that are
discreditable to the profession or internal auditing or to the organisation.
• Shall respect and contribute to the legitimate and ethical objectives of the
organ isation.

Objectivity

Internal auditors:

• Shall not participate in any activity or relationship that may impair or be

presumed to impair their unbiased assessment. This participation includes
those activities or relationships that may be in conflict with the interests of the
organ isation.
• Shall not accept anything that may impair or be presumed to impair their
professional judgment.
• Shall disclose all material facts known to them that, if not disclosed, may distort
the reporting of activities under review.

Confidentiality

Internal auditors:

• Shall be prudent in the use and protection of information acquired in the course
of their duties.
• Shall not use information for any personal gain or in any manner that would be
contrary to the law or detrimental to the legitimate and ethical objectives of the
organ isation.

Competency

Internal auditors:

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Unisa Online ethics
-
Page 3 of 3

s Shall engage only in those services for which they have the necessary
knowledge, skills, and experiences.
• Shall perform internal auditing services in accordance with the Standards for
the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing.
• Shall continually improve their proficiency and the effectiveness and quality of
their services.

http ://www.unisa.ac.za!default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&ContentlD=63 80 2/11/2008

General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews Page 1 of 6

Free Management Library I Free Managerrent Library Topic Search I Free Management Library
Topic Search General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews

General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews

Written by Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD, Authenticity Consulting, LLC. Copyrigh
1997-2007.
Adapted from the Field Guide to Consulting and Organizational Development.

Sections of This Topic Include:

Inroduction
Preparation for Interview
Types~ ofinterviews
Types of Topics in Questions
Squence of Questions
Wording of Questions
carrying Out Iriteriew
Immediately After Jnteryicw
Other Resources

Introduction
Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant’s experiences. The
interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow.
up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. Usually
open-ended questions are asked during interviews.

Before you start to design your interview questions and process, clearly
articulate to yourself what problem or need is to be addressed using the
information to be gathered by the interviews. This helps you keep clear focus c
the intent of each question.

Preparation for Interview

1. Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure
the interviewee is comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc.
Often, they may feel more comfortable at their own places of work or
homes.
2. Explain the purpose of the interview.
3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be
careful here. Rarely can you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get
access to information, in certain circumstances.) Explain who will get
access to their answers and how their answers will be analyzed. If their

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General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews Page 2 of 6

comments are to be used as quotes, get their written permission

to do so. See getting informed consent.
4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview
you are conducting and its nature. If you want them to ask
questions, specify if they’re to do so as they have them or wait
until the end of the interview.
5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.
7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started
with the interview.
8. Don’t count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for
permission to record the interview or bring along someone to take
notes.

Types of Interviews
1. Informal, conversational interview no predetermined questions are
-

asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the

interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview, the
interviewer “goes with the flow”.
2. General interview guide approach the guide approach is intended
-

to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected

from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the
conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and
adaptability in getting information from the interviewee./Ll>
3. Standardized, open-ended interview here, the same open-ended
-

questions are asked to all interviewees (an open-ended question is

where respondents are free to choose how to answer the question,
i.e., they don’t select “yes” or “no” or provide a numeric rating,
etc.); this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more
easily analyzed and compared.
4. Closed, fixed-response interview where all interviewees are asked
-

the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the
same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not
practiced in interviewing.

Types of Topics in Questions

Patton notes six kinds of questions. One can ask questions about:

1. Behaviors about what a person has done or is doing

-

2. Opinions/values about what a person thinks about a topic

-

3. Feelings note that respondents sometimes respond with “I

-

think so be careful to note that you’re looking for feelings

...“

4. Knowledge to get facts about a topic

-

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General Guidelines for Conducting interviews Page 3 of 6

5. Sensory about what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or

-

smelled
6. Background/demographics standard background questions, such
-

as age, education, etc.

Note that the above questions can be asked in terms of past, present or
future.

Sequence of Questions
1. Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.
2. Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and
conclusions), first ask about some facts. With this approach,
respondents can more easily engage in the interview before
warming up to more personal matters.
3. Intersperse fact~based questions throughout the interview to avoid
long lists of fact-based questions, which tends to leave
respondents disengaged.
4. Ask questions about the present before questions about the past
or future. It’s usually easier for them to talk about the present and
then work into the past or future.
5. The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any
other information they prefer to add and their impressions of the
interview.

Wording of Questions
1. Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to
choose their own terms when answering questions.
2. Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that
might influence answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental wording.
3. Questions should be asked one at a time.
4. Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any
terms particular to the program or the respondents’ culture.
5. Be careful asking “why” questions. This type of question infers a
cause-effect relationship that may not truly exist. These questions
may also cause respondents to feel defensive, e.g., that they have
to justify their response, which may inhibit their responses to this
and future questions.

Conducting Interview
1. Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.
2. Ask one Question at a time.

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General Guidelines for Conducting interviews Page 4 of 6

3. Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don’t show strong

emotional reactions to their responses. Patton suggests to act as if
“you’ve heard it all before.”
4. Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, “uh huh”s,
etc.
5. Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you
jump to take a note, it may appear as if you’re surprised or very
pleased about an answer, which may influence answers to future
questions.
6. Provide transition between major topics, e.g., “we’ve been talking
about (some topic) and now I’d like to move on to (another topic).”
7. Don’t lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents
stray to another topic, take so long to answer a question that times
begins to run out, or even begin asking questions to the interviewer.

Immediately After Interview

1. Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.
2. Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any
scratchings, ensure pages are numbered, fill out any notes that
don’t make senses, etc.
3. Write down any observations made during the interview. For
example, where did the interview occur and when, was the
respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were there any
surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?

Other Resources
CASAnet’s overview of interviewing principles

For the Category of Evaluations (Many Kinds):

Related Library Topics
Recommended Books
General Information (Applying to Many Types Evaluation)
The following books are recommended because of their highly practical
nature and often because they include a wide range of information about

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General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews Pagesof6

this Library topic. To get more information about each book, just hover
your cursor over the image of the book. A “bubble” of information will
be displayed. You can click on the title of the book in that bubble to get
more information, too.

Field Guide to Nonprofit Program Design,

Marketing and Evaluation
by Carter McNamara, published by Authenticity
Geld Guide icr Consulting, LLC. There are few books, if any, that
ri000rofit Program Design
MarKeting dod Evaluation
explain how to carefully plan, organize, develop and
evaluate a nonprofit program. Also, too many
books completely separate the highly integrated
activities of planning, marketing and evaluating
programs. This book integrates all three into a
comprehensive, straightforward approach that
anyone can follow in order to provide high-quality
programs with strong appeal to funders. Includes
many online forms that can be downloaded. Many
materials in this Library topic are adapted from this
book.

Also see
For evaluating employees, Supervision -- Recommended Books

For pvaiuotinp’ n~rnnro fit nrncramc. Prnr.’rarn M~ana~’pn,pnt -- R4rwnmmpndpd Rnnk.c

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General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews Page 6 of 6

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IOL: Police forensics has extensive backlog Page 1 of 1

iW~~W4~i
— to On—

Police forensics has extensive backlog

Police forensic science laboratories (FSLs) have a backlog of 6 086 samples,
Safety and Security Minister Charles Nqakula said on Monday.

Crime investigating officers have to wait an average of 54 days for results of

samples sent in.

In written reply to a question by the Democratic Alliance’s Dianne Kohler-Barnard,

he said the largest backlog was in the Western Cape’s chemistry laboratory, where
3 806 samples were awaiting processing on June 4.

The SA Police Service (SAPS) headquarters’ chemistry lab had a backlog of 1 057
samples, SAPS’ headquarters biology laboratory 560, and the Western Cape
biology laboratory 482.

There were no backlogs at all in any of the explosives and ballistics laboratories
around the country.

Investigating officers could expect to wait an average of 102 days for the results
from the biology laboratories, 56 days from chemistry, 40 from ballistics, and 35
days for questioned documents or scientific analysis.

The laboratories had 981 funded posts and only 15 vacancies as at May 31.

Nqakula said the funded posts for the Medium Term Expenditure Framework up
until 2010 for the FSLs were currently under consideration and indications were
that a substantial growth in the number of posts could be expected.

Commenting on the situation on Monday, Kohler-Barnard said the high number of

samples in the backlog as well as the long waiting periods were a cause for
concern.

“It is hoped that the drive to recruit new personnel will improve matters,” she said. -

Sapa

Published on the Web by IOL on 2007-06-18 18:11:23

© Independent Online 2005. All rights reserved. lOL publishes this article in good
faith but is not liable for any loss or damage caused by reliance on the information
it contains.

1~ .1! ~. 1 1 it ~ 1O1O1iK.\r,r,v, 1 1 1’ r~ I’~)r,r~’7

nhip.ii www.lnl.1o1.co.LwgelleraI/newsIIIewsplmL.plIp ai L_1U11WLV~J I ‘JO 10101 1 L3 I YYL.LL... I lILY/LU’..’!
S~atisties Glossary sampling
- Page 1 of 6

Statistics
b~ Glossaryvii
Val~.r~e J. EastoI2 & JQhn H McColl

Sampling
Target Population Quota Samplin9
MatchedSamples $patialSampling
independent Samples SamplingYariabflily

Random Sam~pling Standard Error

Simple Random Sampling Bias

Stratified Sarnpiing Precision

Clu~ter Sanwlin~

Main Contents page I Index of all entries

Target Population

The target population is the entire group a researcher is interested in; the group about
which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions.

Example
Suppose we take a group of men aged 35-40 who have suffered an initial heart
attack. The purpose of this study could be to compare the effectiveness of two drug
regimes for delaying or preventing further attacks. The target population here would
be all men meeting the same general conditions as those actually included in the
study.

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statistics Glossary sampling
- Page 2 of 6

Matched Samples
JEF5

Matched samples can arise in the following situations:

a. Two samples in which the members are clearly paired, or are matched explicitly
by the researcher. For example, lQ measurements on pairs of identical twins.

b. Those samples in which the same attribute, or variable, is measured twice on

each subject, under different circumstances. Commonly called repeated
measures. Examples include the times of a group of athletes for 1500m before
and after a week of special training; or the milk yields of cows before and after
being fed a particular diet.

Sometimes, the difference in the value of the measurement of interest for each
matched pair is calculated, for example, the difference between before and after
measurements, and these figures then form a single sample for an appropriate
statistical analysis.

Independent Sampling

Independent samples are those samples selected from the same population, or
different populations, which have no effect on one another. That is, no correlation
exists between the samples.

Random Sampling
STEP5

Random sampling is a sampling technique where we select a group of subjects (a

sample) for study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is chosen
entirely by chance and each member of the population has a known, but possibly
non-equal, chance of being included in the sample.

By using random sampling, the likelihood of bias is reduced.

Compare s~mpl~r~n~omsampiftig.

Simple Random Sampling

~TEP5

http:i’Iwww.stats.gla.ac.ukistepsiglossaryIsampling.htmi I 1/27/2007
Statistics Glossary sampling
- Page 3 of 6

Simple random sampling is the basic sampling technique where we select a group of
subjects (a sample) for study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is
chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an equal chance
of being included in the sample. Every possible sample of a given size has the same
chance of selection; i.e. each member of the population is equally likely to be chosen
at any stage in the sampling process.

Compare ran~oms~ampJJng.

Stratified Sampling
51EP5

There may often be factors which divide up the population into sub-populations
(groups / strata) and we may expect the measurement of interest to vary among the
different sub-populations. This has to be accounted for when we select a sample from
the population in order that we obtain a sample that is representative of the
population. This is achieved by stratified sampling.

A stratified sample is obtained by taking samples from each stratum or sub-group of a

population.

When we sample a population with several strata, we generally require that the
proportion of each stratum in the sample should be the same as in the population.

Stratified sampling techniques are generally used when the population is

heterogeneous, or dissimilar, where certain homogeneous, or similar, sub-populations
can be isolated (strata). Simple random sampling is most appropriate when the entire
population from which the sample is taken is homogeneous. Some reasons for using
stratified sampling over simple random sampling are:

a. the cost per observation in the survey may be reduced;

b. estimates of the population parameters may be wanted for each sub-population;
c. increased accuracy at given cost.

Example
Suppose a farmer wishes to work out the average milk yield of each cow type in his
herd which consists of Ayrshire, Friesian, Galloway and Jersey cows. He could divide
up his herd into the four sub-groups and take samples from these.

Cluster Sampling
51EP5

r~4-,.4-n ~1.. ~ /,~.+ ~ I,,, ~ ~ I I /‘V7I’t~(V7

I WW’vv ~ ~uC, ~Cp~I ~iu~aifi ~ampuhI~.1iLiIu 1 1/ ~ II LVVI
Statistics Glossary sampling
- Page 4 of 6

Cluster sampling is a sampling technique where the entire population is divided into
groups, or clusters, and a random sample of these clusters are selected. All
observations in the selected clusters are included in the sample.

Cluster sampling is typically used when the researcher cannot get a complete list of
the members of a population they wish to study but can get a complete list of groups
or clusters’ of the population. It is also used when a random sample would produce a
list of subjects so widely scattered that surveying them would prove to be far too
expensive, for example, people who live in different postal districts in the UK.

This sampling technique may well be more practical and/or economical than simple
random sampling or stratified sampling.

Example
Suppose that the Department of Agriculture wishes to investigate the use of
pesticides by farmers in England. A cluster sample could be taken by identifying the
different counties in England as clusters. A sample of these counties (clusters) would
then be chosen at random, so all farmers in those counties selected would be
included in the sample. It can be seen here then that it is easier to visit several
farmers in the same county than it is to travel to each farm in a random sample to
observe the use of pesticides.

Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is a method of sampling widely used in opinion polling and market
research. Interviewers are each given a quota of subjects of specified type to attempt
to recruit for example, an interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult men
and 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could
interview them about their television viewing.

It suffers from a number of methodological flaws, the most basic of which is that the
sample is not a random sample and therefore the sampling distributions of any
statistics are unknown.

Spatial Sampling
5TEP~

This is an area of survey sampling concerned with sampling in two (or more)
dimensions. For example, sampling of fields or other planar areas.

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S~tatistics Glossary sampling
- Page 5 of 6

Sampling Variability
5TEP5

Sampling variability refers to the different values which a given function of the data
takes when it is computed for two or more samples drawn from the same population.

Standard Error
51EP5

Standard error is the standard deviation of the values of a given function of the data
(parameter), over all possible samples of the same size.

Bias
51EP5

Bias is a term which refers to how far the average statistic lies from the parameter it is
estimating, that is, the error which arises when estimating a quantity. Errors from
chance will cancel each other out in the long run, those from bias will not.

The following illustrates bias and precision, where the target value is the bullseye:
Precise Imprecise

Biased

c~
Unbiased

Example
The police decide to estimate the average speed of drivers using the fast lane of the
motorway and consider how it can be done. One method suggested is to tail cars
using police patrol cars and record their speeds as being the same as that of the
police car. This is likely to produce a biased result as any driver exceeding the speed
limit will slow down on seeing a police car behind them. The police then decide to use
an unmarked car for their investigation using a speed gun operated by a constable.
This is an unbiased method of measuring speed, but is imprecise compared to using

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Statistics Glossary sampling
- Page 6 of 6

a calibrated speedometer to take the measurement.

See also prec~On.

Precision
5TEP5

Precision is a measure of how close an estimator is expected to be to the true value

of a parameter.

Precision is usually expressed in terms of imprecision and related to the standard

error of the estimator. Less precision is reflected by a larger standard error.

See the illustration and example under b!a_s for an explanation of what is meant by
bias and precision.

Top of page I MairiConteni~ page

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Shotgun Pattern Testing FirearrnslD.com
- Page 1 of7

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RELATED PAGES Shotgun Pattern Testing

HOME
Distance Determinations
Bullet Hole Characteristics Another test conducted by firearm examiners is
Gunshot Residue
known as Shotgun Pattern Testing. This test
Gunshot Residue Exam
GSR Standards
involves shotguns and allows for a muzzle-to-target Lead Shot
GSR Test Results distance to be determined. Lead in Stock now -

Shotgun Pattern Testing

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Shotgun pattern testing involves examining Finish & Machine
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between the pellets and the shotgun.

To better understand the principles involved in shotgun pattern

testing it’s important to first learn a little about shotguns and the
shotshells they fire.

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Shotgun Pattern Testing FirearmslD.com
- Page 2 of 7

Shotguns are firearms typically fired from the shoulder that are
designed to fire shotshells containing anywhere from one large
projectile to as many as several hundred small pellets. Shotguns
aren’t classified by caliber but come in different gauges. The gauge
of a shotgun is determined by the number of round lead balls of bore
diameter that it takes to equal one pound. Shotguns can come in
10, 12, 16, 20, 28, and .410 gauge. The .410 is actually an
exception with .410 referring to the caliber of the shotgun’s bore. It
would actually be about a 67 gauge in “lead ball” terms.

Although some newer shotgun barrels are produced with rifling,

shotguns have traditionally had smooth bored barrels. Except in
some rare cases the projectiles fired from them cannot be matched
back to the shotgun.

Auto loading shotgun with conventional barrel (top) and

an auto loading shotgun with a rifled “slug” barrel (bottom).

Shotguns come in a number of different styles and actions. From

auto loading shotguns like those seen above to very “customized”
versions like the one below.

“Sawed-off” pump-action shotgun.

Shotguns are typically manufactured with what is called a choke in

their barrels. A choke is a constriction in the last couple of inches in
the barrel and can vary in the degree of constriction. Common
choke designations are “full”, “modified”, and “improved cylinder.” A
barrel that has no choke is referred to as a cylinder-bore barrel.

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Shotgun Pattern Testing FirearrnslD.corn
- Page 3 of 7

Barrel modified for use in a “Turkey-Shoot” competition.

Extreme constriction or choke can be seen at the muzzle.

Shotguns can be manufactured with a permanent fixed choke or can

have the muzzle of the barrel machined in a way to accept
interchangeable or adjustable choke tubes. Shotguns that have had
their barrels sawed off have had their choke removed. This creates
a shotgun with a cylinder-bore barrel.

The whole point to this “choke thing” is that the choke plays an
important role in the rate at which the shot pellets spread as they
travel away from the shotgun. A full-choke barrel will tend to shoot
smaller shot patterns at a given distance than a barrel with a
modified-choke.

Shotshells are cartridges designed to be fired in shotguns and can

contain a single large projectile a slug or as many as several
- -

hundred small spherical pellets called shot. Shot used in shotshells

has traditionally been made of lead but because of it’s toxicity,
other materials are being used as a substitute, with the most
common alternative being steel.

The size of the shot can vary as can the total weight of the shot
loaded into a shotshell. Shot comes in two basic varieties, small
pellets commonly referred to as birdshot and larger pellets called
buckshot.

Components from a typical shotshell containing

birdshot and a one-piece plastic wad.

Components trom a typical ,ntaining

buckshot and a fiber/plastic wad combination.

Lead birdshot comes in 12, 11, 9, 8 1/2, 8, 7 1/2, 6, 5, 4, 2, and 88

sizes. As the numbers get smaller the diameter of the shot gets

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Shotgun Pattern Testing FirearmslD.com
-
P~cr~~ 4 0f 7
-

larger. Buckshot on the other had comes in 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 00, and

000. Again, as the number decreases the diameter increases. See
the chart below.

i~ I I~I1i~ ~8 ~ 2 ~ 4

• ~. ~ i...
~ ~J;-~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ 4

Shot size table: lead shot (top), steel shot

(middle) and buckshot (bottom).

As you can see from the above chart, steel shot comes in slightly
larger sizes than lead shot. Steel doesnTt have the density of lead
and larger shot is needed to achieve a range comparable to that of
lead shot.

Shotshells contain a variety of different wads plastic, paper, or

-

fiber material designed to separate the shot from the gunpowder

and/or protect the shot as it is pushed down the barrel that are -

expelled from the shotshell, along with the shot, when fired.

Various plastic and fiber shotshell wads.

Shotshells come in a variety of loads. The amount of gunpowder in

a shotshell can vary and the measurement is referred to by as the
dram equivalent. The dram equivalent is the amount of
smokeless powder that produces a velocity comparable to that of

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Shotgun Pattern Testing FirearmslD.com
- Page 5 of7

black powder.

All of these variables are important in determining a given shot

pattern distance.

When a shotgun is fired the shot and wadding travel down the
barrel and exit the muzzle in a concentrated mass.

As a result a contact entrance hole will produce a large hole with

significant damage to the margins of the hole, but can vary greatly
depending on the material being fired into. The same thing also
applies to gunshot residue deposits. Most contact entrance holes
will have a significant deposit of gunshot residues like the one seen
below, but this is not always the case. Some may display very little
visible gunshot residue.

Contact shotgun entrance hole.

A hole like the one above will be processed chemically like that
previously described on the Distance Determination/Gunshot
Residue pages.

At ranges of around 5-10 feet* the shot and wadding mass will
produce a single large hole in a target. If the target happens to be
a person, the wadding material will be blown into the wound tract
with the pellets.

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Shotgun Pattern Testing FirearrnslD.com
- Page 6 of 7

Close-range shotshell pellet entrance hole.

The close-range entrance (less than 5 feet*)hole seen above is

almost square, and is a common shape for this range. You might
notice a pinkish color (lead residue) to the material around the hole.

At distances greater than 5-10 feet* the shot mass starts to break
up. Fliers (individual pellet holes) will start to appear around the
edge of an entrance hole and the wadding may or may not enter the
victim.

Individual pellets starting to break apart from the main mass

of pellets.

As the wadding slows down it will start to take a separate trajectory

from that of the shot and can actually leave abrasions or bruises to
the area around an entrance wound. Wadding will lose its energy
and fall harmlessly to the ground at distances of around 20 feet*.

As the pellets get further and further away from the shotgun the
pattern will eventually become dispersed to the point that only
individual pellet holes are present in a target.

- - Si

• -, ~
S-S -—

Witness panel fired into at a distance of 28 feet.

Firearm examiners will try to reproduce the pattern by firing into

witness panels at known distances. Shot patterns can be affected
by the load, pellet size, wad type, and choke of the shotgun. That is
why it is essential that the shotgun is recovered and the type of
shotshells used is known. Hopefully some shotshells will be

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Shotgun Pattern Testing FirearmslD.com
- Page 7 of 7

recovered at the scene that can later be used in firing the distance
standards. Also, patterns produced by a shotgun at any given
distance can vary slightly. Multiple tests patterns will be fired at
known distances and compared directly to the pattern in question.
Based on this comparison a minimum and maximum firing distance
can be determined.

Unlike the tests conducted on clothing for gunshot residues, shotgun

pattern testing is not limited to distances of a few feet or less.

*AII distances are approximate values and can

vary depending on the shotgu&s gauge/choke and
ammunition used.

Home I Top

Firearm sID .com is a non-profit web site that exists solely as an educational and/or investigative aid.
This site is not affiliated with any government agency, professional organization, or commercial entity.
Copyright ©1998-2007, Jeffrey Scott Doyle, All rights reserved.

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Crime Scene and Evidence Photographer’s Guide Page 1 of3

Crime Scene and Evidence Photographer’s Guide

ISBN 0-9661970-0-3
Published 1997

by Steven Staggs

From documenting a homicide scene to recording the detail of a bite mark,

photographs can communicate more about crime scenes and the appearance of crirn;i;ii~ and £v~c
P~erogI~,~ Q~dde~
evidence than the written report. Photography is a valuable tool for recording
the crime scene and explaining evidence to others.

The Crime Scene and Evidence Photographer~s’ Guide is designed to be a field

reference for those responsible for photography at the crime scene. It may be
used by law enforcement officers, investigators, and crime scene technicians.
It contains instructions for photographing a variety of crimes scenes and
various types of evidence. It is a valuable reference tool when combined with
training and experience. The Crime Scene and Evidence Photographer’~c
Guide is also a helpful resource for students and others interested in entering
into the field of crime scene investigation.

The Crime Scene and Evidence Photographer~s Guide is a practical and concise field handbook for
crime scene and evidence photography. Designed to be carried in an evidence kit or camera bag, this 66
page, 5 ½” by 8 W’ publication contains step-by-step instructions for photographing crime scenes and
evidence. It includes 42 example photographs, eight diagrams, and three tables. Sections in the guide
include:

Cameras and Lighting Techniques

• Technical photography techniques

• Flash illumination
• Flash fill
• Painting with light
• Available light photography

Photographing Crime Scenes

• The three step approach

Overview photographs
Mid-range photographs
Close-up photographs
• Using video to record crime scenes
• Records of photographs

Photographing Specific Types of Crime Scenes

• Homicide, suicide and autopsy photography

• Gunshot wounds
• Domestic violence, assaults and injuries

http ://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/csepguide.html 11/27/2007

Crime Scene and Evidence Photographer’s Guide Page 2 of 3

• Property crimes
• Arson and fire scenes
• Traffic collisions
• Technical photographs of damage to vehicles

Photographing Evidence

• Close-up photography
• Lighting methods for close up photography
• Impression photography
• Fingerprint photography
• Bloodstain photography
• Laser and ALS photography
• Tool marks and serial numbers

Basic Equipment

• Crime scene photography kit

• Other recommended equipment

And More!

Order Now
Order Direct from the Publisher and_receive a 10% Discount
or
Order from Amazon.com

About the Author

Steven Staggs has been in law enforcement for 30

years and has extensive experience in crime scene
photography and identification. He has testified in
superior court concerning his crime scene, evidence,
and autopsy photography and has handled high
profile cases including a nationally publicized serial
homicide case.

For the past 18 years Steve has been a forensic

photography instructor and has trained more than
3,000 crime scene technicians and investigators for
police and sheriffs departments, district attorneys
offices, and federal agencies. He is also a guest
speaker for investigators’ associations and provides
consulting to law enforcement agencies.

Steve was prompted to write the Crime Scene and Evidence Photographer~ Guide in response to
requests by crime scene investigators and forensic photographers who desired a practical and concise
field handbook for crime scene and evidence photography.

Order Now

http ://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/csepguide.html 11/27/2007

Crime Scene and Evidence Photographer’s Guide Page 3 of 3

Order Direct from the Publisher and receive a 10% Discount

or
Order from Amazon.com

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 C’ •n_____. I _~SC
Lesson: KesearCfl ~ampiing rage i Ui.

N~:JPc 11h11t32Q: The Class: Rc~carch ~ B.e~eareh_Samjthxig: Lesson

+ Wekottw
fl~
tn

~ Req ire~n~n~
j~ Lesson: Research Sampling + e~p

Sampling: is a process used to study a response to an intervention in a small

population that can be applied to a larger population. Some terms to become
familiar with are listed and explained below.

1. Element:
An element is the most basic unit on which information will be collected -

individuals, chart records, etc.. For example: In a study of nursing delivery

system in hospital that has three different units using 3 different delivery
systems, the elements are the first floor case method, the second floor team
method, and the third floor partnership model

2. Population

A poulation is a set of individuals that meet sampling criteria

The target population is the entire set of population that the researcher would
like to make generalizations about

The accessible population is the one that meets the criteria established and is
also accessible, considering constraints of time, money, researcher
availability

3. Generalizability

Generalizability is extending findings from the sample to the larger

population

4. Sampling Criteria

A well defined set that meets very specific criteria

1. criteria must be very well defined

2. must have limiting factors so that persons not meeting the criteria will
be excluded

3. must be able to control for homogeneity by excluding from the desired

population anyone who would bring in a confounding variable

5. Representativeness

The extent to which the sample and the population are alike

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Lesson: Research Sampling Page 2 of 5

6. Sampling Unit

The selection of a portion of the target population that will represent the
entire population

Types of Sampling

NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
Uses a non random method to select the sample you cannot be assured that every
-

element available is fairly represented in the sample

1. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

Uses the most readily available subjects and is the easy method to obtain
subjects
Example: all students enrolled in a nursing program; first 200 patients
admitted to a nursing unit
Problem: risk of bias is very great
sample tends to be self selecting:
what motivated people to volunteer?
what sample of the population is missed because they were not
available?

2. QUOTA SAMPLING
Knowledge about the population is used to build some design into the
sample
Each stratum of the population is represented proportionally
Must base sampling on previous knowledge:from a literature review

Example: you want to study attitudes of nurses about use of nursing

diagnosis what type of samples would you think would be
important to include? level of education ; years in practice as a
nurse

Problem: Even these techniques do not assure that no bias may be present
in the above example, what variable could affect a nurse’s
-

willingness to participate in the study?

3. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

Researcher handpicks subjects to participate in the study based on identified

variables under consideration. Used when the population for study is highly
unique

Example: Parents of children with Tay Sach’s disease

Problems: Must assume that errors ofjudgment in ranges of the sample
will tend to even out as many subjects who are at the far ends
-

of the population will cancel each other out

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Lesson: Research Sampling Page 3 of 5

Uses for purposive sampling

1. validation of a test or instrument with a known population

2. collection of exploratory data from an unusual population

3. use in qualitative studies to study the lived experience of a specific

population

How does purposive and quota sampling differ?

Purposive restrict the sample population to a very specific population and

then tends to use all of the subjects available

PROBABILITY TESTING
Random selection of subjects from a specific population

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

population if defined listing all of the descriptors identify all populations that
meet the descriptors and give each a number use a table of random numbers
to select population for study, read off numbers in any fixed direction

Advantages: researcher bias cannot operate representation of the desired

population is maximized probability of selecting a
nonrepresentative sample is decreased as the sample size is
increased

Disadvantages: very time consuming

it may be impossible to obtain a list of every person eligible to be
part of the population under study

1. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

uses a quota for subsets to ensure that all subgroups are fairly
represented similar to proportional quota sampling except that a
random approach is used to select the sub populations

Example: see diagram of study on registered nurses

Questions to be addressed
1. what is the logical basis for selecting the subsets?

2. do you have sufficient information available to divide population into

subsets

3. should each subset be equal in size or should the size be based on the
frequency in the population?

4. are there enough subjects to get meaningful groups into each subset?

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• Lesson: Research Sampling Page 4 of 5

5. have random procedures ben used to select subjects for each of the
subsets?

Problems: similar to a simple random design in terms of stability to

identify appropriate subjects

greater because of the need for greater numbers of subjects to

fill each of the subsets

2. CLUSTER SAMPLING
used to break up large groups into smaller workable models

Example: The researcher wants to examine nursing practices in

county health departments
Stage 1: identify all states each will be a sampling group
- -

randomly select a certain percentage of states

Stage 2: select a random sample of subjects from the first sample: a
random sample of county health departments within the
states selected

Stratified random sampling technique could be used by

looking at counties based on rural vs urban, etc.
Advantages: more economical of time and money
Disadvantage: sampling error can creep in

3. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

select every nth subject from a list of all possible subjects example: every
-

5th patient admitted to the hospital

the population listing must be random example a list of nurses by

-

alphabetical order

the sample selection of the population must start at a random point if you
-

had an alphabetical listing of all subjects, you would not start with the “A” -

but rather with a random point in the list and then go by the nth interval

Sampling interval determined by the size of the group

-

n = total population = size of the desired sample

Problems: be sure geographic or cyclic events are not introduced
Example: use of 7 as an interval size when looking at use of a facility

Geographic regions that happen to vary with the interval size:

every 3rd room being a private room as compared to double
rooms

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Lesson: Research Sampling Page 5 of 5

4. MATCHED SAMPLING
used to obtain equivalent comparison groups: match on characteristics such
as age, sex, schooling, etc.

SAMPLE SIZE

Power Analysis

In quantitative studies, the larger the sample the greater likelihood will it be non
biased

In qualitative studies, the sample size is generally very small

The sample size will be indicated by the type of statistical tools that will be used

The degree of precision needed will help to determine sample size

The smaller the expected differences in subject response to the intervention, the
large the sample size needed to demonstrate a significantly different response

If the study has been well designed, a smaller sample size can produce good results

Once you have read this lesson, you should go to ~sigrn~enti.

Want to talk to your classmates? Go to the Student Union!

E-mail Ilene Decker at me a~j~n.ucc.ni~c~

Web site created by the NAU OTLE Faculty Studio

Copyright 1997 Northern AjUiiiyei~sity

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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 Interview schedule

Topic:
Time dependant effects of human blood on the microscopic comparison of fired
bullets

Respondent
Instructions
1. Participation in this study is voluntary.
2. Please answer all the questions.
3. It should take approximately take an hour to complete this interview.
4. Interviewees will not be identified individually, and all information will be
treated as confidential.

1 Background of respondent
1.1 Years of experience in the field of Firearms and Toolmarks examination?

1.2 What is your current position?

1.3 Please list your current duties that you perform within the laboratory?\

1.4 The name and location of the laboratory?

1.5 If you work for an accredited laboratory please list the association under
which your laboratory is accredited?
Page 1 of 15
1.6 What training did you receive to become a qualified scientist?

2. Does human blood affect the bullet to the point where striation
marks become unidentifiable?
2.1 How many crime scenes and or autopsies do your section attend
annually?

2.2 How many crime scenes did you attend in the last year? (For the purpose
of this study crime scenes include attending autopsies and the
examination of vehicles)

2.3 How many firearms related cases did you independently examined?

2.4 In your opinion, list two elements that contribute to bullet damage found on
crime scenes?

Page 2 of 15
2.5 Can a bullets condition deteriorate over time on a crime scene? Justify
your response.

2.6 Would you handle bullets differently if it were covered in blood? Why?

2.7 Besides bullets what other factors can contribute to bullet corrosion?

Page3ofl5
2.8 Does trace evidence play a role on bullet deterioration? Please explain.

2.9 Do your section have a procedure that specifically deals with the handled
of bullets on crime scenes?

2.10 How do you go about assessing whether or not a bullet is of value for
microscopic examination?

Page 4 of 15
2.11 Did you ever examine bullets covered in blood?

2.12 Did blood play a role in the deterioration of striation marks?

2.13 What where your findings?

Page 5 of 15
3. Collect and packaging of bullets?
3.1 How are bullets collected from crime scenes and autopsies?

3.2 How are the collect of bullets documented?

3.3 If the victim is still alive how are bullets collected?

Page 6 of 15
3.4 Is there a designated time period in which bullets must be submitted to
crime scenes?

3.5 What is the protocol for packaging bullets exposed to blood?

3.6 As an examiner do you always receive bullets packaged in the same way?

Page7ofl5
3.7 How do you suggest bullets should be packaged?

3.8 Will the way in which you package bullets have a impact on the condition
of the bullet?

3.9 Does time play a role from the time bullets are collected until its examined
by the examiner?

Page 8 of 15
3.10 Should bullets be cleaned that’s covered in trace evidence such as blood?

3.11 What procedure is followed if blood on the bullets are required for DNA
analyst?

3.12 How soon after a bullet is collected from the crime scene is it submitted to
the Laboratory? [This can be an estimate based on the current workload
that you have]

Page 9 of 15
3.13 What submission guidelines are available to clients for collecting and
packaging projectiles? [List the guidelines relevant to projectiles]

4. How long does it take from the time when bullets are collected on the
crime scene to the actual time when bullet is examined by an
examiner?
4.1 Who is responsible for collecting bullets from crime scenes?
4.2 Is timelines provided on bullet submissions to the laboratory?
4.3 How many cases do you currently have on hand?
4.4 What cases do you prioritize?
4.5 How long will a case be with you before starting the examination?
4.6 Have other disciplines impacted your turn around time in the examination
of bullets?
4.7 If yes,
4.7.1 What discipline?
4.7.2 What was the purpose of their examination?
4.7.3 How long did you wait for the evidence to be transferred to the Firearms
section?
4.8 Was the bullet exposed to blood?
Page lOof 15
4.9 What was the condition of the bullet before being clean? (any value for
microscopic examination)
4.10 Was the bullet cleaned with any chemical reagent?
4.11 Please list the microscopic results?
4.12 In your opinion did your microscopic results change due to the bullets
being exposed to blood?

Scientific process for the microscopic examination of fired bullets.

51 What types of examinations are conducted on fired bullets?

5.2 How is the examination of fired bullets documented?

5.3 What instrumentation is used for the microscopic examination of fired

bullets?

Page 11 of 15
5.4 Is the examination you conduct a subjective or objective examination?

5.5 Can you think of a recent instance when you examined a projectile(s) that
was/were exposed to blood?

5.5.1 [If yes]

a. Was the projectile received from a crime scene or autopsy?

Page 12 of 15
 b. List the bullet profile?

c. Was the projectile of any value for value for comparison purposes?

d. Were any linkages made to other projectiles?

e. What chemical or reagent was used to clean the projectile?

f. List the metal composition(s) and design of the projectile?

5.5.2 Is a second qualified examiner used to verify microscopic findings verified

by another qualified examiner?

Page 13 of 15
5.6 Did you ever document in your work notes that the reason why you
couldn’t make identification to a firearm or other projectiles was due to the
projectile(s) being exposed to blood?

5.7 How do you ensure continuity within the laboratory?

5.8 How do you report your microscopic findings?

Page l4of 15
5.9 What is the impact of your microscopic findings in the criminal investigation?

5.10 hat chemicals and/or reagents are being used within your section to clean
projectiles covered in blood?

5.11 Does chemical reagents have a reaction on bullets in the cleaning

process?

Closing comments
The interviewee is assured complete anonymity and confidentiality.

Page 15 of 15
 c~ Ontario co~v Request/Authorization for Staff Development
Nomination closing(d/m/y)
1. Employee data Policy reference Manual ofAdministration, Volume 2, Section 12
-

Surname Given names

Arendse Wayne
Position title Classification title
Assistant Section Head PGS 20
Employee category Work telephone number Fax number
El Executive ~ Management El Bargaining unit Excluded El Unclassified ( 416 ) 3143230 ( 416 ) 2124748
~ Ministry/Agency Branch/Section
Community Safety and Correctional Services Centre of Forensic Sciences
Mailing address
25 Grosvenor Street
• Floor/Room number City Postal code
6th floor Toronto M7A 2G8
Do you require special access to fully participate in this program? Please specify.
No
2. Course data
Course title Course code
M-Tech: Forensic Investigation F I 0 R 5 I 0
Course location Project code
South Africa Correspondence
-
I
From Course date To Prerequisite skills required
D M V D M V
15 04 I 2006 I 15 I 10 I 2008 El Yes No
Course type
~ Manager/Supervisor i:~ Technical/Professional El Interpersonal/Personal ~j Secretarial/Clerical LI Other
Source Of program
External: Fl
University CAAT Professional Internal: Ministry MBS Other
Name and address of organization delivering course, if other than Ministry or MBS
Centre For Leadership and Learning
3. Type of assistance (Required for annual staff development report. Complete if requried by Ministry procedure.)
Type of organizational support under PSA Reg. 881
23 El Duty assignment 24 El Credits/Paid leave 25 El Repayable sward 26 El Leave without pay 27 El Exams - Leave with pay 28 El Resignation credits held 30 El Tuition
Approval Explanation of assistance
Type of Assistance
$ Amount % per cent A = 2007/2008 registration
E Editing will now be required for the dissertation Noted in -
A. Registration/Tuition $540.00
previous request.
B. Books 100.00
Special payment terms and details
C. Travel

D. Accommodation

E. Other (specify) 320.00

Total approved Documents attached
$ 960.00 El Tuition fee receipt El Conference/Seminar
registration El Exam results
transcript El Proof of
course completion
ri
i__i
Other

Recotttiiiettded by Date (d/m/y)

4. Signatures -I
16/05/06
A t~iz~~) ~,__~~~(i71 Staff Dev~ropment Official Cost centre Ministry Nomination Priority No.
El ~
5. For use by F,panc~p
~

6. For use by Management Board Secretariat (when applicable)

Acknowledgement sent Date (d/m/y)
~
~ Accepted El Course El Not eligible
Course Coordinator Date entered

- 7540-1383 (Rev.02195) SUGGESTED COPY DISTRIBUTiON: Part I and Pert 2 - Ministry staff Development Secfon for Signature Upon approval. Pert 1 Will be
cent tn the Human Renn,ircea Senretaries if the HRS is the source of the trainina.
Part 3 - Branch Region or District File.
Part 4- Nominne.
 Ontario RequestlAuthorization for Staff Development
Nomination closing(d/m/y)
1. Employee data Policy reference Manual of Administration, Volume 2, Section 12
-

Surname Given names

Arendse Wayne
Position title Classification title
Assistant Section Head TSS-18
Employee category Work telephone number Fax number
~ Executive ~ Management fl Bargaining unit Excluded Unclassified ( 416 ) 3143230 ( 416 ) 2124748
Ministry/Agency Branch/Section
Community Safety & Correctional Services Centre of Forensic Sciences
Mailing address
25 Grosvenor Street
Floor/Room number City Postal code
6th floor Toronto M7A 2G8
Do you require special access to fully participate in this program? Please specify.
Complete four subjects on a masters level within this program
2. Course data
Course title Course code
MTech: Forensic Investigation F 0 R j 5 0
Course location Project code
South Africa -- i~~4 ;1~—’~e C~r-r-ec~~pc-r-c\encf I
From Course date To Prerequisite skills required
D M Y D M Y
15 I 04 06 I 15 11 I 06 Yes No
Course type
Li Manager/Supervisor ~ Technical/Professional ~ Interpersonal/Personal ~ Secretarial/Clerical Other
Source of program
External: [1
University CAAT Li Professional Li Internal: Ministry Li MBS Li Other
Name and address of organization delivering course, if other than Ministry or MBS
University of South Africa, Preller Street, Muckleneuk Pretoria, South Africa
3. Type of assistance (Required for annual staff development report. Complete if requried by Ministry procedure.)
Type of organizational support under PSA Reg. 881
2i Duty assignment ?4 Li CreditslPaid leave 25 Li Repayable award 28 Li Leave without pay 27 Li Exams - Leave with pay 28 Li Resignation credits held 30 Li Tuition
Approval Explanation of assistance
Type of Assistance
$ Amount % per cent B prescribed book
=

E =Correspondence-mailing/receiving assigmuents
A. Registration/Tuition $350.00 *
Editing will be required next fiscal therefore the amount will
B. Books 80.00 not be included in this request.
Special payment terms and details
C. Travel

D. Accommodation

E. Other (specify) 200.00

Total approved Documents attached
Conference/Seminar ~xam results
$ 630~9.~ / Li Tuition fee receipt Li Li Li ~~mpletion Li Other

Em~We / 7 ~ Recommended by Date (d/m/y)

gnatLf~ (~J i~~4:? /,~e~’-e-----’
Ministry ~taff Development Official Cost centre
21/02/06
Ministry Nomination Priority No.
9-i~t~~V ~: j
5. For use

6. For use by Management Board Secretariat (when applicable)

Acknowledgement sent Date (d/m/y)
Li Accepted Li Course Li Not eligible
Course Coordinator Date entered

7540-1 383 (Rev.02195) SUGGESTED COPY DtSTRIBUTION: Part 1 and Part 2-Ministry Staff Development Section for Signature Upon approval. Part 1 wilt be Part 3-Branch, Region or District File.
sent to the Human Resources Secretaries if the HRS is the source of the training. Part 4- Nominne.