SPLM#1

CE 224 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING (Lec)

Topic #1

“General Properties of Materials and Aggregates”

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the chapters the students should be able to:

1. Identify relevant properties of common construction materials.

2. Understand applicable local, international and foreign standards on materials and materials
testing

3. Perform measuring, testing and evaluating the results.

Construction Materials & Testing

Chapter I – Introduction to Construction Materials & Testing

The construction of a structure requires a thorough understanding of fabrication, application,

field testing, and properties of materials. Thus, a thorough knowledge of properties and performance
of materials and construction practices are required to develop, design, and build a safe, economical,
and durable structure.

An introductory course on materials of construction or civil engineering is commonly set on the

following aspects:

➢ Physical, mechanical, and other important properties of materials

➢ Fabrication or method of manufacture
➢ Durability and long-term performance
➢ Specifications and standards
➢ Application or methods of use
➢ Laboratory testing procedure
➢ Material testing procedures history

Civil engineering embodies professionals who design, construct, maintain, inspect and manage
public works projects. Such projects include characteristically diverse groups of facilities such as:

❑ railroads
❑ high-rise office buildings
❑ And sewage treatment centers

1
The construction maybe

➢ Underground or above ground;

➢ Offshore or inland;
➢ Over-mile deep valleys or flat terrains;
➢ And through rocky mountains or clayey soils.

Civil Engineering Profession

The profession of civil engineering is of fairly recent origin [the American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE), the oldest national engineering society in the United States, was founded in
1852], civil engineering works is as old as humankind. The most ambitious and historically significant
projects throughout the history of civilization were built to satisfy human needs for

✓ Transportation;
✓ Water;
✓ Shelter;
✓ and disaster control.

Historical Rulers on Civil Engg Const.

1. Babylonian dynasty of King Hammurabi (about 1800 B.C), initiated sweeping brooms and
construction programs documented in historical manuscripts;
2. King in Assyria, 700 B.C., who was called a great engineer-king, built a dam across the river
Tebitu, and from the reservoir thus created, constructed many canals. The canal walls were
built from cubes of stone and the floor had a layer of concrete or mortar under the top course
of stone to prevent leakage.
3. All Mesopotamian cities found that time were paved with slabs of stone and brick;
4. The first Emperor of Chinese dynasty in China (259-210 B.C.) started the building of the Great
Wall of China for protection from the Huns.
5. The Great Roman Emperor Constantine I, after his conversion to Christianity, built the city of
Constantinoples and dedicated it as his capital (A.D. 330).
6. Sumerians (around 3000B.C.), built houses with mud bricks joined by locally available
bitumen.
7. Mesopotamians built mud-brick huts without windows which keep out the sizzling heat of the
summer sun.
8. People in Sri Lanka, had houses made of wooden frames and removable reed mat this type of
house being cheap and practical, is still being built.
9. At Harappa, along the rich alluvial banks of the Indus River (Indian/Pakistan), there remains
two large and expertly constructed cities (3000-1500B.C.), the cities were planned around a
central citadel and constructed of good-quality burned brick.
10. Eastern Chou dynasty in China (770-250B.C.), a number of cities were built, usually
rectangular or square on a north-south axis and they had double walls with a moat.

2
 11. The Assyrians, Mesopotamia, 1100-750 B. C., knew how to construct buildings that would not
be destroyed by fire. Their buildings were made of stone, so that the fire burned off on roof
only.
12. In Babylon (King Nabopolassar, 600 B.C.) city walls were built using two walls, one outer and
one inner and filling the space between them with rubble generally up to ground level.
13. The Ishtar Gate of Babylon (King Nebuchadrezzar, around 550 B.C.), was finished with
enameled bricks, blue on the towers and green and pink on the connecting walls. The roads
were paved with massive stone blocks set in asphalt.
14. The post-and-beam framing in timber owes its development to the Greeks.

The brief historical perspective of civil engineering construction shows that the materials of
construction were, for the most part, of native origin and satisfied environmental compatibility. Thus,
this statement applies to most basic materials used in today’s civil engineering structures, but not for
all.

Responsible for the introduction of materials to the construction market

❖ Advances in engg techniques;

❖ Resource constraints;
❖ Cost-cutting measures.

Engineering Materials

The basic materials used in civil engineering applications or in construction are:

➢ Wood
➢ Concrete
➢ Bitumen (an asphalt of Asia Minor used in ancient times as a cement and mortar)
➢ Structural clay and concrete units
➢ Reinforcing and structural steel

These materials are sometimes called as Structural Materials.

Addition:

➢ Plastics
➢ Soils
➢ Aluminum

Used in civil engineering structures:

❑ Dams
❑ Bridges
❑ Roads
❑ Foundations
❑ Liquid-retaining structures
3
 ❑ Waterfront structures
❑ Buildings
❑ Retaining walls

Highway materials:

❖ Soils
❖ Aggregates
❖ Bituminous binder
❖ Lime cement

Wood – derived from trees and can be used directly as pieces of lumber obtained from the log or as a
raw material in the manufacture of various wood products.

✓ plywood
✓ Timber
✓ Oriented strand board

Concrete:

➢ is a basic construction material made with portland cement as a primary ingredient.

Portland cement (and other types of cement) – are also used in the manufacture of
many other construction materials).

*is used in combination with other distinctly different materials to produce concrete such
as
➢ Reinforcing steel bars
➢ Polypropylene fibers
➢ High strength wires

Bitumen (comes in variety of forms) – is combined with other raw materials in the construction of:
▪ Pavements;
▪ Roof shingles;
▪ Water proofing compounds.

Structural clay and concrete units (commonly called bricks and blocks) – are the principal elements
in the construction of masonry walls.

Structural steel – is used in many forms and shapes for the construction of railroad ties, high-rise
buildings, roof trusses, and many more.

The basic materials are selected for the following:

❖ Properties;
❖ Performance;
❖ Availability;
❖ Aesthetics;
4
 ❖ Cost.

Note: Knowledge of these aspects is essential in selecting a suitable material for a particular
situation.

Secondary materials of construction or the nonstructural materials:

▪ Sealants;
▪ Adhesives;
▪ Floor and wall coverings;
▪ Fasteners;
▪ Doors and windows.

These materials are selected on quality guidelines and aesthetic considerations.

Properties of Engineering Materials

Materials for highway bridge should have adequate strength, rough surface, and sufficient
rigidity.

Water-retaining structure can be built using materials that are impermeable, crack-free, strong,
and do not react with water.

Road surface can be built using materials that show little movement under load, are water
resistant, and are easy to repair.

Properties of materials are grouped under three major headings:

1. Physical properties
2. Mechanical properties
3. Chemical properties

Physical properties – are those derived from properties of matter or physical structure. They
include density, porosity or voids, moisture content, specific gravity, permeability, and structure (micro
or macro).

In addition:
➢ Texture;
➢ color; and;
➢ Shape

The physical properties are helpful in evaluating a material in terms of appearance, weight,
permeability, and water retention.

Mechanical Properties

▪ Measure the resistance of a material to applied loads or forces.

▪ Some reflect the strength of the material, whereas others measure the deformation capacity or
stiffness.
▪ Includes strength, deformation, brittleness, plasticity and ductility.
5
Strength – is a measure of the maximum load per unit area, and can be in tension, compression,
shear, flexure, torsion, or impact.

The deformation capacity or stiffness is measured in terms of elastic modulus. A knowledge of

both the strength and deformation capacity of materials is absolutely essential in the selection of a
construction material. A high-strength material need not possess a high deformation capacity or
stiffness.

Chemical properties

Are those pertaining to the composition and potential reaction of a material. The compounds of
composition, such as oxides and carbonates, describe the chemical nature of the material. They
explain the material behaves in a certain environment.

Other chemical properties:

▪ Acidity
▪ Alkalinity
▪ Resistance to corrosion

Addition to Properties of Eng’g Materials

➢ Thermal;
➢ Electrical;
➢ Magnetic;
➢ Acoustical and;
➢ Optical, are also important in civil engg.

Thermal properties – represent the behavior of a material under heat or temperature.

Acoustical properties – sound transmission and sound reflection that should provide sound resistance
and act as sound barriers.

Optical properties – such as color, light transmission, and light reflection are essential in determining
the energy consumption capacity of a material.

Electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability – are needed in materials used in electrical works.

The goal of engineering design

“To select the best material for a particular job.”

Loads and stresses

When a solid body is subjected to external forces, called loads, the body is deformed and
internal forces are produced. The internal forces which act between consecutive particles, called
stresses, are proportional to the external loads. Ex. A rubber band.

6
 The change in length immediately following the application of a unidirectional force is called
deformation or (linear deformation).

The deformation per unit length is called strain.

Strain is thus a ratio between the change in length and the length along which the change is
measured, called gage length. It is usually expressed as inches per inch of length.

Strain, e’ = e/l ; where e is the change in length over a length l.

Stress measures the force acting on a unit area of an imaginary section through the body-are
proportional to the external loads.

Force acting along the axis of the member causes axial stress or direct stress. When the axial
force is in tension, the resulting stress is a tensile stress, and when it is in compression, the
corresponding stress is compressive stress.

Shearing stress is produced by forces that tend to slide one particle upon another, and it acts
along or parallel to the cross-sectional plane. Bending stress (or normal stress or flexural stress) is
produced by external forces that create bending moment.

Strain

Deformation

▪ The change in linear dimension;

▪ Used to indicate the change in form of a body and may be the result of more than one cause –
like; thermal change, moisture loss, and applied loads.

Shear deformation – is the change in length measured parallel to the direction of the shear forces.

The ratio of lateral (perpendicular to the axial direction) to axial strains (when loaded along the
axis) is called Poisson’s ratio (named after the person who defined it in 1811).

Most materials of construction have a Poisson ratio in the range 0.15 to 0.40.

▪ Glass – 0.24
▪ Steel – 0.28

Granite – 0.25 (a very hard natural igneous rock formation of visibly crystalline texture formed
essentially of quartz and orthoclase or microcline and used esp. for building and for monuments).

Concrete – lies between 0.1 and 0.18 depending on the mix proportions. Increase in cement
content increases Poisson’s ratio.

Cement mortar – 0.16

Volumetric deformation – the change in the volume of a material.

Volumetric strain – the ratio between the change in volume and initial volume.
7
 Change in volume = l x b x d (1-2pᵣ)e’
where; l, b and d are dimensions of the members. pᵣ is Poisson's ratio, and e’ is the axial
strain.
Volumetric strain = (1-2pᵣ)e’

Stiffness

Is a measure of the relative deformability of a material under load.

“A material that develops a high level of strain under a given stress is less stiff than is a
material that has less strain when subjected to the same stress.”
Steel is stiffer than cast iron, which is stiffer than concrete.
Elasticity – is that property of a material that enables it to change its length, volume, or form in
direct response to the force applied, and to recover its original size or form when the load is
completely removed.
Steel and rubber – endure a large amount of strain or deformation and still return to their
original form.
Concrete (in compression) – is an example of a material that will recover its original size only
when the applied stress is low.
Elastic limit – is the maximum stress below which a material will fully recover its original form
on the removal of the applied forces.
- the greatest stress that can be applied without causing a permanent
deformation.
- is approximated as the proportional limit or yield point of a material.
Brick and stone – elastic limit is low.
Most metals – elastic limit is high.
Proportional limit – is the maximum stress below which the ratio between stress and strain is
constant.
Note: Most materials exhibit the same elasticity in compression and tension.

Yielding point – is the first unit stress at which deformation continues without an increase in
load.
For most materials- the yield point is higher than the elastic limit and the proportional limit.
In steel the difference is 5 to 15%.
Set or permanent set – strain or deformation remaining in a previously stressed material after it
is unloaded.
The stress at which upon removal of the load, the material displays a specified amount of
offset is the yield strength of the material
Modulus of elasticity (elastic modulus and coefficient of elasticity) – the ratio of stress to
corresponding strain below the proportional limit.
- this also refers to the stiffness in the elastic range and is generally using the letter E.

Three moduli of elasticity:

❑ Modulus in Tension
❑ Modulus Compression
❑ Modulus Shear
8
 Modulus of elasticity in tension, or compression is also called Young’s modulus (named after
Thomas Young, who derived it).
The modulus of elasticity of all grades of steel is about 29 x 10ᶝ psi and that of structural aluminum
is 10.5 x 10ᶝ psi.
The modulus of elasticity of most construction materials (e. g. concrete, wood, and cast iron) is not
constant.
The modulus of elasticity in tension or compression. Young’s modulus
E = f/e’
Where f is the stress and e’ is the strain.
The slope of a line drawn tangent to the stress-strain curve at the origin is the initial tangent
modulus.
When the modulus is measured as the slope of a tangent drawn at specified stress fs, it is
called a tangent modulus of at stress fs.
Secant modulus – is the slope of a line connecting two points on the stress-strain curve.
Modulus of elasticity in shear – the ratio between shear stress and shear strain.
Shear modulus, Es = E/2(1+pᵣ)
where pᵣ is Poisson’s ratio.
Ultimate Strength – is the maximum stress that can be applied to a material before it fractures.
It is the highest point in the stress-strain curve.

Ductile and Brittle Materials

Plasticity – is the property of a material that enables it to retain permanent set or deformation
without fracture (e.g. plastic clay)
- is important in forming, shaping, and extruding procedures.
- shows a characteristic of a material that is important in predicting the type of failure in
the material.

Construction Materials are divided into two classes

➢ Plastic or ductile materials
➢ Brittle materials
Ductile material – is capable of undergoing a high level of plastic deformation before failure.
Ductility – is a property that allows the material to undergo change of form without breaking.

Examples:

Wrought iron
❖ Steel
❖ Copper ore

Toughness – represents the ability of material to support loads even after yielding or forming
cracks.
Brittle materials – have little or no plasticity or show little deformation beyond the plastic
limit…failure is sudden and catastrophic.
Brittleness – express breakage with a comparatively smooth fracture (e.g. peanut brittle).

9
Some brittle materials:
✓ Cast iron
✓ Granite
✓ Brick
✓ Concrete
✓ Glass

These materials at failure, crush or crumble with very little warning.

When subjected to compressive forces, ductile materials simply spread and increase in area
under an increasing load.
Brittle materials fail by shearing on certain angles. The rupture in brittle materials can be along
a diagonal plane, or can be cone shaped, or pyramid shapes.
Cylindrical specimens generally fail along a diagonal plane (e.g. cast iron) or as a pyramid
with splitting above (e.g. concrete).

Selection of Materials

All primary materials of construction (i. e. structural materials) have to perform the following
functions:

➢ Carry the prescribed load;

➢ Satisfy serviceability requirements;
➢ Be aesthetically pleasing;
➢ Be practical economically;
➢ Be environmentally acceptable

Standards

To guarantee satisfactory performance from any material, all materials should satisfy a
minimum of quality and product standards. The methods of application of these materials should
followed standard procedures.
To bring in more uniformity in materials, methods of production, application, inspection, and
testing, many organizations have developed standards for materials, testing, and inspection.
Over the years these guidelines have gone through a number of revisions and updated, to
these materials standards, there exist specifications for application of various materials.
Standards represent efforts by organizations – private, government, or voluntary – to agree on
a common procedure of goal.
In the United States there are thousands of standards developed by various groups and
recognized by many user agencies. Some prominent organizations that are involved in the
development of product and use standards for some common materials:

1. American National Standards Institutes (ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018),
2. National Forest Products Association (NFPA, 1619 Massachusetts Avenue N. W.,
Washington, DC 20036),
3. Portland Cement Association (PCA, Old Orchard Road, Skokie, IL 60076),
4. American Concrete Institute (ACI, P.O. Box 19150, Redford Station, Detroit, MI 48219),
10
 5. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC, 400 N Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL
60611),
6. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI, 1000 16th Street, N. W., Washington, DC 20036),
7. Brick Institute of America (BIA, 1750 Old Meadow Road, McLean, VA 22102).
8. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA
19103, established 1898)

Most local country and city agencies, state agencies, defense organizations, and private users
groups have developed independent standards and specifications.
The ASTM is of great importance to anyone interested in the use and testing of materials.
The material standards include definitions, formulation of materials specifications, and
recommendations on construction practices. The testing standards show the development and
description of testing procedures.

11