Predicate Logic

Introduction
• Statements involving variables are
common in natural languages and
mathematics:
– x > 50
– Book y is sold out.
– Author z has just published his new
book with the title y.
• Not propositions → neither T or F if the
variables are not specified.
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 Introduction
• 2 parts in the previous statements:
x is greater than 10.

Subject Predicate (refers to a property that

the subject may have)

3
 Introduction
• 2 parts in the previous statements:
x is greater than 10.

Subject Predicate (refers to a property that

the subject may have)

The statement can be denoted by a

propositional function, P(x).
>> P : the predicate “greater than 10”
>> x : the variable, x 4
 Example
• If P(x) denotes “x is a positive number”
and Q(y,z) denotes “y+z=10”
• P(500) is true
• P(-20) is false
• Q(0,10) is true
• Q(3,5) is false

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 Quantifiers
• Quantification : to create a proposition
from a propositional function.
• In English, the words all, some, many,
none, and few are used in
quantification.
• We focus on 2 types of quantification:
universal and existential quantification.

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 Universal Quantification
• assert that a property is true for all
values of a variable in the domain of
discourse.
– i.e. P(x) is true for all values of x in this
domain.
• The domain must always be specified
when a universal quantifier is used,
since a change of domain may lead to
change of truth value or unverifiable.
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 Universal Quantification
• The universal quantification of P(x) is
the statement:
“P (x) for all values of x in the domain.”
• Notation:
∀x P(x)
• ∀ is universal quantifier. Read as “for
all”, “for every”, “for each”, ...

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 Example
• Let P(x) be the statement “x + 1 > x”
for all real numbers x. Is ∀xP(x) true?

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 Example
• Let P(x) be the statement “x + 1 > x”
for all real numbers x. Is ∀xP(x) true?

• P(x) is true for all real numbers x, so

the quantification ∀xP(x) is true

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 Example
• Let Q(x) be the statement “x < 2”
where the domain consists of all real
numbers. Is ∀xQ(x) true?

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 Example
• Let Q(x) be the statement “x < 2”
where the domain consists of all real
numbers. Is ∀xQ(x) true?

• The quantification ∀xQ(x) is false since

it is not true if x is a real number 2 or
greater.

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 Counterexample
• We can assert a universal quantification
is false by providing a counterexample
• Counterexample of ∀xP(x) : An element
for which P(x) is false.
• Note: Never assert a universal
quantification as true by providing an
example!

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 Example
• If the domain of discourse is all real
numbers, is ∀x, x2 ≥ x true?

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 Example
• If the domain of discourse is all real
numbers, is ∀x, x2 ≥ x true?

• False.
• Because if x = ½ ,
x2 = (½)2 = ¼ ≥ ½ is false

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 Existential Quantification
• Proposition that is true if and only if
P(x) is true for at least one value of x
in the domain.
• The existential quantification of P(x) is
the proposition:
“There exists an element x in the
domain such that P(x).”
• Notation : ∃xP(x)

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 Existential Quantification
• ∃ is called the existential quantifier, read
as “there exists,” “for some,” “for at least
one,” or “there is.”
• ∃xP(x) is read as:
“There is an x such that P(x),”
“There is at least one x such that P(x),”
or
“For some xP(x).”
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 Example
• Let Q(x) be the statement “x < 2” and x
is a real number.

• As discussed earlier, the quantification

∀xQ(x) is false.
• But, the quantification ∃xQ(x) is true,
since there is an x, say 1.9 is less than
2.
Q(1.9) is 1.9<2 is true.
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 Example
• Let P(x) be the statement “x + 1 = x”
for all real numbers x. Is ∃xP(x) true?

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 Example
• Let P(x) be the statement “x + 1 = x”
for all real numbers x. Is ∃xP(x) true?

• Because P(x) is false for every real

number x, ∃xP(x) is false.

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 Example
• Let R(x) be the statement “x/2 = x” for
all real numbers x. Is ∃xR(x) true?

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 Example
• Let R(x) be the statement “x/2 = x” for
all real numbers x. Is ∃xR(x) true?

• R(x) seems like false for many real

number x, but since 0/2 = 0, ∃xR(x) is
true.

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 Domains of Quantifiers
• The domains of quantifiers can be
expressed in mathematical form.
• Example:
– ∀x∊ℝ, P(x)
∀x∊ℝ, x+1>x
∃x∊ℝ (x/2 = x)

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 Precedence of Quantifiers
• Precedence of ∀ and ∃ is higher than
NOT, AND, and OR.
• Example:
∀xP(x) /\ Q(x)
means:
( ∀xP(x) ) /\ Q(x)
not:
∀x ( P(x) /\ Q(x) )
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 Examples of Quantified
Statements
• “If x likes BLACKPINK then he likes K-Pop”
•
• Proposition?

• “For all people it holds that if the person likes

BLACKPINK then she likes K-Pop”
•
• Proposition?

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 Examples of Quantified
Statements
• “If x likes BLACKPINK then he likes K-Pop”
• B(x) → K(x)
• Proposition? No

• “For all people it holds that if the person likes

BLACKPINK then she likes K-Pop”
• ∀x(B(x) → K(x))
• Proposition? Yes

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 Examples of Quantified
Statements
• “x is your classmate who has founded
Microsoft”
•
• Proposition?

• “There is a person who is your classmate

and the founder of Microsoft”
•
• Proposition?
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 Examples of Quantified
Statements
• “x is your classmate who has founded
Microsoft”
• C(x) /\ M(x)
• Proposition? No

• “There is a person who is your classmate

and the founder of Microsoft”
• ∃x ( C(x) /\ M(x) )
• Proposition? Yes
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 Examples of Quantified
Statements
• “Every student with a smartphone uses
social media.”
• ∀xS(x) ???
• Only if the domain of discourse is fixed
- “students with smartphones”
• What if the domain of discourse is “all
students”?

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 Examples of Quantified
Statements
• “Every student with a smartphone uses
social media.”
• Rephrase:
“If a student x has a smartphone, x
uses social media”
– S(x) : Student x has a smartphone
– M(x) : x uses social media
– ∀x ( S(x) → M(x) )
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 Quantified Statements
Universal statements typically tie with implications
All S(x) is P(x): No S(x) is P(x):
∀x (S(x) → P(x)) ∀x (S(x) → ~P(x))

Existential statements typically tie with conjunctions

Some S(x) is P(x): Some S(x) is not P(x):
∃x (S(x) /\ P(x)) ∃x (S(x) /\ ~P(x))

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 Negation of Quantified
Expressions
Consider P(x) as “x likes ice cream”
Everyone likes ice cream ∀xP(x)

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 Negation of Quantified
Expressions
Consider P(x) as “x likes ice cream”
Everyone likes ice cream ∀xP(x)
Negation
It is not the case that everyone ¬∀xP(x)
likes ice cream

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 Negation of Quantified
Expressions
Consider P(x) as “x likes ice cream”
Everyone likes ice cream ∀xP(x)
Negation
It is not the case that everyone ¬∀xP(x)
likes ice cream

There is at least a person that ∃x ¬P(x)

do not like ice cream

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 Negation of Quantified
Expressions
Consider P(x) as “x likes ice cream”
Everyone likes ice cream ∀xP(x)
Negation
It is not the case that everyone ¬∀xP(x)
likes ice cream

There is at least a person that ∃x ¬P(x)

do not like ice cream

¬∀xP (x) ≡ ∃x ¬P (x) 37

 Negation of Quantified
Expressions
Consider P(x) as “x is a honest politician”
There is at least one honest politician ∃xP(x)

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 Negation of Quantified
Expressions
Consider P(x) as “x is a honest politician”
There is at least one honest politician ∃xP(x)
Negation
It is not the case that there is a ¬∃xP(x)
honest politician

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 Negation of Quantified
Expressions
Consider P(x) as “x is a honest politician”
There is at least one honest politician ∃xP(x)
Negation
It is not the case that there is a ¬∃xP(x)
honest politician

All the politicians are not honest ∀x ¬P(x)

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 Negation of Quantified
Expressions
Consider P(x) as “x is a honest politician”
There is at least one honest politician ∃xP(x)
Negation
It is not the case that there is a ¬∃xP(x)
honest politician

All the politicians are not honest ∀x ¬P(x)

¬∃xP (x) ≡ ∀x ¬P (x) 41

De Morgan’s Laws for
Quantifiers

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 Example
• What is the negation of “All Malaysians
like teh tarik”?
∀xP(x)

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 Example
• What is the negation of “All Malaysians
like teh tarik”?
∀xP(x)

• ¬∀xP(x) : It is not the case that all

Malaysians like teh tarik
• ∃x ¬P(x) : At least one Malaysians do
not like teh tarik
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 Example
• What is the negation of ∃x(x2 = 2)?

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 Example
• What is the negation of ∃x(x2 = 2)?

• The negation: ¬∃x(x2 = 2)

• Or : ∀x ¬(x2 = 2)
or ∀x (x2 ≠ 2)

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 Example
• Show that ¬∀x(P (x) → Q(x)) is
equivalent to ∃x (P(x) /\ ¬Q(x)).

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 Example
• Show that ¬∀x(P (x) → Q(x)) is
equivalent to ∃x (P(x) /\ ¬Q(x)).

¬∀x(P(x) → Q(x))
= ∃x ¬(P(x) → Q(x))
= ∃x ¬(¬P(x) V Q(x))
= ∃x (P(x) /\ ¬Q(x))
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 Nested Quantifiers
• In many cases we have more than one
variables
• Require more than 1 quantifiers
• Examples:
– P(x,y) : Every author wrotes some
books
– Q(x,y) : f(x) = y

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 Example
• “Every author wrotes some books”

• Translate:
• “For every author x, each author wrote
his book y”
• ∀x∃y W(x,y)

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 Example
• “There is a number x that returns y
when we multiply x with y.”
• ∃x∀y M(x,y)

** There is only 1 possible value for x, i.e. 1

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 Order of quantifiers
• The order of quantifiers is important if
the quantifiers are of different types
∃x∀y M(x,y) ≠ ∀y∃x M(x,y)
• But,
∀x∀y M(x,y) is equal to ∀y∀x M(x,y)

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 Rule of inferences
(Quantified Statements)
• Universal instantiation: If a universal
quantification is true, ∀xP(x),
preposition for an instance in the
domain, c, written as P(c) is also true.
∀xP(x) → P(c)
• But, if ∀xP(x) is false, it doesn’t means
P(c) is false.

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 Rule of inferences
(Quantified Statements)
• Universal generalization: If we find
P(c) is true for an element c in the
domain, then further investigations find
that it is also true for all the other c in
the domain:
P(c) for every c in domain → ∀xP(x)

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 Rule of inferences
(Quantified Statements)
• Existential instantiation: If the
existential quantification ∃xP(x) is true,
then there is an element c in the
domain so that P(c) is true.
∃xP(x) → P(c) for some c
• But, it doesn’t means that P(c) holds
true for an arbitrary c.

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 Rule of inferences
(Quantified Statements)
• Existential generalization: If c, an
element in the domain let P(c) holds
true, the existential quantification is
true, ∃xP(x).
P(c) → ∃xP(x)

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 Example
• Let:
» D(x) : “x likes durian”
» U(x) : “x is a UM student”
• And given that the premises are
» ∀x(D(x) → U(x))
» D(Mutu)
• Find the conclusion “Mutu is a UM
student”
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 Example (cont’)
• Let:
» D(x) : “x likes durian”
» U(x) : “x is a UM student”

• ∀x(D(x) → U(x)) (1) Premise

• D(Mutu) (2) Premise
• D(Mutu) → U(Mutu) (3) Universal instantiation from (1)
• U(Mutu) (4) Modus Ponens from (3), (2)

Therefore, we conclude that U(Mutu),

i.e. : Mutu is a UM student
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 Example 2
• Given that
» ∀x(M(x) → P(x)) (1) premise
» ∃x (M(x) /\ C(x)) (2) premise
• Derive the conclusion ∃x (P(x) /\ C(x))

• M(k) /\ C(k) (3) Existantial instantiation from (2)

• M(k) (4) From (3)
• M(k) → P(k) (5) Universal instantiation from (1), (3)
• P(k) (6) From (4), (5)
• C(k) (7) From (3)
• P(k) /\ C(k) (8) From (6), (7)
• ∃x (P(x) /\ C(x)) Existantial generalization from (8) 62