DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
Doornfontein Campus
Design of hydraulic excavator arm
by A. Z. Gojo Student No: 200665952
Supervisor(s): Names
Subject: Subject code
Date: Date of submission
i
DECLARATION
I (We) swear that this is the original work of the author(s). All information obtained directly or indirectly from
other sources has been fully acknowledged. Furthermore, it represents my (our) own opinions and not necessarily
those of the University of Johannesburg.
Signed Date
ABSTRACT
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ....................................................................................................ii
ABSTRACT ..........................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES ..............................................................................................vi
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................vi
LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................vii
1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND .......................................................8
1.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 8
1.2.2 Background ................................................................................................................................ 9
2. LITERATURE RIVIEW ...........................................................................11
3. REFERENCES .........................................................................................16
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Hydraulic excavator (Haga, m., et al, 2001) .......................................................................... 9
Figure 2 Knuckle boom crane. ........................................................................................................... 11
Figure 3 Hydraulic crane .................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 4 Demolition Excavator .......................................................................................................... 13
Figure 5 Type 2 skid steer loader. ...................................................................................................... 14
Figure 6 Hydraulic forklift. ................................................................................................................ 15
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS
All symbols and unfamiliar abbreviations which are used in the text must be clearly defined
and explained in this section. The order in which the symbols are listed is usually:
• English letters and symbols
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1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1.2.1 Introduction
An excavator, in essence, can be described as a mobile machine with an upper structure that
possesses the capability for continuous rotation. Its primary functions involve digging,
elevating, swinging, and depositing materials through the orchestrated movements of the boom,
arm, or telescoping boom along with the bucket. These excavators are typically categorized
based on their travel train, which includes crawler-type or wheeled excavators, and their
operation weight, with variations such as mini excavators, mid-range excavators, and heavy-
duty excavators.
The hydraulic pump is a pivotal component, harnessing torque generated by the internal
combustion engine to produce high-pressure hydraulic flow. This hydraulic system facilitates
essential actions like traveling, swinging, and excavating. Traveling is executed through two
hydraulic motors, commonly known as travel motors. The upper frame's rotation relative to the
lower frame, or swinging, is facilitated by a hydraulic motor, aptly named the swing motor.
Excavation maneuvers involve the coordinated use of two cylinders for the boom, one for the
arm, and another for the bucket. In the realm of designing an excavator arm, understanding
these fundamental components and their interplay is crucial (Çetin, B., 2007).
The hydraulic excavator arm stands as a critical component in various industrial applications,
fundamentally influencing processes in construction, mining, and demolition. Understanding
the intricate workings of this system is principal to enhancing its efficiency, energy utilization,
and overall performance. Historically, the design of hydraulic excavator arms primarily
employed constant power methods, resulting in energy mismatches between the engine and
pump (Guo Xiang'En., 2004).
Outdated hydraulic excavator arm designs can lead to inefficiencies, increased energy
consumption, and decreased overall performance. Existing alternatives, such as PID-based
control systems, exemplify ongoing efforts to address these challenges and enhance hydraulic
excavator arm functionality (Zhang, J., et al, 2010). A critical examination of these existing
designs forms the foundation for proposing innovative solutions that align with the current state
of the art.
The hydraulic excavator arm, when optimized, emerges as a pivotal component with diverse
applications in construction scenarios. From industrial and civil construction to farmland
transformation and transportation, the excavator arm plays a central role in various projects. Its
multifunctionality enables a range of tasks, including level digging, foundation preparation,
and material handling, thereby underscoring its significance in modern construction endeavors
(Solazzi, L., 2011).
In this project, we embark on designing and implementing an innovative mechanism for
hydraulic excavator arms. Whether through an advanced transportation mechanism or direct
integration onto the excavator arm, the goal is to minimize effort in digging, enhance
performance of the hydraulic arm, and improve the overall system's quality.
1.2.2 Background
Evolution of excavator arm
The design and optimization of hydraulic excavator arms have been subjects of extensive
research over the years. Traditionally, excavator arms were engineered based on structural
strength, often leading to excessive weight and energy consumption. In the early 2010s,
researchers like Bhaveshkumar P. Patel and J. M. Prajapati focused on structural analysis and
weight optimization, employing finite element analysis (FEA) to enhance performance.
Additionally, modifications in material choices, such as Luigi Solazzi's use of aluminum alloy
instead of steel, showcased early attempts at reducing weight while maintaining strength.
In recent years, advancements in control systems and technology have revolutionized excavator
arm designs. Intelligent control systems, as proposed by Zhang et al. in 2010, utilize PID
methods to enhance power matching between the engine and hydraulic pump, significantly
improving energy efficiency. This shift towards intelligent control represents a paradigmatic
change from earlier excavator arms, where energy losses due to mismatched power were
prevalent.
Components of hydraulic arm
Figure 1 Hydraulic excavator (Haga, m., et al, 2001)
The excavator arm, composed of the boom, arm, and bucket, is responsible for executing
precise movements required for digging, lifting, and material handling. Understanding the
functionality and design considerations of the excavator arm is crucial for optimizing
performance and ensuring the longevity of these heavy-duty machines (Patel, B.P. and
Prajapati, J.M., 2011).
Boom:
The boom is the elongated, vertical structure that supports the other components of the
excavator arm. Typically made of high-strength steel or alloy, the boom extends and retracts,
providing vertical movement to the excavator arm. It plays a pivotal role in determining the
machine's reach and digging depth.
Arm:
Connected to the boom, the arm extends horizontally and houses the hydraulic cylinders
responsible for controlling its movement. Like the boom, the arm is constructed from durable
materials such as steel or alloy. It facilitates horizontal reach and precision during excavation
tasks.
Bucket:
Positioned at the end of the arm, the bucket is a critical component designed for various tasks,
including digging, lifting, and material transport. Excavator buckets come in various shapes
and sizes, tailored for specific applications. Materials like high-strength steel or hardened
alloys are commonly used for bucket construction to withstand the abrasive nature of
excavation.
Hydraulic System:
The hydraulic system is the lifeblood of the excavator arm, enabling precise and powerful
movements (Xu, J. and Yoon, H.S., 2016.). It operates based on Pascal's principle, where fluid
pressure remains constant throughout the system. The primary components of the hydraulic
system include:
• Hydraulic Fluid: Hydraulic oil transfers force within the system, ensuring smooth and
efficient operation. The hydraulic fluid's viscosity and temperature resistance are critical
considerations to maintain optimal performance.
• Hydraulic Pump: The pump is responsible for pressurizing the hydraulic fluid. Excavators
commonly use variable displacement pumps, allowing for controlled fluid flow based on
the operational requirements of the excavator arm.
• Hydraulic Cylinders: These are the actuators that convert hydraulic pressure into
mechanical force, driving the movement of the boom, arm, and bucket. The controlled flow
of hydraulic fluid to the cylinders regulates the speed and precision of these movements.
• Control Valves: Valves direct the flow of hydraulic fluid to different cylinders,
determining the direction and speed of the excavator arm's movements. Advanced
excavator arms often incorporate proportional control valves for precise adjustments.
2. LITERATURE RIVIEW
KNUCKLE BOOM CRANE
Figure 2 Knuckle boom crane.
A hydraulic knuckle boom crane is a versatile lifting and handling machine commonly used in
various industries, both onshore and offshore. The crane features a unique articulated boom
that resembles the knuckles of a hand, providing increased flexibility and maneuverability
compared to traditional straight-boom cranes. The hydraulic knuckle boom crane operates
using hydraulic systems, allowing for precise control of the crane's movements. The articulated
arm, or knuckle, is comprised of several interconnected sections, each equipped with hydraulic
cylinders (Adamiec-Wójcik, I., et al, 2019). These cylinders extend and retract, enabling the
crane to articulate and reach different positions. The hydraulic control system is crucial for
accurate and efficient manipulation of the crane's arm.
The knuckle boom crane focuses on versatility, flexibility, and maneuverability, making it
suitable for lifting and handling operations in various industries. In contrast, a hydraulic
excavator arm is designed primarily for digging and earthmoving, emphasizing strength and
digging force. The excavator arm typically lacks the articulated knuckle structure and may have
a more linear design optimized for digging and loading tasks.
Advantages
• Articulated boom allows for exceptional flexibility, reaching challenging positions and
working in confined spaces.
• Highly maneuverable, suitable for operations on vessels with large deck areas and fixed
platforms.
• Hydraulic system enables precise control over movements, enhancing safety and
efficiency.
Disadvantages
• Challenges in precise control due to the nonlinear relationship between joint angles and
controlled actuators, as well as deadband in hydraulic control valves.
• Weight-optimized design may lead to reduced performance and unnecessary fatigue,
particularly when encountering jerky motion caused by stiction in hydraulic cylinders.
HYDRAULIC PORTABLE CRANE
Figure 3 Hydraulic crane
The Hydraulic Portable Crane, cautiously developed for best material handling, works
smoothly using hydraulic principles. This innovative system combines essential parts such as
a truck, hydraulic cylinder, tank, hoses, directional control valve, beam, and hooks. Notably,
it has a strategic connection with hydraulic excavator arms, which increases its adaptability
for a variety of applications, including automotive repairs and manufacture (Tadesse, M. and
Meshesha, T., 2017). The portable crane benefits from increased lifting capabilities and
precise control when integrated with hydraulic excavator arms. The hydraulic system allows
for flawless communication between the crane and the excavator arm, resulting in
coordinated motions and optimal load distribution. Furthermore, the ideas used to improve
the hydraulic excavator arm include the effective transfer of hydraulic pressure throughout
the linked system. This enables the hydraulic excavator arm to achieve greater strength and
maneuverability, essential for heavy-duty tasks.
Advantages:
• Lifts heavy loads with minimal force, optimizing hydraulic principles.
• Designed for easy transportation, enhancing flexibility in material handling.
• Utilizes mild steel (C15 Mn 75) for the frame, ensuring strength and durability.
Disadvantages:
• Addresses the objective of determining overall production costs, indicating potential
financial considerations.
• Acknowledges the inherent risks associated with hydraulic systems, emphasizing safety
measures.
DEMOLITION EXCAVATOR
Figure 4 Demolition Excavator
A demolition excavator, specifically designed for the challenging task of demolishing
structures, features unique components that set it apart from standard excavators. The pivotal
element in this specialized machinery is the 3-piece boom system, which consists of a main
boom, a middle arm, and an end arm. This configuration facilitates greater reach and enhanced
versatility during demolition operations (Çetin, B., 2007). The hydraulic system is a key
differentiator for demolition excavators, especially in the operation of the 3-piece boom. The
hydraulic power is harnessed to control the movement and positioning of each arm. As the
hydraulic fluid flows through the system, it activates cylinders and pistons, allowing for the
synchronized extension and retraction of the boom and arms.
Advantages
• 3-piece boom extends reach, ideal for demolishing taller structures.
• Allows use of specialized tools (cutters, crushers) for more efficient demolition.
• A collapsible boom eases transportation, overcoming standard excavator limitations.
Disadvantages
• Extended boom raises tipping risk, necessitating careful operation.
• Designed for demolition, less versatile for general construction tasks.
SKID-STEER LOADER
Figure 5 Type 2 skid steer loader.
A skid-steer loader is a versatile piece of earth-moving machinery designed to perform various
tasks such as excavation, loading, transportation, drilling, spreading, compacting, and
trenching. Its compact size and maneuverability make it suitable for operation in confined
spaces. The loader mechanism of a skid-steer loader is a critical component, and this thesis
aims to design both Type I (inverted-slider) and Type II (four-bar) mechanisms for the loader.
Skid-steer loaders and hydraulic excavator arms share a commonality in their utilization of
hydraulic systems to control movements. The loader's lift arm, propelled by piston-cylinder
pairs, mirrors the hydraulic excavator arm's functionality. Both machines benefit from
kinematic design principles, involving the selection of mechanisms and optimization through
genetic algorithms.
The loader's motion sequence involves filling the bucket, positioning to prevent spillage, lifting
the load, and efficiently dumping it into a truck. Its fundamental components, including the
lower and upper frame, lift arm, cab, bucket, and piston-cylinder pairs, contribute to its
dynamic performance. The drive system, whether equipped with tracks or wheels, grants skid-
steer loaders unparalleled maneuverability with independent drive systems on each side,
allowing for a zero-turning radius.
Advantages
• Skid-steer loaders excel in confined spaces due to their compact size and zero-turning
capability.
• The ability to use a variety of attachments makes skid-steer loaders versatile for
different tasks.
• Their compact design allows for easy transportation and operation in tight construction
sites.
Disadvantages:
• Skid-steer loaders may have weight limitations compared to larger loaders.
• The choice between tracks and wheels may limit their performance on certain surfaces.
HYDRAULIC FORKLIFT
Figure 6 Hydraulic forklift.
The hydraulic forklift is composed of crucial components that collectively enable its operation.
The main frame, constructed from mild steel plates, serves as the fundamental support
structure. The hydraulic pump unit, a pivotal element, facilitates the effortless lifting of heavy
loads by utilizing non-compressible oil to transfer pressure. Steer wheels, function as the
primary wheels for steering, ensuring efficient movement on rough surfaces while supporting
lifted loads. The push rod, a round long rod made from mild steel bars, connects the load roller
and hydraulic cylinder, transmitting pressure to lift the load (Jadhav, Shubham., 2023).
Similarities between the hydraulic forklift and hydraulic excavator arm lie in their use of
hydraulic fluid, pumps, cylinders, and pressure transfer mechanisms. Both systems rely on the
incompressibility of hydraulic fluid, typically oil, to transmit force and power within the
system.
Elevating the hydraulic excavator arm's performance entails a strategic focus on critical
elements, notably the efficiency of the hydraulic pump. It is imperative to ensure that the
hydraulic pump is designed to deliver ample pressure and flow for proficient digging. The
establishment of a robust pressure transfer mechanism is essential to maintain precise control
over arm and bucket movements during excavation. The selection of durable materials, such
as high-grade steel or alloys, for pivotal components like the arm and bucket, contributes to
long-term reliability. Furthermore, the adaptation of load handling principles from forklifts,
incorporating features like load sensors, enhances material lifting and movement optimization.
Advantages:
• Utilizes non-compressible fluid, eliminating the need for fuel.
• Can reach higher altitudes for loading and unloading.
Disadvantages:
• Limited lifting capacity based on forklift size.
• Manual operation restricts long-distance travel.
3. REFERENCES
1. Guo Xiang'En. (2004). Investigation on energy-saving of excavator. Journal of
Mechanical Transmission, 28(5), 15-17.
2. Çetin, B. (2007). "Design of a Demolition Boom" (Master's thesis, Middle East
Technical University).
3. Zhang, J., Jiao, S., Liao, X., Yin, P., Wang, Y., Si, K., Zhang, Y., & Gu, H. (2010).
Design of intelligent hydraulic excavator control system based on PID method. In
Computer and Computing Technologies in Agriculture III: Third IFIP TC 12
International Conference, CCTA 2009, Beijing, China, October 14-17, 2009, Revised
Selected Papers 3 (pp. 207-215). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
4. Solazzi, L. (2011). Aluminum alloys: A sustainable way to produce hydraulic
components for earthmoving machines. International Journal of Engineering Research
& Technology, 1(4), 1-6.
5. Patel, B.P. and Prajapati, J.M., 2011. A review on FEA and optimization of backhoe
attachment in hydraulic excavator. International Journal of Engineering and
Technology, 3(5), p.505.
6. Xu, J. and Yoon, H.S., 2016. A review on mechanical and hydraulic system modeling
of excavator manipulator system. Journal of construction engineering, 2016.
7. Tadesse, M. and Meshesha, T., 2017. Design and Development of Portable Crane in
Production Workshop: Case Study in Bishoptu Automotive Industry, Ethiopia.
American Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 5(2), pp.41-50.
8. [Link]. (n.d.). Title: Car Jack Hydraulic System: Over 10 Royalty-Free
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9. Pathan, K., Patel, A., Date, D. and Mane, V., DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF
HYDRAULIC JACK.
10. Jadhav, Shubham. (2023). A PROJECT REPORT "HYRAULIC FORK LIFT''.
10.13140/RG.2.2.14106.21443.
11. Adamiec-Wójcik, I., Drąg, Ł., Metelski, M., Nadratowski, K. and Wojciech, S., 2019.
A 3D model for static and dynamic analysis of an offshore knuckle boom crane.
Applied Mathematical Modelling, 66, pp.256-274.
