Chapter 2: Operating-System
Services
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Outline
Operating System Services
User and Operating System-Interface
System Calls
System Services
Linkers and Loaders
Why Applications are Operating System Specific
Design and Implementation
Operating System Structure
Building and Booting an Operating System
Operating System Debugging
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Objectives
Identify services provided by an operating system
Illustrate how system calls are used to provide operating
system services
Compare and contrast monolithic, layered, microkernel,
modular, and hybrid strategies for designing operating
systems
Illustrate the process for booting an operating system
Apply tools for monitoring operating system performance
Design and implement kernel modules for interacting with a
Linux kernel
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating System Services
Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs
and services to programs and users
One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user:
• User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user
interface (UI).
Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User
Interface (GUI), touch-screen, Batch
• Program execution - The system must be able to load a program
into memory and to run that program, end execution, either
normally or abnormally (indicating error)
• I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may
involve a file or an I/O device
• File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular
interest. Programs need to read and write files and directories,
create and delete them, search them, list file Information,
permission management.
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating System Services (Cont.)
One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user (Cont.):
• Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the
same computer or between computers over a network
Communications may be via shared memory or through
message passing (packets moved by the OS)
• Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible
errors
May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in
user program
For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action
to ensure correct and consistent computing
Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating System Services (Cont.)
Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation
of the system itself via resource sharing
• Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs
running concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
Many types of resources - CPU cycles, main memory, file
storage, I/O devices.
• Logging - To keep track of which users use how much and what
kinds of computer resources
• Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a
multiuser or networked computer system may want to control use
of that information, concurrent processes should not interfere with
each other
Protection involves ensuring that all access to system
resources is controlled
Security of the system from outsiders requires user
authentication, extends to defending external I/O devices from
invalid access attempts
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
A View of Operating System Services
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Command Line interpreter
CLI allows direct command entry
Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by
systems program
Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells
Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it
Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names
of programs
• If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require
shell modification
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Bourne Shell Command Interpreter
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
User Operating System Interface - GUI
User-friendly desktop metaphor interface
• Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
• Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
• Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various
actions (provide information, options, execute function, open
directory (known as a folder)
• Invented at Xerox PARC
Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
• Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
• Apple Mac OS X is “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel
underneath and shells available
• Unix and Linux have CLI with optional GUI interfaces (CDE, KDE,
GNOME)
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Touchscreen Interfaces
Touchscreen devices require new
interfaces
• Mouse not possible or not desired
• Actions and selection based on
gestures
• Virtual keyboard for text entry
Voice commands
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Touchscreen Interfaces
Touchscreen devices require new
interfaces
• Mouse not possible or not desired
• Actions and selection based on
gestures
• Virtual keyboard for text entry
Voice commands
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
The Mac OS X GUI
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
System Calls
Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application
Programming Interface (API) rather than direct system call use
Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API for
POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux,
and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)
Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are
generic
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Example of System Calls
System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Example of Standard API
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
API – System Call – OS Relationship
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Types of System Calls
Process control
• create process, terminate process
• end, abort
• load, execute
• get process attributes, set process attributes
• wait for time
• wait event, signal event
• allocate and free memory
• Dump memory if error
• Debugger for determining bugs, single step execution
• Locks for managing access to shared data between processes
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Types of System Calls (Cont.)
File management
• create file, delete file
• open, close file
• read, write, reposition
• get and set file attributes
Device management
• request device, release device
• read, write, reposition
• get device attributes, set device attributes
• logically attach or detach devices
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Types of System Calls (Cont.)
Information maintenance
• get time or date, set time or date
• get system data, set system data
• get and set process, file, or device attributes
Communications
• create, delete communication connection
• send, receive messages if message passing model to host
name or process name
From client to server
• Shared-memory model create and gain access to memory
regions
• transfer status information
• attach and detach remote devices
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Types of System Calls (Cont.)
Protection
• Control access to resources
• Get and set permissions
• Allow and deny user access
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Standard C Library Example
C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
I/O Protection
User process may accidentally or purposefully attempt to
disrupt normal operation via illegal I/O instructions
• All I/O instructions defined to be privileged
• I/O must be performed via system calls
Memory-mapped and I/O port memory locations must
be protected too
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Use of a System Call to Perform I/O
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Memory Protection-
Base and Limit Registers
A pair of base and limit registers define the logical address space
CPU must check every memory access generated in user mode to
be sure it is between base and limit for that user
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Hardware Address Protection
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
System Services
System programs provide a convenient environment for program
development and execution. They can be divided into:
• File manipulation
• Status information sometimes stored in a file
• Programming language support
• Program loading and execution
• Communications
• Background services
• Application programs
Most users’ view of the operating system is defined by system
programs, not the actual system calls
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Linkers and Loaders
Source code compiled into object files designed to be loaded into any
physical memory location – relocatable object file
Linker combines these into single binary executable file
• Also brings in libraries
Program resides on secondary storage as binary executable
Must be brought into memory by loader to be executed
• Relocation assigns final addresses to program parts and adjusts
code and data in program to match those addresses
Modern general purpose systems don’t link libraries into executables
• Rather, dynamically linked libraries (in Windows, DLLs) are
loaded as needed, shared by all that use the same version of that
same library (loaded once)
Object, executable files have standard formats, so operating system
knows how to load and start them
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
The Role of the Linker and Loader
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Why Applications are Operating System Specific
Apps compiled on one system usually not executable on other
operating systems
Each operating system provides its own unique system calls
• Own file formats, etc.
Apps can be multi-operating system
• Written in interpreted language like Python, Ruby, and interpreter
available on multiple operating systems
• App written in language that includes a VM containing the running
app (like Java)
• Use standard language (like C), compile separately on each
operating system to run on each
Application Binary Interface (ABI) is architecture equivalent of API,
defines how different components of binary code can interface for a
given operating system on a given architecture, CPU, etc.
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Design and Implementation
Design and Implementation of OS is not “solvable”, but some
approaches have proven successful
Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary widely
Start the design by defining goals and specifications
Affected by choice of hardware, type of system
User goals and System goals
• User goals – operating system should be convenient to use,
easy to learn, reliable, safe, and fast
• System goals – operating system should be easy to design,
implement, and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free,
and efficient
Specifying and designing an OS is highly creative task of software
engineering
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating System Structure
General-purpose OS is very large program
Various ways to structure ones
• Simple structure – MS-DOS
• More complex – UNIX
• Layered – an abstraction
• Microkernel – Mach
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Monolithic Structure – Original UNIX
UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating
system had limited structuring.
The UNIX OS consists of two separable parts
• Systems programs
• The kernel
Consists of everything below the system-call interface and
above the physical hardware
Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a large
number of functions for one level
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Traditional UNIX System Structure
Beyond simple but not fully layered
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Linux System Structure
Monolithic plus modular design
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Layered Approach
The operating system is
divided into a number of layers
(levels), each built on top of
lower layers. The bottom layer
(layer 0), is the hardware; the
highest (layer N) is the user
interface.
With modularity, layers are
selected such that each uses
functions (operations) and
services of only lower-level
layers
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Microkernels
Moves as much from the kernel into user space
Mach is an example of microkernel
• Mac OS X kernel (Darwin) partly based on Mach
Communication takes place between user modules using
message passing
Benefits:
• Easier to extend a microkernel
• Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
• More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
• More secure
Detriments:
• Performance overhead of user space to kernel space
communication
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Microkernel System Structure
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
macOS and iOS Structure
The best-known illustration of a microkernel operating system is Darwin, the
kernel component of the macOS and iOS operating systems.
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
iOS
Apple mobile OS for iPhone, iPad
• Structured on Mac OS X, added functionality
• Does not run OS X applications natively
Also runs on different CPU architecture
(ARM vs. Intel)
• Cocoa Touch Objective-C API for
developing apps
• Media services layer for graphics, audio,
video
• Core services provides cloud computing,
databases
• Core operating system, based on Mac OS X
kernel
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Android
Developed by Open Handset Alliance (mostly Google)
• Open Source
Similar stack to iOS
Based on Linux kernel but modified
• Provides process, memory, device-driver management
• Adds power management
Runtime environment includes core set of libraries and Dalvik
virtual machine
• Apps developed in Java plus Android API
Java class files compiled to Java bytecode then translated
to executable thnn runs in Dalvik VM
Libraries include frameworks for web browser (webkit), database
(SQLite), multimedia, smaller libc
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Android Architecture
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Building and Booting an Operating System
Operating systems generally designed to run on a class of systems
with variety of peripherals
Commonly, operating system already installed on purchased
computer
• But can build and install some other operating systems
• If generating an operating system from scratch
Write the operating system source code
Configure the operating system for the system on which it will
run
Compile the operating system
Install the operating system
Boot the computer and its new operating system
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Building and Booting Linux
Download Linux source code (http://www.kernel.org)
Configure kernel via “make menuconfig”
Compile the kernel using “make”
• Produces vmlinuz, the kernel image
• Compile kernel modules via “make modules”
• Install kernel modules into vmlinuz via “make
modules_install”
• Install new kernel on the system via “make install”
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
System Boot
When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed memory
location
Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware
can start it
• Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, BIOS, stored in ROM or
EEPROM locates the kernel, loads it into memory, and starts it
• Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed location
loaded by ROM code, which loads bootstrap loader from disk
• Modern systems replace BIOS with Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface (UEFI)
Common bootstrap loader, GRUB, allows selection of kernel from
multiple disks, versions, kernel options
Kernel loads and system is then running
Boot loaders frequently allow various boot states, such as single user
mode
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Operating-System Debugging
Debugging is finding and fixing errors, or bugs
Also performance tuning
OS generate log files containing error information
Failure of an application can generate core dump file capturing
memory of the process
Operating system failure can generate crash dump file containing
kernel memory
Beyond crashes, performance tuning can optimize system performance
• Sometimes using trace listings of activities, recorded for analysis
• Profiling is periodic sampling of instruction pointer to look for
statistical trends
Kernighan’s Law: “Debugging is twice as hard as writing the code in the
first place. Therefore, if you write the code as cleverly as possible, you are,
by definition, not smart enough to debug it.”
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 2.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
End of Chapter 2
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
