Chapter 2: Differentiation

1 Derivatives
1.1 Properties of Derivatives
1. Definition of Derivatives

Def 1: The tangent line to the graph of f at the point (a, f (a)) is the line passing
through (a, f (a)) with slope m = limx→a f (x)−f
x−a
(a)
.

f (x+h)−f (x)
Def 2: The derivative of f at x is f 0 (x) = limh→0 h
provided the limit
exists.
dy
Notation: f 0 (x), dx , y 0 , dx
d
[f (x)], Dx [y].
Def 3: Let s(t) be a position function of time t. Then v(t) := s0 (t) is called the
velocity at time t.
Def 4: (1) The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differen-
tiation.
(2) f is differentiable at x when f 0 (x) exists at x.
(3) f is differentiable on an open interval (a, b) when if it is differentiable
at every point in the interval.

2. Differentiation Rules

Lemma: If f is differentiable at x = a, then f is continuous at x = a.

Pro 2.1.1-3: Let c ∈ R, f and g be differentiable. Then
(1) Constant Rule: c0 = 0
(2) Constant Multiple Rule: (cf (x))0 = cf 0 (x)
(3) Sum and Difference Rules: (f (x) ± g(x))0 = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x)
(4) Product Rule: (f (x)g(x))0 = f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x)
0 (x)g 0 (x)
(5) Quotient Rule: ( fg(x)
(x) 0
) = f (x)g(x)−f
g(x) 2 , g(x) 6= 0.
0 0 0
(6) Chain Rule: (f (g(x)) = f (g(x))g (x)
(7) Inverse Rule: (f −1 (x))0 = f 0 (f −1
1
(x))
if f −1 exists.

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 1.2 Derivatives for Fundamental Functions
1. Derivatives of Polynomial Functions and xr , r ∈ Q

Eg 2.1.5: (xn )0 = nxn−1 , n ∈ N.

Ex 2.1.15: (an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 )0 = nan xn−1 + (n − 1)an−1 xn−2 + · · · + a1 .
Eg 2.1.23,24: (xr )0 = rxr−1 , r ∈ Q.
Remark: d
dx
[xn ] = nxn−1 , d
dy
[y n ] = ny n−1 , d
dx
[y n ] = ny n−1 y 0

2. Derivatives of trigonometric functions

Eg 2.1.7: (sin x)0 = cos x, (cos x)0 = − sin x.

Ex 2.1.19: (tan x)0 = sec2 x, (cot x)0 = − csc2 x
(sec x)0 = sec x tan x, (csc x)0 = − csc x cot x

3. Derivatives of exponential functions and logarithmic functions

Eg 2.1.8,13: (ln x)0 = x1 , (ex )0 = ex .

Ex 2.1.20,33: (loga x)0 = 1
(ln a)x
, ax = (ln a)ax .

4. Derivatives of the inverse of trigonometric functions

Eg 2.1.12: (sin−1 x)0 = √ 1

1−x2
, (cos−1 x)0 = − √1−x
1
2

Ex 2.1.32: (tan−1 x)0 = 1+x1

2 , (cot
−1
x)0 = − 1+x
1
2

(sec−1 x)0 = |x|√1x2 −1 , (csc−1 x)0 = − |x|√1x2 −1

5. Derivatives for Others

Eg: Find the derivatives of (a) h(x) = (3x − 2x2 )(5 + 4x) (b) y = 3x2 sin x
(c) y = 2x ln x − 2 tan x (d) y = 5x−2
x2 +1
p
Eg 2.1.9-11: Find the derivatives of (a) (sin x)2 at x = π2 (b) sin(x2 ) (c) 1 + cos(x2 )
Eg: Find the derivative of y = cos 3x2 + (cos 3)x2 + cos(3x)2 + cos2 3x.
Ex 2.1.37: Define xα = eα ln x , α ∈ R. Then (xα )0 = αxα−1 .
Ex 2.1.35,38: Find the derivatives of (a) f (x)g(x) and (b) f1 (x)m1 · f2 (x)m2 · · · fk (x)mk ,
where k ∈ N and m1 , m2 , · · · , mk are constants.

1.3 Chain Rule and Derivatives of Inverse Functions

In the following sections:
§2.1.1,Topic 2, Prop 2.1.1-3(6)(7)
§2.1.2,Topic 4 and Topic 5

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 1.4 Higher-Order Derivatives
Def: Let s(t) be a position function of time t. Then a(t) := s00 (t) is called the
acceleration at time t.
Notation for higher-order derivatives:
d3 y d3
y 000 , f 000 (x), dx 3
3 , dx3 [f (x)], Dx [y]...
4
d y d4
y (4) , f (4) (x), dx 4
4 , dx4 [f (x)], Dx [y]...

Eg: Find the higher-order derivatives of (a) f (x) = xn , n ∈ N (b) g(x) = sin x (c)
h(x) = ex

1.5 Implicit Differentiation

Eg 2.1.18-19: (1) Show the circle x2 + y 2 = r2 has the tangent line x0 x + y0 y = r2 at (x0 , y0 ),
(y0 6= 0). (2) Find y 00 |(x0 ,y0 ) .
dy d2 y
Eg: Find dx
and dx2
at the point ( 12 , 12 ) for (x2 + y 2 )2 = xy, called a lemniscate.
dy
Ex 2.1.54: Find dx
implicitly the equation sin y = x.

2 Mean Value Theorem

1. Rolle’s Theorem and Mean Value Theorem

Thm 2.2.1: (Rolle’s Theorem)

Let f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If f (a) =
f (b) = 0, then there exists a ξ ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (ξ) = 0.
Thm 2.2.2: (The Mean Value Theorem)
If f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) then there exists a
ξ ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (ξ) = .
b−a
Eg 2.2.2: Find a ξ in the statement of the mean value theorem for f (x) = x2 on
[a, b].
Eg 2.2.3-4: Show that (a) | sin a − sin b| ≤ |a − b| for all a, b ∈ R.
(b) (1 + x)r ≥ 1 + rx for r > 1, x > 0.
Eg 2.2.5: Show that the equation x = sin x has the unique solution x = 0.

2. Antiderivative and indefinite integral

d 3 d
Motivation: dx
x = 3x2 , Q: dx
(??) = 3x2 .

Def: A function F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I when F 0 (x) = f (x)

for all x ∈ I.

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 Lemma: If g is differentiable on (a, b) and g 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then g(x) is
a constant function.
Pro 2.2.1: If F1 and F2 are antiderivatives of f on an interval I, then F2 (x) =
F1 (x) + C for all x ∈ I where C is a constant.
dy
R
Notation: dx = f (x) ⇐⇒ dy = f (x)dx ⇐⇒ y = f (x)dx = F (x) + C (?)
, where F 0 (x) = f (x).
Rk: (a) The operation
R of finding all solutions y is called indefinite integration.
(b) In (?), is the integral sign, f (x) is the integrand, dx is the variable
of integration, F (x) is the antiderivative of f and the constant C is the
constant of integration.
(c) F 0 (x)dx = F (x) + C, dx d
R R

f (x)dx = f (x)
n+1
Eg 2.2.6-7: (1) xn dx = xn+1 + C (n 6= −1) (2) cos xdx = sin x + C
R R

(3) x1 dx = ln |x| + C
R

3 Tangent Line and linear Approximation

1. Linear approximation

Thm: Let y = f (x) be differentiable. If h << 1, then f (a + h) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a)h.

(or ∆y := f (a + h) − f (a) ≈ f 0 (a)h = f 0 (a)∆x)
Eg 2.3.1: (1) Show that (1 + x)r ≈ 1 + rx if x << 1. (2) Estimate 1.0011/5 .
√
(3) Estimate 65.
Eg 2.3.4: A ball B has a radius R and the error of the measured radius is ∆r.
(a) Find the absolute error ∆V := V (R + ∆r) − V (R).
(b) If the relative error of the radius is ∆r
R
= λ%, find the relative error
of the volume V∆V(R)
.

2. Differential form

Def: Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. The differential of x(denoted

by dx) is any nonzero real number. The differential of y (denoted by dy)
is dy = f 0 (x)dx.
2
Eg 2.3.6: (1) Find the differentials of (a) y = x2 (b) y = tan−1 x (c) y = e−x
(2) Find y such that dy = cos xdx

4 Application: Curve Sketching

4.1 Characters for Functions
1. Monotonicity (increasing, decreasing and extrema)

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Def 2.4.1:
(a) A function f is increasing ( decreasing) on an interval I if for all x1 , x2 ∈
I, x1 < x2 implies f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) (f (x1 ) > f (x2 )).
(b) f (c) is a local maximum (minimum) of f on I if there is an open subin-
terval J containing c such that f (c) > f (x)(f (c) < f (x)) for all x ∈ J
Pro 2.4.1:
a. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b),then f is increasing on (a, b).
b. If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b),then f is decreasing on (a, b).
c. If f (x) has a local extrema at x = c, then f 0 (c) = 0.
Def 1: x = c is called a critical point of f if f 0 (c) = 0.
Pro 2.4.2: (The First Order Test)
a. If f 0 (x) changes from negative to positive at c then f has a local minimum
at (c, f (c)).
b. If f 0 (x) changes from positive to negative at c then f has a local maximum
at (c, f (c)).
Pro 2.4.3: (The Second Order Test)
Set f 0 (c) = 0.
a. If f 00 (c) > 0 then f has a local minimum at (c, f (c)).
b. If f 00 (c) < 0 then f has a local maximum at (c, f (c)).
c. If f 00 (c) = 0, f may have a local maximum, a local minimum or neither.
Eg 2.4.3: Find the open intervals on which f (x) = ln(x2 + 1) is increasing or de-
creasing and find the local extrema of f .

2. Concavity (upward, downward and point of inflection)

Def 1: Let f be differentiable twice on an open interval I. The graph of f is

concave upward (concave downward) on I if f 00 (x) > 0(f 00 (x) < 0) for all
x ∈ I.
Def 2: (a, f (a)) is a point of inflection (inflection point) of the graph of f when
the concavity of f changes from upward to downward (or downward to
upward) at this point.
Eg 2.4.4: Determine the points of inflection and discuss the concavity of the graph
of f (x) = ln(x2 + 1).
Eg 2.4.5: Review the second order test.

3. Asymptotes

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 Def 1: The line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f when
limx→±∞ f (x) = L.
Def 2: The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f when
limx→a f (x) = ±∞.
Def 3: The line y = mx + k is a slant asymptote of the graph of f when
limx→±∞ (f (x) − (mx + k)) = 0.
Here m = limx→±∞ f (x)
x
and k = limx→±∞ (f (x) − mx)
√
Eg 2.4.6: Find all asymptotes of y = x2 + 1 + tan−1 x.

4.2 Graph Sketching

1. Analyze and sketch the graph of a function.
Key points:
(1) Domain and range
(2) Intercepts, symmetry or periodicity
(3) Vertical, horizontal or slant asymptotes
(4) Monotonicity (increasing or decreasing) and Concavity (upward or down-
ward)
(5) Relative extrema and points of inflection

Eg 2.4.7-10: Sketch the graph of the following functions:

x2 √
(a) y = x3 − 3x + 3 (b) y = x + 1
x
(c) y = e− 2 (d) y = 3
1 − x3 (e)
3
y = x2x−1

5 Application: Optimization Problems

1. Solve applied minimum and maximum problems.

Thm: If f is continuous on [a, b], then f has both a minimum and a maximum
on [a, b].
Eg 2.5.1: Discuss the global maximum and minimum on (a) [−1, 1] (b) [−2, 2] (c)
(−2, 2) (d) (0, ∞) (e) (−∞, ∞).
Eg 2.5.2-7: See the textbook p.72-79