UNIT-01

Introduction to Probability and

Random Variables

SK.MD.HUSSIAN BASHA
Course Outcomes (COs)
TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE
Radar – Introduction , Application & Working Principle

Radar Sub systems.

Types of Radars.

Instrumentation Radars

Surveillance Radars

Synthetic Aperture Radars

Atmospheric Radars.

Modern Radars

Radar Systems G.SIVA KOTESWARA RAO

 INTRODUCTION

RADAR

Radio Detection and Ranging

History

“Neither a single nation nor a single person holds the

responsibility for inventing radar technology. The
knowledge about “Radar” is an accumulation of many
developments and improvements of many scientists from
several nations took part in parallel.”

Radar Systems G.SIVA KOTESWARA RAO

Mile Stones..

1865 - The Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell presents his Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field

1886 - The German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discovered electromagnetic

waves .

1897 - The Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi achieved the first long distance
transmission of electromagnetic waves. Demonstration of Maxwells thoery.

1904 - The German engineer Christian Hülsmeyer invents the telemobiloscope

for a traffic monitoring on the water in poor visibility. First practical radar
test.

1921 - The invention of the Magnetron as an efficient transmitting tube by the US-
american physicist Albert Wallace Hull.
1922 - The American electrical engineers Albert H. Taylor and Leo C. Young of
the Naval Research Laboratory (USA) locate a wooden ship for the first
time.

Radar Systems G.SIVA KOTESWARA RAO

1930 - Lawrence A. Hyland of the Naval Research Laboratory, locates an
aircraft for the first time.

1931 - A ship is equipped with radar. As antennae are used parabolic dishes with
horn radiators.

1936 - The development of the Klystron by the technicians George F. Metcalf and
William C. Hahn. This gave birth to coherent radars.

1939 - Two engineers from the university in Birmingham, John Turton Randall und
Henry Albert Howard Boot built a small powerful radar using a
Multicavity-Magnetron. The B–17 airplanes were fitted with this radar to
find the German submarines in the night and in fog.

1940 - Different radar equipments are developed in the USA, Russia, Germany,
France and Japan.

Military and Surveillance radars undergone a major development during

second world war.

Radar Systems G.SIVA KOTESWARA RAO

 RADAR
• Radar is a code name used by U.S Navy in 1949 early in
World War II for an instrument to detect a target by
electromagnetic waves.
• Radar stands for Radio Detection And Ranging.
• It works by radiating energy into space and monitoring the
echo or reflected signal from the objects
• Sir Robert Watson Watt Considered by many “the inventor
of radar”

Sir Robert Watson-Watt

(1892 – 1973)

Radar Systems G.SIVA KOTESWARA RAO

 APPLICATION

1. Tracking Radar

2. Metrological Radar

Wind Profiler DWR

3. Surveillance Radar
Air Traffic Control

Radar Systems G.SIVA KOTESWARA RAO

Cont…

4. Navigation Aid

Ship Safety

5. Satellites

Radar imaging Satellites. Inter planetary missions

6. Space
Space Vehicles Radar Astronomy
Radar Systems G.SIVA KOTESWARA RAO
 Applications of Radars

• Navigation • Surveillance
• Altimeter • Tracking
• Missile guidance • Mapping
• Target Acquisition • Weather Prediction
• Collision Avoidance • Traffic
• Remote sensing • Space

Radar Systems G.SIVA KOTESWARA RAO

 WORLD BEFORE INVENTION OF RADARS

FIRST WORLDWAR PHOTOGRAPHS

ACOUSTIC EARS used to identify fighter
Radar Systems aircrafts.
 RADAR
WORKING PRINCIPLE

Radar Systems
 RADAR - WORKING PRINCIPLE

Radar Systems
 Basic RADAR System

Direction
AZ = Azimuth
EL = Elevation -

orientation of the
antenna. A target is represented by R, AZ, EL & Doppler.
Radar Systems
Resolution:

Resolution is the ability of a radar to detect

and display two nearby targets as two distinct
objects.

Range Resolution
The range- resolution capability of a radar is
its ability to represent two targets that are at
the same side and elevation angle to the radar
as two targets.

L=c0τ/2

Angular Resolution
The Angular resolution capability of a radar is
its ability to represent two targets that are at
the same range and separated in azimuth or
elevation angle to the radar as two targets.

L=ϴ3

Radar Systems
Accuracy:

The Accuracy is the degree of correspondence between the estimated or measured

position and / or the velocity of an object and its true position or velocity at a given
time. Accuracy is usually represented as a statistical measure of a systematic error
and is referred to as:

Calculable: The accuracy of a position relative to geographical or geodetic

coordinates on the Earth's surface.

Repeatable: The accuracy with which a user can return to a position whose
coordinates have been measured with the same radar at an earlier time.

Relative : The accuracy with which a user can determine one position relative to
another position (ignoring all possible errors).
 Precession- Accuracy-Tracking
Bandwidth
• Precession: Repeatability.

• Accuracy: Nearest to True value

• Tracking : Following the object or target

• Bandwidth : Response of system for dynamics.

Radar Systems
Microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum (~3 MHZ to ~ 10 GHZ) is
bounded by:
1. One region ( > 10 GHz) with very heavy attenuation by the gaseous
components of the atmosphere (except for windows at 35 & 95 GHz)
2. The other region (< 3 MHz), whose frequency implies antennas too large
for most practical applications
 Atmospheric Absorption

dB/km

Radar Systems
 Propagation Effects on Radar
Performance

1. Atmospheric attenuation

2. Reflection off of Earth’s surface

3. Over-the-horizon diffraction

4. Atmospheric refraction

Radar Systems
 RADAR
CLASSIFICATION

Radar Systems
Radar Systems
Standard Radar Bands & Typical Usage

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Radar Systems
 Radar Frequencies

Radar Systems
Radar Systems
 RADAR SUB SYSTEMS

Radar Systems
 RADAR – SUBSYSTEMS

SERVO
Δ AZ, Δ EL
SYSTEM

RF FRONT END

IF RF
RECEIVER DUPLEXER
(IF PROCESSOR)

MIXER LNA
Δ RA
R, AZ, EL
RANGE
TRANSMITTER
SYSTEM

DATA SYSTEM PW : 1 us
PRF : 585.5 Hz
POWER : 1MW

EXTERNAL USERS
(MC)
Radar Systems
 Radar Types

Radar Systems
 CW Radar
Primary useful where no range
information is required
 Simplicity; Smaller and lighter
 No high voltage modulators are
required for simple CW radar; radar
ability to detect targets is determined
by the average power
 Good for short range application;
 CW radars do not use TR tubes;
TX/ RX isolation is achieved by using
other types of duplexer (ferrite
circulators) or FM tech.
 It is generally simpler to extract
Doppler information for a CW system
than from a pulsed system.
 No range information
 Unambiguous velocity information
Td= Dwell Time
Radar Systems
 CW Ranging
• In order to measure range, it is necessary to
place a time marker (modulation) in the
transmitted signal

- Amplitude, frequency, phase.

- Pulsed radar-AM.

•CW ranging

- Frequency-modulated CW (FMCW)

- Multiple-frequency CW

- Phase-coded-CW

•FM-CW radar

- Correlation of frequency of TX and RX

signals

- a measure of target’s range and radial

fm is the modulation frequency
speed. 𝛥f is the frequency excursion.
- Linear frequency modulation fr beat frequency
Radar Systems
 Pulsed Radar
 Pulsed radar transmits high power, high-frequency pulses toward the target. Then it waits

for the echo of the transmitted signal for sometime before it transmits a new pulse.

 Choice of pulse repetition frequency decides the range and resolution of the radar.

 Target Range and bearings can be determined from the measured antenna position and

time-of-arrival of the reflected signal.

 Pulse radars can be used to measure target velocities.

Two broad categories of pulsed radar employing Doppler shifts are

MTI (Moving Target Indicator) Radar

The MTI radar uses low pulse repetition frequency (PRF) to avoid range ambiguities, but these

radars can have Doppler ambiguities.

Pulse Doppler Radar

Contrary to MTI radar, pulse Doppler radar uses high PRF to avoid Doppler ambiguities, but it

can have numerous range ambiguities.

Radar Systems
 Pulsed Radar

Radar Systems
 MTI and Pulsed Doppler Radar
Moving Target Indication
(MTI) radar:
A delay line canceller filter to
isolate moving targets from non
moving background
- Ambiguous velocity
-Unambiguous range

Pulsed Doppler radar:

Doppler data are extracted by
the use of range gates and
Doppler filters.
- Unambiguous velocity
-Ambiguous range
36

Radar Systems
RADAR RANGE EQUATION
 Radar Range Equation

Pt = Peak Transmitter Power Ae = effective area of receiving antenna

Gt= Transmitter Antenna Gain Pr= Power received
Gr=Receiver Antenna Gain R= distance from radar
σ= Radar Cross Section S/N= Signal to Noise Ratio
Radar Systems
 Peak Transmitter Power

Radar Systems
 RADAR TRANSMITTERS

Radar Systems
 Radar Transmitter

Radar Systems
 Magnetron

• Oscillator only
• Cross-field, E and H are at right angles
• Relatively inexpensive
• Very noisy
• Can generate large spectral sidelobes
• Non-Doppler radars
42

Radar Systems
 Crossed Field Amplifier (CFA)

•High coherent power

•Good efficiency
•Wide bandwidth
•Relatively low gain (10 dB)
•Generally noisier and less stable 43

Radar Systems
 Klystron

• Linear beam tube

• Efficiencies approaching 60%
• Relatively narrower bandwidths
• Lower spectral re-growth and in-band noise

Radar Systems
 TWT

Capable of wide bandwidth at high power

• Expensive
• Similar to Klystron, linear beam tubes
• Interaction between RF field and electron beam over length of tube RF
wave mixes with electron beam and transfers DC energy from electron
beam to increase energy of RF wave, causing wave to be amplified
Solid State Amplifiers
RADAR ANTENNA
 Antennas

• Means for radiating or receiving

radio waves.

• A radiated electromagnetic wave

consists of electric and magnetic
fields which jointly satisfy Maxwell’s
Equations

• Gain, Beam width, Side lobe level,

Polarization
Types of Radar Beams
RADAR RECEIVERS
Sources of Noise Received by Radar
 How Is the Size of Radar Targets
Characterized ?

If the incident electric field that impinges upon a target is known

and the scattered electric field is measured, then the “radar cross
section” (effective area) of the target may by calculated.
 Radar Receiver

•Sensitive radar receiver must be isolated from the

powerful radar transmitter
• Transmitted power typically 10 kW – 1 MW
•Receiver signal power in 10’s μW – 1 mW
•Isolation provided by duplexer switching
Radar Receiver
SURVEILLANCE RADARS
Surveillance Radars

Phased Array Antenna-CobraDane

Raytheon 57
Active Array Antenna
 Search Radar Range Equation

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Over the Horizon Radar (OTH) Frequency : 2 – 20MH (SW )
Range Coverage : Up to 5000 Kms
Over-the-horizon-radar (OTH)
sometimes called beyond the horizon
(BTH), is a type of radar system with
the ability to detect targets at very
long ranges, typically hundreds to
thousands of kilometres, beyond
the radar horizon, which is the
distance limit for ordinary radar.

U.S. Navy OHT Radar station OTH-B coverage from Maine and Oregon
INSTRUMENTATION RADARS
 Instrumentation Radars

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 Phased Array Radar
A phased radar is a radar with Phased array antenna.
Phased array antenna is composed of lots of radiating
elements each with a phase shifter. Beams are formed by
shifting the phase of the signal emitted from each
radiating element, to provide constructive/destructive
interference so as to steer the beams in the desired
direction.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. high gain width los side lobes 1. the coverage is limited to a 120 degree
2. Ability to permit the beam to jump from one target
to the next in a few microseconds sector in azimuth and elevation
3. Ability to provide an agile beam under computer 2. deformation of the beam while the
control
4. arbitrarily modes of surveillance and tracking deflection
5. free eligible Dwell Time 3. low frequency agility
6. multifunction operation by emitting several
beams simultaneously 4. very complex structure (processor, phase
7. Fault of single components reduces the shifters)
capability and beam sharpness, but the system
remains operational 5. still high costs
Radar Antenna Architecture Comparison
Multi Object Tracking Radar (MOTR)

Multi Object Tracking Radar

(MOTR) is realized with the
capability to carry out tracking of
multiple objects simultaneously
unlike traditional radars. It is an
Active Phased Array Radar (APAR)
operating in L Band with 4608
radiating elements.

•Long range Skin mode tracking – To track 0.25 m2 Radar Cross

Section (RCS) targets upto a range of 1000km.
•Multiple Targets Tracking – To track upto 10 simultaneous targets.
•Space Debris Tracking – To track space debris in Low Earth Orbits
(LEO) i.e., upto 800km.
SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADARS
Airborne Radars

66
 Synthetic aperture radar

• Radar provides excellent range information that

can resolve in range down to inches

• Good image resolution requires commensurate

cross-range resolution
RISAT-2
Synthetic aperture radar
WEATHER RADARS
Doppler Weather Radar
• It operates in S band with a high power
coherent transmitter.
• A High Power Antenna Rotates and sends
continuous pulses of radio waves. These
pulses are reflected back by clouds and
falling rain. With this the radar system
calculates the distance and direction of rain.
• It also measures the Doppler which indicates
the wind speed and direction.
• It operates on 24*7 basic to give continuous
weather prediction.
Weather Radar Range Equation
Wind profiler Radar
1. Active array with 576
elements operating in
49 mhz.
2. Gives wind velocity up
to the altitude of 21
kms with min 100 m
resolution
3. Gives wind profile for
every 15 mts with
24*7 operation.
FUTURE RADARS
 Future Radars

• Modern radar systems are combining

advanced materials, solid-state modules,
digital signal processors, and complex A-D
converters to give a better look to military
and civilian users who need the best
possible capability in small, compact, and
efficient packages.
 MIMO RADAR
MIMO radar is a novel
radar technique, where MIMO
stands for Multiple Input Multiple
Output . It is a system of many
antennas. Each transmit antenna
radiates an arbitrary transmit signal
independent of the other transmit
antennas, which can be received
by each receive antenna, digitized
and then subjected to common
radar signal processing.

MIMO radar systems can be used to improve spatial resolution and achieve
significantly improved immunity to interference.
 QUANTUM RADAR

• Quantum radar can be defined as a kind of stand off

measurement system which using microwave photons, optical
photon as well, and quantum phenomena to improve the target
detection and recognition performance.
• Quantum radar is a theoretical remote-sensing method based
on quantum entanglement.
 References
1. Skolnik, M., Introduction to Radar Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 3rd

Edition, 2001

2. Skolnik, M., Radar Handbook, New York, NY, McGraw-Hill, 2rd Edition, 1990

3. Skolnik, M., Radar Handbook, New York, NY, McGraw-Hill, 3rd Edition, 2008

4. Radar System analysis by D.K. Barton

5. Richards, M., Fundamentals of Radar Signal Processing, McGraw-Hill, New

York, 2005

6. G. Benitz, Synthetic Aperture Radar, Lecture Notes, MIT Lincoln Laboratory,

7. Ewell, G. W., Radar Transmitters, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1981

8. Pozar, D. M., Microwave Engineering, New Jersey, Wiley, 3rd Ed, 2005.