Building Stones lecture Notes 2016

Geological classification of stones

Geologically the stones can be classified as follows:

1) Sedimentary stones:

Formation

 Formed mainly in sea water, or lakes, from the remains of animals and plants,
also from transportation and deposition of rock products. Examples includes
Sandstone, limestone, dolomite

characteristics

 Formed at or near the surface

 Distinctive strata
 Many fossils have been found in this type of rock
 Grain shape are Rounded or Angular

Classification:

 Detrital is made from disintigrated pre-existing rock.

 Biogenetic is made from shells and other fossilized fragments.
 Chemical is made from chemical precipitation.

2) Metamorphic stones:

Formation

 Produced from sedimentary or igneous rocks by the action of heat and

pressure. Examples include Marble, serpentine, onyx, slate, quartzite, gneiss
are

Characteristics

1. Structure
 Contact type is crystalline
 Regional type is usually foliated
 Building Stones lecture Notes 2016

3) Igneous stones:

Formation

 These stones are formed when the magma from the earth cools inside the
earth or on the earth surface.

Properties of stones

1. Strength & Durability:

 Strength is the ability of a stone to endure and maintain its essential and
distinctive characteristics i.e. resistance to decay, strength and appearance.
 Physical properties such as density, compressive strength and porosity are
measured in order to determine its durability.
 Durability is based upon the stones natural physical properties,
characteristics and the environmental conditions to which it will be or is
subjected too.
 Another factor of stones durability is its Aesthetic durability or
Dimensional Stability. Cosmetic changes may occur this has to do with the
Color Stability of certain stones. These changes can take place in two ways.
 Building Stones lecture Notes 2016

a) Effects of sunlight-

 When some stones are used in exterior applications and exposed to

direct sunlight they fade or change color. Dark colored stones and those
that contain organic matter will generally fade to a much lighter color.
The Coral stone being of a biogenic origin contains organic material
that will be affected by ultraviolet exposure.

b) Effects of moisture

 Some stones have moisture sensitive mineral contents that will cause the
stone to develop rust spots, or other color variations, or contain moisture
sensitive substances that will cause blotchy and streaking discolorations.
 Certain lime stones contain bituminous materials that are soluble when
exposed to moisture. Some marbles are also moisture sensitive when in
high moisture areas, showers and those with steam features; these
stones have a tendency to develop dark botches.

2. Porosity & Permeability:

a) porosity
 Porosity is the ratio of pores (micro-voids) in the stone, to its total
solid volume. Pores and the capillary structure develop differently in
each of the three stone groups.
 Dense and compact stones have very few or no pores in them. An
important feature of sedimentary rocks is their porosity.
 Pores are natural holes in the stones which allow fluids like rainwater to
enter and leave the fabric.
 Some free fluid flow through a rock is necessary to maintain the rock's
durability, and it is not always advisable to block such flow by using
incorrect mortar mixes or by injecting unsuitable synthetic fluids.
 Very high porosities, however, may allow excessive volumes of corrosive
fluids such as acid rainwater to enter and cause severe damage to the
rock. Most durable sedimentary building stones commonly have
moderate porosity.

b) Permeability
 Building Stones lecture Notes 2016

 This is the extent to which the pores and capillary structures are
interconnected throughout the stone. These networks, their size,
structure and orientation affect the degree and depth to which
moisture, vapors and liquids can be absorb into the interior of the stone
or migrate from the substrate by capillary action through the stone.
 Permeability is increased when a stone is highly fractured or the veining
material is soft or grainy. A particular variety of stone may be highly
permeable although its porosity is low. The size and shapes of pores and
the capillary structure differs in stones and is an important factor in
relation to stone decay.
3. Hardness & weathering:
a) Hardness
 Hardness is the property of a material to avoid and resist scratching. It is
determined by comparison with the standard minerals of the Moh’s scale.
The objective of the MOH Scale is to measure stones resistance to
hardness.
b) Weathering
 It is a complex interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes
that alters the stone in some general or specific way. The physical
properties of stone differs widely between stone groups and even within the
same stone type.
 The mineral composition, textural differences, varying degrees of hardness
and pore/capillary structure determine the degree of weathering in a stone.
These minerals can be broken down, dissolved or converted to new minerals
by a variety of processes which are grouped as Mechanical and Chemical.
Intensity and duration are two key elements that govern to what extent
weathering reactions will have on stone.

4. Water absorption and frost resistance:

 Moisture from rain, snow or other environmental conditions penetrates the
wall leading to cracks, efflorescence, rust staining, wood rotting, paint
peeling, darkening of masonry.
 The perfect sealing of a masonry wall surface is almost impossible since fine
cracks and joints will allow the passage of water into the wall.

Absorbency:
 Building Stones lecture Notes 2016

 It is the result of these two properties (permeability and porosity).

Absorbency is an important determining factor in stones sensitivity to
stains. The size of the pores, their orientation, how well they are networked
and the type of finish the stone has are important contributing factors to a
stones overall absorbency.
 In relation to cleanability this factor is more important than how porous a
stone is. Honed and textured surfaces are more susceptible to soiling and
staining due to the fact that there are more open pores at the surface than
a highly polished finish.
 The polishing process has a tendency to close off pores leaving fewer ones
exposed, resulting in a low absorbent surface. However, some varieties of
stone have large pores and capillary structures and even when these stones
are polished they still remain very absorbent. Most common oils can be easily
absorbed into all types of stone.
 Frost action or commonly called freeze/thaw cycles occur when water within
the pore structure or cracks freezes to ice.
 It has been estimated when water freezes it expands between 8 to 11
percent, with a force of 2,000 pounds per square inch to 150 tons per square
foot. This increase of internal pressure combined with repeated
freeze/thaw cycles produces micro-fissures, cracks, flaking

Factors to consider when selecting stones for construction

There must be some criteria for the selection of stones for construction based on
variable properties of stones of different types. The criteria are based upon the
following parameters.

1. Chemical composition of stones:

 While selecting a stone for construction, its chemical properties and

composition must be tested and verified because different elements and
compounds in stones have different properties.
 Magnesium in Limestone causes it to be stronger and is called Dolomite.
 Feldspar, in large quantities in stone is a source of weakness because CO2
dissolves Potassium, Sodium, and even Calcium in the Feldspar leaving pure
white clay behind.
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 Presence of Mica, even less than 2-3% makes stone unsuitable for building
purposes.
 Stones with silicates as cementing materials are resistant to weathering.

2) Resistance to heat:

 Resistance to heat means that the stone must have a very low amount of
expansion due to large increase in temperature.
 Siliceous materials are good at areas where resistance to fire is required.

3) Bio-deterioration:

 Certain trees and creepers thrust their roots in the joints of stones and
have both mechanical and chemical adverse effects. Special microbes can
grow on the surface and in minute fissures, their by-products cause flaking
and discoloration.

4) Appearance:

 The aesthetic aspect that is color, appearance and show of stones must also
be considered when being used in a project. Appearance depends on the
color and the ease with which the stone can be dressed, rubbed or polished

5. Strength and hardness:

 The more compact grained and heavier a stone, the stronger it is. A
crystalline stone is superior to a non-crystalline texture. The specific
gravity of good stone should be above 2.7.
 Stones used for roads, paving blocks, floor slabs and railway ballast have to
withstand mainly abrasion or wear and tear.
 Stone wall subjected to vibrations of machinery and moving loads should
necessarily possess toughness. Strength and hardness itself depend on some
factors:
 Building Stones lecture Notes 2016

Factors affecting strength, hardness and toughness

a) Hardness or softness of the components:

 The composition of the compounds determines its hardness or softness.

Stones containing Si, Na, K are softer while that containing Mg, Ca, and Fe
are harder. If the stone is composed of soft and unhardened materials it will
result in soft materials and vice versa.

b) Proportion of hard and soft materials:

 The amount of soft and hard material in a specific sample of stone also
matters. The greater the amount of hard materials more will be the
resistence to weathering.

c) Size and shape of the minerals is stones:

 Crystalline solids are hard and compact, thus superior to non-crystalline. The
Finer the crystals, stronger the stones and vice versa, this property i.e
fineness reduces the pores in the stone.

d) Cohesion:

 It is the property of atoms or particles to attract each other. The fine

grains have more cohesive power than the coarser grains. Greater the
cohesion in stone causes increase in the hardness, strength and toughness of
stones. The property of compactness also depends deeply on cohesion.

e) Porosity:

 Stones in wet conditions and having pores in them allow a lower crushing
strength than normal. Porosity can reduce the strength up to 30 - 40% e.g
limestone and sandstone is affected by this property. Porosity is the
property of a substance in which it contains pores in it. It also reduces the
resistance to a concentrated (point) load.
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f) Density:

 If a stone is compact, dense, it would also be non-porous and strong, thus

toughness also depends upon density.

g) Cementing material:

 Stones with silicates as cementing material will be resistant to weathering

than those with calcareous or ferruginous binding material. So, cementing
material also affects the choice of stone select

Tests on Stones

 Once a stone has been selected on aesthetic basis, it is important than to

ensure that it exhibits the necessary physical properties and durability to
remain in working condition for a long time.
 Physical properties such as density, compressive strength and porosity are
measured in order to determine its durability.

Applications & uses of stones

1. Sandstone is a popular stone with sculptors,

2. Limestone for burning lime and also for manufacture of cement it is also
used as a flux in blast furnaces and Insulators in electrical appliances.
3. Sandstone which is not so hard-wearing or beautifully patterned is used for
garden walls and paths in landscaping.
4. Basalt: It is quarried and crushed as "Blue Metal" which is used as a road-
base, and in reinforced concrete as aggregate.
5. Shale is a component of bricks and may also be used in manufacturing of
cement.
6. Nite, another stone type is used for architectural construction, ornamental
stones and monuments.
7. Marble is widely used in construction industry, for aesthetic purposes,
beautification and strength