UAV Components

Part 2 (advanced)
 Military
Commercial
Healthcare
Communication
Police
Multirotors Agriculture
Maps and GISes
Applications review SAR
Meteorology
Delivery
R&D
Illegals
Applications review

● Military
○ Surveillance and battlefield recognition, offensive/defensive UCAVs - (unmanned combat
aerial vehicle, i.e. Hermes 900)
○ armor delivery drones and UGVs
■ Big Dog (Boston Dynamics), hard to classify… UGV? UWV?
○ Border monitoring and smuggling prevention
● Commercial
○ With video cameras: weddings, fun flights, area and crowd monitoring, access control, civil
engineering (progress, statistics)
○ With sensor sets (utilities): pollution monitoring and environmental protection tasks
Applications review

● Healthcare
○ Automated External Defibrillator (AED) tested in Dubai
and Sweden
○ Rapid medical samples transportation
● Communication
○ Air taxi
● Police
○ Search and observation, monitoring (human crowd)
danger evaluation.
Applications review

● Agriculture
○ Fertilising, in particular fluid based
○ Crop monitoring and estimation
○ Precise agriculture and forestry
● Earth Sciences
○ Photogrammetry
○ 2D and 3D mapping
○ Cadastral systems
● Crisis management
○ Damage assessment and identification of the needs
○ Search for victims
Applications review

● Meteorology
○ Storm hunters
● Deliver of the goods
○ This is supposed to be most valuable and profitable drone applications in the feature
● R&D
○ Data collection
● Illegals
○ Drugs smuggling
○ Terrorist attacks
○ Robbery
 Brushless DC motors in details

Multirotors ESCs

Advanced properties of the Configurations

electric propulsions
Brushless DC
electric motors

Inner construction of the

brushless DC motor

Thrust to weight ratio

Applications

Additionals

Mechanical features
Inner construction of the brushless DC
motor

● Stator
○ Bearing
○ Windings
○ Stator Width / Height
● Rotor (Motor Bell)
○ Shaft
○ Permanent Magnets
● Number of windings != number of
magnets!

Źródło: [Link]
Inner construction of the brushless DC
motor

● Physics:
○ Motor is controlled with 3-phase via ESC
■ Number of windings in the statue
must be a multiply of 3 then.
○ Stator: N-pole, rotor: S(P) pole
○ Common configuration is 12N14P, as on the
photo.
○ More domains (windings magnets),
smoother the operation and higher the
power.

Źródło: [Link]
Brushless DC motor properties

● Features:
○ Motors that present longer (higher)
construction with lower diameter present
better heat dispersion and higher KV.
■ They work better in higher RPM.
○ Flat (so called “sandwich”) motors with
higher diameter present higher torque and
better energy efficiency

Źródło: [Link]
Brushless DC motor propertieso

● Stator coils in short:

○ shorter = higher KV (lower resistance)
○ longer = lower KV

○ Single wire coil windings = higher wire

diameter = better hear dispersion (5S-6S).
○ Triple wiring coil windings (3 wires, parallel)
= better allocation = smaller motor = higher
energy efficiency, higher magnetic field
generated inside.

Źródło: [Link]
Motor thrust

● Motors are described (among

others) with their max thrust
● It is provided for particular
propeller and voltage
(powering).
○ It strictly relates to the “S” value
and propeller used.
Motor thrust

● What impacts thrust?

● Motor construction, as follows:
○ Size, in general, the bigger the motor, the more thrust it generates
■ It is stator size that defines the thrust
○ Type o magnets used in their construction
○ Copper wire used for coils, its quality, organisation, number of wires in the wind.
○ Number of magnets (related to the number of winds)
○ And even depends on the air-gap (a gap between rotor and stator, the lower, the higher
magnetic field = higher thrust but also lower head dispersion).
Motor thrust

● In case of the active generation of the lift force (multirotors, VTOLs, helis)
total thrust must be higher (usually significantly higher) than MTOM.
○ It is important to remember that current Take-Off Mass can vary by utility and payload.
● Total thrust is slightly lower than simple multiplication of the individual
thrust times number of motors: it is because of airflow is disturbed by
nearby propellers.
● Thrust is provided in ‘g’ (gram) for small motors and in ‘kg’ for large ones.
Motor thrust measurement

● It is possible to build a device

to measure thrust quite
simply
○ Use weight to find the difference
when motor is off and when it is
on with full / partial power.
Thrust to weight relation

● Rule of thumb says, thrust:mass should be at least as 2:1

○ It it is going to be lower, then it will be hard to control drone, it is no going to respond to
your requests as needed and will drain battery quickly
○ Take-off will take time and ascend will be slow, eventually impossible
○ In critical situation when thrust:mass ratio is lower than 1, drone will start to descend
uncontrolled way.
● If ratio is too high (far too high, i.e. 20:1) you will struggle to control the
UAV at all:
○ Minimal throttle lever change will cause huge thrust change: your drone may disappear
in the sky. Similarly it applies to the roll, pitch and yaw - you may won't be able to do a
precise move at all.
Thrust:weight ratio - sample applications

● Photo and video footage drone:

○ Thrust / mass: from 3:1 to 4:1
● Racing drone:
○ At least 5:1
○ Common is 10:1 and even 13:1
Some considerations about electric motors
and propulsion

● In theory:
○ The higher the KV, the lower the torque, the lower the KV the higher the torque (assuming
same power consumption).
○ It is a rule of thumb but in reality… KV is not so directly bound to the thrust, because:
■ Electric DC brushless motors presenting high KV present low resistance (shorter
coil windings) that simply means the maximum voltage is lower as current is high.
Assuming P=U*I, those engines are limited with maximum power that is related to
the heat dispersion capabilities.
○ It is common assumption that motors with different KV but same internal construction,
present ability to generate pretty same maximum thrust:
■ In case of the motor with lower KV you need to apply higher voltage to achieve
same rotation speed.
Some considerations about electric motors
and propulsion

● Because o aforementioned relation, it is not always true, that the motor

with higher KV will present better thrust:mass ratio. Rule is not so
straightforward as it may look.
Some considerations about electric motors
and propulsion

● Electric brushless DC motor is controlled with 3 phase = there are 3 wires

● Exchanging any of 2 wires will change its rotation direction
● Why there are CW and CCW motors on the market?
○ The reason is “self-locking” mechanism on the motors shaft in case of use of the
threaded propeller mount.
Some considerations about electric motors
and propulsion

● In case of the drones where thrust:mass ratio is high (i.e. FPV racing
drones) that use high KV motors there is known problem with oscillations
and resonance, hard to be removed / compensated.
○ For this reason, FC (problem affects IMU readings) is commonly mounted on the
dumpers.
Mechanical motor mounts

● In case of majority of the racing drones, motor to frame mount is using

standardised templates:
○ 12x16mm
○ 16x16mm
○ 16x19mm
ESCs

Microcontrollers and firmware

Communication protocols
ESC microcontrollers and their firmware

● Indeed, even simplest ESC has a built in MCU! It is 8 bit one, usually.
○ Lates solutions employ 32-bit microcontrollers.
● If there is an MCU, then there is a firmware
○ Majority is based on the open source:
■ SimonK
■ BLHeli
■ BLHeli_S
■ BLHeli_32
○ Or closed:
■ KISS ESC Firmware
ESC microcontrollers and their firmware

● Most common MCUs include:

○ ATMEL 8-bit (SimonK or BLHeli firmware)
○ SILABS 8-bit (BLHeli or BLHeli_S firmware)
■ SILABS F330 i F39X
● Currently used
○ BusyBee1 – BB1 (EFM8BB10F8)
○ BusyBee2 – BB2 (EFM8BB21F16)
○ Atmel ARM Cortex 32-bit (BLHeli_32 firmware)
■ Most common is STM32 F0
ESC microcontrollers and their firmware

● It means, ESCs are “programmable”:

○ Programming here means configuration, and it is done via so called
“cards”, separate (serial) port, eventually via PWM change
sequence.
○ Configuration includes: rotation direction change, motor timing,
IDLE mode power, block/coast on idle, battery type, and many
other.
■ Motor timing it is a moment of time when coil (wing)
generates highest electromagnetic field. One can tune it
against magnets position to achieve slightly better KV value
(motor tuning).
ESC control protocols

● It regards communication in between ESC and FC.

● Protocol has specific features, its timing defines responsiveness.
● In the order of the development (oldest first):
○ Standard PWM - up to 2ms delay
○ Oneshot125
○ Oneshot42
○ Multishot
○ DShot (DShot150, DShot300, DShot600, DShot1200)
○ ProShot - 5-25us delay
Configurations

How to build a multirotor

from scratch?
Configurations

● Order of configuring a new drone and selecting components (this

process is to be repeated in the loop, if finally battery mass is
inadequate):
Frame -> Propellers -> Motors -> ESC -> Battery
Frame size (mm) Propeller size (inch) Motor type (size) KV

<=150 mm 3” lor smaller 1105 - 1306 >=3000KV

180 mm 4” 1806, 2204 2600KV - 3000KV

210 mm 5” 2205 - 2208, 2305 - 2306 2300KV - 2600KV

250 mm 6” 2206 - 2208, 2306 2000KV - 2300KV

350 mm 7” 2506 - 2508 1200KV - 1600KV

450 mm 8”, 9”, 10” and larger 26XX and bigger <=1200KV

Konfiguracje - wskazówki i dobre praktyki

Multirotors Cameras

Transmitters
FPV gear
Cameras
Sizes

Sensors

Ratios

FOV

Lenses

Recording type PAL/NTSC

Resolutions and latency

Configurations and summary

Camera size

● In FPV world when using component-based build, camera size is usually

standardised to:
○ 28mm - standard (so called “full size” camera)
○ 21mm - mini
○ 19mm - micro
○ 14mm - nano
● There are AIO solutions, integrating antenna with transmitter.
● Weight
○ Usually in between 4 and 20g
■ Popular action cameras are not suitable here as they are far more heavy
Sensors

● CCD
○ Global snapshot when taking photo - full sensor content is collected at once
○ Lower resolutions comparing to the CMOS
○ Image colours seem more neutral
○ Image dynamics range is acceptable but worse than CMOS
○ Usually higher contrast than CMOS
● CMOS
○ Lower latency than CCD
○ Higher resolution and image sharpness than CCD
○ Flowing snapshot: line by line, causing “jello” effect.
Ratios

● Common ratios are (horizontal:vertical):

○ 4:3
○ 16:9
● It is important to fit it to the display equipment (LCD monitor, FPV
goggles).
○ Standard “analogue” transmission is fixed 4:3 both for PAL and NTSC.
○ Analogue photo SLR camera is 3:2 and digital SLR is 4:3.
FOV

● Field of view:
○ Large (shorter focal) = wide angle,
■ It enables you to see almost around in wide perspective but due to the low
resolution there are no details visible
○ Small (longer focal) = wide angle,
■ It enables you to see details but there is no wide context
● In some cameras, focal can be changed with interchangeable lenses or
zoom lenses (driven by separate channel, usually servo or brushless
motor):
○ In general, in FPV cameras zoom is not used because of the weight and complex
mechanics
 Focal length FOV (degrees)

1.8 mm 160-170

2.1 mm 150-160

2.3 mm 140-150

2.5 mm 130-140

2.8 mm 120-130

3.0 mm 110-120

FOV is calculated for typical ⅓” sensor and 4:3 ratio. Sensor change impacts FOV with preselected focal length
FOV

● Depends on the utility and individual preferences but common starting

point is about 150 degrees, giving it good situation overview with
acceptable details recognition possibility
○ Flight speed and drone construction impacts on the FOV selection.
Lenses

● In majority of the cameras, lens can be unscrewed and replaced

“wykręcić”.
○ Moving the lens forth and back changes focus point. While wide lens is barely affected,
narrow lens requires precise calibration, otherwise image will be unsharp and blurry!
● For standard and mini camera sizes:
○ Lens mount is M12 (12mm diameter - thread=12mm)
● For smaller than mini camera sizes:
○ Lens mount is M8 (8mm diameter - thread=8mm)
● “Lens glass” (it is usually plastic, however, to save on its weight) is
frequently larger than aforementioned thread (8/12mm) and stick out.
Analogue video transmission standards

● In general, there are two standards in the world, related to the AC

frequency (½ of it):
○ PAL: 576 lines (720x576px), 25fps - mainly used in Europa, Africa i China, India and
Australia, also partially in South America.
○ NTSC: 480 lines (720x480px), 30fps - slightly smoother image, mainly used in USA and
Japan.
● Mentioned above are transmission, not camera standards
Resolutions and latency

● Analogue cameras’ resolution is specified by TVL (number of TV lines

that the sensor can record:
○ TVL is a number of alternating black and white lines that camera sensor can register,
theoretically.
● Common TVL values are:
○ 600, 700, 800 and 1200.
● Because of the analogue transmission limitations, it is not rule that
higher TVL camera brings better image. Transmission limits impact final
result significantly.
Resolutions and latency

● Transmission latency is crucial in high speed missions, in particular, FPV

racing:
○ I.e. if drone moves forwards with constant speed of 120km/h, assuming transmission
latency is 50ms, the error when approaching the obstacle is 1.6m. You’re already 1.6
closer to the obstacle when you notice the obstacle in your googles (or on the monitor).
Camera configurations

● Minimalistic set it when camera is directly bound to the RF video transmitter

(video downlink).
● Common set includes intermediate image processing, so called OSD (part of
FC, or a separate module interfacing with FC), where number of information is
overlaid on the video stream. Cameras used to provide configuration channel
that one can change their parameters, even during flight, directly via some
uplink or indirectly via FC, such as:
○ white balance
○ contrast, brightness, gamma,
○ sensor sensitivity (ISO)
○ other
Camera configurations

● To register analogue signal it is common to use A/D converters

(recorders) that record to the flash memory, commonly TF card:
○ it can be located locally in the drone:
■ Dedicated or integrated with the camera / video transmitter
■ FC integrated
○ or it can be located in the ground section:
■ In RC receiver or FPV goggles,
■ As dedicated DVR device
● As analogue transmission is more vulnerable to the interference, it is
better to record “in drone”, to achieve higher image quality.
Radio transmission
Components

Theoretical model

External factors and their impact

on the transmission range and
efficiency
RF transmission components in general

● In the physical layer it is FM transmission

● Video downlink (FPV) is composed of (at least):
○ Camera
○ Transmitter
○ TX antenna
○ Air
○ RX antenna
○ Receiver / decoder
○ Display
RF transmission physics

● Radio signal level can be measured with dB.

○ It is logarithmic scale, so:
■ Change by 3dB equals twice as much (or less) the signal to become.
● Each of the aforementioned (underlined) components of RF transmission
solution has its own sensitivity and amplification, as measured in dB.
● Their total relation impacts theoretical transmission range.
○ In practice, variety of other factors impacts transmission range.
RF transmission simplified model

● Link budget represent effective gain given in “dB” (summarising

amplifications and losses).
○ The higher the link budget, the longer the range.
○ In theory, link budget drop to zero (or any other minimum value required for reliable
connectivity) defines maximum range.
■ In practice, video stream is no longer delivered, telemetry and RC is down and
there is no control over the UAV, thus reaching this limit is very dangerous.
RF transmission simplified model

● In case of the analogue FPV video transmission, link budget is calculated as follows:
○ Sum of gains of the sender and the receiver antennas
■ Measured in the isotropic decibel (dBi = related to the “ideal antenna”)
○ Transmitter power
■ Given in dBm (decibel related to the transmission power), calculated following way
1 dBm = 10*log10(mW)
1 mW = 10^(dBm/10)
■ For typical, max allowed, 200 m transmitter, it is 23.01 dBm
○ Receiver sensitivity
■ Provided as “negative” (below zero) dB, usually around -85dB up to -90dB
● Majority of receivers present this sensitivity and it is not very frequently specified in the
documentation, so it is reasonable to assume -90dB as common.
RF transmission simplified model

● How to estimate range then?

○ First of all, we assume a “link margin”, about 12dB (LM) - a value that presents
reasonable approach to the margin for transmission fluctuations regarding other
factors. Below this value, transmission of the video may still be possible but video
stream may be broken, noisy and disappear.
○ Range = 10^(((X-LM-32.44)-20*log10(f))/20)
■ Whereas X is calculated as a sum of the:
X = aRXGain+aTXGain + TXP - RXS , where:
● aRXGain, aTXGain present antenna gain (receiver and transmitter, respectively),
● TXP power transmission (in dBm, not in mW!),
● RXS - receiver sensitivity
■ f - Video link frequency in MHz (usually 5800 = 5.8GHz, but there are others)
Video link
transmission range
regarding power
and gain
Relation between antennas summary
gain and transmission power.

As one can observe, it is antenna gain

that brings better result than
increasing transmission power.
Video link
transmission range
regarding power
and gain

Relation between transmission power

and fpv transmission range, assuming
fixed hardware configuration.
Video link
transmission range
regarding power
and gain
Relation between FPV range and
antenna gain, regarding fixed
transmission power
External factors affecting transmission
range

● Radio interferences from other transmitters (also from other

frequencies via resonation).
● TXP (transmission power) drops with transmitter overheating
● Physical relation between transmitter and receiver antennas (as for
simple wire/monopole antenna):
○ 45 degrees unalignment -> about -3dB
○ 90 degrees unalignment -> about -20dB !!!!!!
○ Two monopole antennas pointing one to another (common mistake for
beginners): -30dB
External factors affecting transmission
range - polarisation conversion

● Polarisation conversion:
○ Linear to coaxial -> about -3dB
○ Right coaxial to left coaxial -20dB
100%
Koniec wykładów