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UNIT II – THE INDIVIDUAL

MODULE 5: PERSONALITY AND VALUES

At the end of the module, the student is expected to be able to:

1. Define personality, describe how it is measured, and explain the factors that
determine an individual’s personality;
2. Describe the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality framework and assess
its strengths and weaknesses;
3. Identify the key traits in the Big Five personality model;
4. Demonstrate how the Big Five traits predict behavior at work;
5. Identify other personality traits relevant to OB;
6. Define values, demonstrate the importance of values, and contrast terminal and
instrumental values;
7. Compare generational differences in values and identify the dominant values in
today’s workforce; and
8. Identify Hofstede’s five value dimensions of national culture.

INTRODUCTION

Employees with different values may enact different behaviors to achieve their
work goals, and these differences can be a reflection of culture. In the first half of this
module, we review the research on personality and its relationship to behavior. In the
latter half, we look at how values shape many of our work-related behaviors.

PERSONALITY

What is Personality?

When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic concept

describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system.
The definition of personality we most frequently use was produced by Gordon Allport
nearly 70 years ago. Allport said personality is “the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to
his environment”. For our purposes, you should think of personality as the sum total
of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. We most often
describe it in terms of the measurable traits a person exhibits.

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Measuring Personality

The most important reason managers need to know how to measure

personality is that research has shown personality tests are useful in hiring decisions
and help managers forecast who is best for a job. The means of measuring personality
are:
1. Self-report – individuals evaluate themselves on a series of factors.
2. Observer-rating surveys – provide an independent assessment of
personality; a co-worker or another observer does the rating (sometimes with
the subject’s knowledge and sometimes not).

Personality Determinants

An early debate in personality research centered on whether an individual’s

personality was the result of heredity or of environment. It appears to be a result of
both. However, it might surprise you that research tends to support the importance of
heredity over the environment.

1. Heredity refers to factors determined at conception. Physical stature, facial

attractiveness, gender, temperance, muscle composition and reflexes, energy
level, and biological rhythms are generally considered to be either completely
or substantially influence by who your parents are – that is, by their biological,
physiological, and inherent physiological, and inherent pyschological makeup.
The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s
personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the
chromosomes.
2. The environment that contributes to your personality can include where
you live, cultural and spiritual influences, your economic security, and
family, friend, and work experiences. Your social experiences help shape
your personality because they help you learn what different looks like. In other
words, you may see someone who is selfish or angry and think to yourself that
unlike that person, you are generous and calm.
3. Life experiences, such as traumatic experiences early on in childhood, or even
as you are developing a personality in your teen years, can have an impact on
determining your personality. We develop fears early in life and these are
sustained until they are disproven by our experiences. For example, if you are
afraid of spiders but then have a good experience with someone’s pet tarantula,
you may change your mind about them.

Personality Framework

Early work on the structure of personality tried to identify and label enduring
characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior, including shy, aggressive,
submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid. When someone exhibits these
characteristics in a large number of situations, we call them personality traits of that
person. The more consistent the characteristic over time, and the more frequently it
occurs in diverse situations, the more important that trait is in describing the individual.

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Early efforts to identify the primary traits that govern behavior often resulted in
long lists that were difficult to generalize from and provided little practical guidance to
organizational decision makers. Two exceptions are the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
and the Big Five Model, now the dominant frameworks for identifying and classifying
traits.

1. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the most widely used personality-
assessment instrument in the world. It is a 100-question personality test that
asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations. Respondents
are classified as follows:
 Extraverted (E) versus Introverted (I). Extraverted individuals are
outgoing, sociable, and assertive. Introverts are quiet and shy.
 Sensing (s) versus Intuitive (N). Sensing types are practical and prefer
routine and order. They focus on details. Intuitives rely on unconscious
processes and look at the “big picture”.
 Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F). Thinking types use reason and logic to
handle problems. Feeling types rely on their personal values and emotions.
 Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P). Judging types want control and prefer
their world to be ordered and structured. Perceiving types are flexible and
spontaneous.

These classifications together describe 16 personality types, identifying every

person by one trait from each of the four pairs. These are as follows:

 ISTJ

The combination of introspective thought and a firm adherence to logic and structure
makes an ISTJ a highly effective employee. An ISTJ type will excel in positions that
require organization and can operate well without the need for close oversight and
management. An ISTJ often puts a high value on learning, leading to a diverse skill
set that can offer many potential career opportunities.

 ISTP

Although similar to ISTJ types, an ISTP is less bound to structure in their daily life.
This type is well-suited for practical fields, such as artisan construction and design. A
commitment to learning and introspective study is useful for developing the skills
needed to excel, while the ability to react in the moment and operate outside of normal
constructs on occasion provides the creative intuition needed to make unique
constructions. An ISTP type will often enjoy jobs that allow them to work independently
for much of the day.

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 ISFJ

This personality type is well-suited for service and healthcare positions, as ISFJs are
inclined to infer information from what they directly experience and work well when
operating under strictly defined procedures. These individuals have a keen
understanding of their own emotions in addition to others’, so they often excel at
empathy, which can have a calming influence on those they care for.

 ISFP

The ISFP personality type is associated with creative professionals who tend to
function best as individuals. Although an ISFP may prefer to base their decisions on a
grounding of personal experience, they’re comfortable improvising and relying on their
initial reactions and feelings as opposed to being strictly bound to logical thinking.

 INTJ

With their mix of creative and logical thinking processes, INTJ personality types are
well-equipped to succeed in roles where they are placed in charge of strategic
planning. An INTJ enjoys spending time inwardly reflecting and assessing and prefers
working according to a structured plan, which further increases their suitability for such
a role.

If you are an INTJ type, you are likely to excel in fields like project management, where
you can use your talents to lead a team in the completion of a project. You can apply
this ability across a broad range of potential industries.

 INTP

INTPs tend to be creative thinkers who excel in less conventional working

opportunities. An INTP may prefer to work in a setting where they have a great deal
of creative freedom to approach their tasks in unique ways and if given the choice,
they would probably like to work with minimal direct oversight before completing a
project.

Although an INTP does like to base their decisions on a foundation of sound logical
conclusions, they also enjoy analyzing those basic principles deeply to identify ways
to separate themselves from traditional approaches to sensing new ways of
completing the task more efficiently.

 INFJ

The INFJ is commonly drawn to a field where they can work with others and help them
fit into a larger framework effectively, such as work in human resources or counseling.
Their strong ability to read situations and relate to others through their own

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experiences makes it easier to form bonds. Their tendency toward structure and
guidelines can help them assist others in training and learning new ideas.

 INFP

INFPs are highly creative, introverted individuals. Their intuitive and feeling
approaches to daily life mean they place more weight on what they can feel than what
others present. They also tend to prefer an open working environment where they are
free to create under less strict guidelines. They often excel in positions where they are
tasked with addressing a long-term approach for a company, providing smaller
objectives for others to achieve the goal.

 ESTJ

An ESTJ professional can be an excellent fit for a management or supervisory position

within a company. As an extrovert, they are comfortable working with others and
expressing themselves outwardly, while their natural inclination toward order means
they are adept at keeping a team within a company’s guidelines. They often work well
when paired with one or more staff members who are more creatively attuned.

 ESTP

ESTPs tend to be motivated professionals who like to make their own interpretations
of guidelines. ESTPs work well with others and like to make a decision by analyzing
data and facts thoroughly. While much of their approach is highly traditional, an ESTP
is likely to apply the information they gather less conventionally, preferring to pursue
the method they believe will be most effective. Often, ESTPs are the innovators of
their field.

 ESFJ

These individuals are best suited to work in structured environments that require them
to understand and respond to the feelings and needs of others, such as care or service
positions. An ESFJ is likely to be detail oriented and comfortable working within a set
framework of responsibilities and procedures. They are also adept at reading others
and accommodating them as needed to keep those they serve comfortable and happy.

 ESFP

This is the most common personality type for individuals who work in performative
fields. ESFPs' extroverted nature means they are comfortable performing in front of
large groups, and a willingness to react in the moment and remain tuned into their
emotions and the emotions of those around them can yield powerful performances.
They prefer following a loose structure or outline in which they can apply their abilities.

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 ENTJ

An individual with an ENTJ classification is likely to excel in a leadership position within

a creative field, such as marketing or product development. They have the ability to
command a room, and their preference for a logical and structured approach to
completing tasks is useful for keeping a team on plan. They can identify an opportunity
and know how to create innovative approaches to common challenges.

 ENTP

ENTPs are highly analytical. They enjoy finding creative solutions to problems and will
thrive in a setting where they have the freedom to pursue alternative courses of action.
All of these traits combine with a strong belief in the value of logic over emotion to
create a mind well-suited to analyzing a set of information and identifying new, more
effective approaches.

 ENFJ

An ENFJ type is usually a very engaging person who can make friends wherever they
work. Although they have a strong connection with their own feelings and those of
others around them, they maintain a preference for working within a well-defined set
of guidelines. These skills can be applied across a variety of industries in any position
where structured work is important, such as teaching or managing.

 ENFP

Those with ENFP classification often prefer working alone but can also serve as an
inspiration in the workplace. They are excellent at working in a large group and prefer
to make their own plans and passionately defend the viability of their proposed
solutions. They are less interested in assessing the logical value of a proposal than
they are in assessing its emotional appeal.

2. The Big Five Personality Model

The MBTI may lack strong supporting evidence, but an impressive body of
research supports the thesis of the Big Five Model – that five basic dimensions
underlie all others and encompass most of the significant variation in human
personality. Moreover, test scores of these traits do a very good job of
predicting how people behave in a variety of real-life situations. The following
are the Big Five Factors:

 Extraversion. The extraversion dimension captures our comfort level with

relationships. Extraverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable.
Introverts tend to be reserved, timid, and quiet.
 Agreeableness. The agreeableness dimension refers to an individual’s
propensity to defer to others. Highly agreeable people are cooperative,

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warm, and trusting. People who score low on agreeableness are cold,
disagreeable, and antagonistic.
 Conscientiousness. The conscientiousness dimension is a measure of
reliability. A highly conscientious person is responsible, organized,
dependable, and persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are
easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable.
 Emotional stability. The emotional stability dimension – often labeled by
its converse, neuroticism – taps a person’s ability to withstand stress.
People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and
secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, anxious,
depressed, and insecure.
 Openness to experience. The openness to experience dimension
addresses range of interests and fascination with novelty. Extremely open
people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the other
end of the category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar.

Table 5 – 1 TRAITS THAT MATTER MOST TO BUSINESS SUCCESS AT

BUYOUT COMPANIES

MOST IMPORTANT LESS IMPORTANT

Persistence Strong oral communication
Attention to detail Teamwork
Efficiency Flexibility/Adaptability
Analytical skills Enthusiasm
Setting high standards Listening skills

Table 5 – 2 MODEL OF HOW BIG FIVE TRAITS INFLUENCE OB CRITERIA

BIG FIVE TRAITS WHY IS IT RELEVANT? WHAT DOES IT AFFECT?

Emotional stability  Less negative  Higher job and life
thinking and satisfaction
fewer negative  Lower stress
emotions levels
 Less hyper-
vigilant
Extroversion  Better  Higher
interpersonal performance
skills  Enhanced
 Greater social leadership
dominance  Higher job and life
 More satisfaction
emotionally
expressive
Openness  Increased  Training
learning performance
 More creative  Enhanced
leadership

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 More flexible  More adaptable to

and change
autonomous
Agreeableness  Better liked  Higher
 More performance (in
compliant and jobs requiring
conforming significant
teamwork or
frequent
interpersonal
interactions)
 Lower levels of
deviant behavior

Conscientiousness  Greater effort  Higher

and performance
persistence  Enhanced
 More drive and leadership
discipline  Greater longevity
 Better
organized and
planning

Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB

1. Core Self-Evaluation – bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their

capabilities, competence, and worth as a person. People who have positive
core self-evaluations like themselves and see themselves as effective, capable,
and in control of their environment. Those with negative core self-evaluations
tend to dislike themselves, question their capabilities, and view themselves as
powerless over their environment. People with positive core self-evaluations
perform better than others because they set more ambitious goals, are more
committed to their goals, and persist longer in attempting to reach these goals.
Such people also provide better customer service, are more popular co-
workers, and have careers that both begin on better footing and ascend more
rapidly over time. Some evidence suggests that individuals high in core self-
evaluations perform especially well if they also feel their work provide meaning
and is helpful to others. Can we be too positive? What happens when someone
thinks he is capable but is actually incompetent? One study of Fortune 500
CEOs showed that many are overconfident, and their perceived infallibility often
causes them to make bad decisions.

2. Machiavellianism. The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains

emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. The personality
characteristic of Machiavellianism (often abbreviated Mach) is named after
Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote in the sixteenth century on how to gain and use

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power. “If it works, use it” is consistent with a high-Mach perspective. A

considerable amount of research has found high Machs manipulate more, win
more, are persuaded less, and persuade others more than do low Machs. They
like their jobs less, are more stressed by their work, and engage in more deviant
work behaviors. Yet high-Mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors.
High Machs flourish when:

 They interact face to face with others rather than indirectly;

 The situation has minimal rules and regulations, allowing latitude for
improvisation; and
 Emotional involvement with details irrelevant to winning distracts low
Machs.

Thus, in jobs that require bargaining skills (such as labor negotiation) or that
offer substantial rewards for winning (such as commission and sales), high
Machs will be productive. But if ends cannot justify the means, there are
absolute standards of behavior, or the three situational factors we noted are in
evidence, our ability to predict a high Mach’s performance will be severely
curtailed.

3. Narcissism. The term is from the Greek myth of Narcissus, a man so vain and
proud he fell in love with his own image. In psychology, narcissism describes a
person who has a grandiose sense of self-importance, requires excessive
admiration, has a sense of entitlement, and is arrogant. Evidence suggests that
narcissists are more charismatic and thus more likely to emerge as leaders,
and they may even display better psychological health (at least as they self-
report). Despite having some advantages, most evidence suggests that
narcissism is undesirable. A study found that while narcissists thought they
were better leaders than their colleagues, their supervisors actually rated them
as worse. Because narcissist often want to gain the admiration of others and
receive affirmation of their superiority, they tend to “talk down” to those who
threaten them, treating others as if they were inferior. Narcissists also tend to
be selfish and exploitive and believe others exist for their benefit. Their bosses
rate them as less effective at their jobs than others, particularly when it comes
to helping people. Subsequent research using data compiled over 100 years
has shown that narcissistic CEOs of baseball organizations tend to generate
higher levels of manager turnover, although curiously, members of external
organizations see them as more influential.

4. Self-Monitoring refers to an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to

external, situational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring show
considerable adaptability in adjusting their behavior to external situational
factors. They are highly sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in
different situations, sometimes presenting striking contradictions between their
persona and their private self. Low self-monitors cannot disguise themselves in
that way. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every
situation; hence, there is high behavioral consistency between who they are
and what they do. Evidence indicates high self-monitors pay closer attention to
the behavior of others and are more capable of conforming than are low self-

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monitors. They also receive better performance ratings, are more likely to
emerge as leaders, and show less commitment to their organizations. In
addition, high self-monitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their careers,
receive more promotions (both internal and cross-organizational), and are more
likely to occupy central positions in an organization.

5. Risk Taking. People differ in their willingness to take chances, a quality that
affects how much time and information they need to make a decision. For
instance, 79 managers worked on simulated exercises that required them to
make hiring decisions. High risk-taking managers made more rapid decisions
and used less information than did the low risk takers. Interestingly, decision
accuracy was the same for both groups. Although previous studies have shown
managers in large organizations to be more risk averse than growth-oriented
entrepreneurs who actively manage small businesses, recent findings suggest
managers in large organizations may actually be more willing to take risks than
entrepreneurs. The work population as a whole also differs in risk propensity. It
makes sense to recognize these differences and even consider aligning them
with specific job demands. A high risk-taking propensity may lead to more
effective performance for a stock trader in a brokerage firm because that type
of job demands rapid decision making. On the other hand, a willingness to take
risks might prove a major obstacle to an accountant who performs auditing
activities.

6. Proactive Personality. Those with proactive personality identify opportunities,

show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs,
compared to others who passively react to situations. Proactives create positive
change in their environment, regardless of, or even in spite of, constraints or
obstacles. Not surprisingly, they have many desirable behaviors that
organizations covet. They are more likely than others to be seen as leaders and
to act as change agents. Proactive individuals are more likely to be satisfied
with work and help others more with their tasks, largely because they build more
relationships with others. Proactives are also more likely to challenge the status
quo or voice their displeasure when situations are not to their liking. If an
organization requires people with entrepreneurial initiative, proactives make
good candidates; however, they are also more likely to leave an organization
to start their own business. As individuals, proactives are more likely than
others to achieve career success. They select, create, and influence work
situations in their favor. They seek out job and organizational information,
develop contacts in high places, engage in career planning, and demonstrate
persistence in the face of career obstacles.

7. Other-orientation. Some people just naturally seem to think about other

people a lot, being concerned about their well-being and feelings. Others
behave like “economic actors”, primarily rational and self-interested. These
differences reflect varying levels of other-orientation, a personality trait that
reflects the extent to which decisions are affected by social influences and
concern versus our own well-being and outcomes. What are the consequences

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of having a high level of other-orientation? Those who are other-oriented feel

more obligated to help others who have helped them (pay me back), whereas
those who are more self-oriented will help others when they expect to be helped
in the future (pay me forward). Employees high in other-orientation also exert
especially high levels of effort when engaged in helping work or prosocial
behavior. In sum, it appears that having a strong orientation toward helping
others does affect some behaviors that actually matter for organizations.
However, research is still needed to clarify this emerging construct and its
relationship with agreeableness.

VALUES

Values represent basic convictions that a “specific mode of conduct or end-

state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode
of conduct or end-state of existence. They contain a judgmental element in that they
carry an individual’s ideas as to what is right, good, or desirable. Values have both
content and intensity attributes.
 The content attribute says a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is
important.
 The intensity attribute specifies how important it is.
When we rank an individual’s values in terms of their intensity, we obtain that
person’s value system. All of us have a hierarchy of values that forms our value
system. We find it in the relative importance we assign to values such as freedom,
pleasure, self-respect, honesty, obedience, and equality. Are values fluid and flexible?
Generally speaking, no. they tend to be relatively stable and enduring. A significant
portion of the values we hold is established in our early years – by parents, teachers,
friends, and others. As children, we are told certain behaviors or outcomes are always
desirable or always undesirable, with few gray areas. You were never taught to be just
a little bit honest or a little bit responsible, for example. It is this absolute, or “black-or-
white”, learning of values that ensures their stability and endurance. If we question our
values, of course, they may change, but more often they are reinforced. There is also
evidence linking personality to values, implying our values may be partly determined
by our genetically transmitted traits.

The Importance of Values

Values lay the foundation for our understanding of people’s attitudes and
motivation and influence our perceptions. We enter an organization with preconceived
notions of what “ought” and “ought not” to be. These notions are not value-free; on the
contrary, they contain our interpretations of right and wrong and our preference for
certain behaviors or outcomes over others. As a result, values cloud objectivity and
rationality; they influence attitudes and behavior.

Suppose you enter an organization with the view that allocating pay on the
basis of performance is right, while allocating pay on the basis of seniority is wrong.
How will you react if you find the organization you have just joined rewards seniority
and not performance? You are likely to be disappointed – and this can lead to job
dissatisfaction and a decision not to exert a high level of effort because “It is probably

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not going to lead to more money anyway”. Would your attitudes and behavior be
different if your values aligned with the organization’s pay policy? Most likely.

Terminal versus Instrumental Values

Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS). It consists of two
sets of values, each containing 18 individual value items. These are as follows:
1. Terminal Values – refers to desirable end-states. These are the goals a person
would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.

The terminal values in RVS are:

 True Friendship
 Mature Love
 Self-Respect
 Happiness
 Inner Harmony
 Equality
 Freedom
 Pleasure
 Social Recognition
 Wisdom
 Salvation
 Family Security
 National Security
 A Sense of Accomplishment
 A World of Beauty
 A World at Peace
 A Comfortable Life
 An Exciting Life

2. Instrumental Values – refers to preferable modes of behavior, or means of

achieving terminal values.

The Instrumental Values are:

 Cheerfulness
 Ambition
 Love
 Cleanliness
 Self-Control
 Capability
 Courage
 Politeness
 Honesty
 Imagination
 Independence
 Intellect
 Broad-Mindedness
 Logic

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 Obedience
 Helpfulness
 Responsibility
 Forgiveness

Table 5 – 3 Matching of Instrumental Values and Terminal Values

Table 5 – 4 Mean Value Ranking Executives, Union Members, and Activists

(Top Five Only)

OCCUPATIONS TERMINAL INSTRUMENTAL

Executives 1. Self-respect 1. Honest
2. Family security 2. Responsible
3. Freedom 3. Capable
4. A sense of 4. Ambitious
accomplishment
5. Happiness 5. Independent
Union Members 1. Family security 1. Responsible
2. Freedom 2. Honest
3. Happiness 3. Courageous
4. Self-respect 4. Independent
5. Mature love 5. Capable
Activists 1. Equality 1. Honest
2. A world of peace 2. Helpful

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3. Family security 3. Courageous

4. Self-respect 4. Responsible
5. Freedom 5. Capable

Generational Values

Contemporary Work Cohorts. Researchers have integrated several recent

analyses of work values into four groups that attempt to capture the unique values of
different cohorts or generations in the U.S. workforce. Table 5 -5 segments employees
by the era during which they entered the workforce. Because most people start work
between the ages of 18 and 23, the eras also correlate closely with employee age.

There are limitations of this analysis, but despite these limitations, values do
change over generations, and we can gain some useful insights from analyzing values
this way. Said limitations are:

1. We make no assumption that the framework applies across all cultures;

2. Despite a steady stream of press coverage, there is very little rigorous
research on generational values, so we have to rely on intuitive
framework; and
3. These are imprecise categories, there is no law that someone born in
1985 cannot have values similar to those of someone born in 1955.

Table 5 – 5 DOMINANT WORK VALUES IN TODAY’S WORKFORCE

COHORT ENTERED THE APPROXIMATE DOMINANT

WORKFORCE CURRENT AGE WORK VALUES
Boomers (Baby 1965 - 1985 Mid-40s to mid-60sSuccess,
Boomers) achievement,
ambition, dislike of
authority; loyalty to
career
Xers (Generation 1985 - 2000 Late 20s to early Work/life balance,
Xers) 40s team-oriented,
dislike of rules;
loyalty to
relationships
Nexters ( 2000 to present Under 30 Confident, financial
Millennials, success, self-
Netters, reliant but team-
Generation Yers, oriented; loyalty to
and Generation both self and
Nexters relationships

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LINKING AN INDIVIDUAL’S PERSONALITY AND VALUES TO THE WORKPLACE

Thirty years ago, organizations were concerned only with personality because
their primary focus was to match individuals to specific jobs. That concern has
expanded to include how well the individual’s personality and values match the
organization. Why? Because managers today are less interested in an applicant’s
ability to perform a specific job than with his or her flexibility to meet the changing
situations and commitment to the organization.

1. Person-Job Fit. The effort to match job requirements with personality

characteristics is the best articulated in John Holland’s personality-job fit theory.
Holland presents six personality types and proposes that satisfaction and the
propensity to leave a position depend on how well individuals match their
personalities to a job.

Table 5 – 6 HOLLAND’S TYPOLOGY OF PERSONALITY AND CONGRUENT

OCCUPATIONS

TYPE PERSONALITY CONGRUENT

CHARACTERISTICS OCCUPATIONS
Realistic: Prefers Shy, genuine, persistent, Mechanic, drill press
physical activities that stable, conforming, operator, assembly-line
require skill, strength, practical worker, farmer
and coordination
Investigative: prefers Analytical, original, Biologist, economist,
activities that involve curious, independent mathematician, news
thinking, organizing, and reporter
understanding
Social: prefers activities Sociable, friendly, Social worker, teacher,
that involve helping and cooperative, counselor, clinical
developing others understanding pyschologist
Conventional: prefers Conforming, efficient, Accountant, corporate
rule-regulated, orderly, practical, unimaginative, manager, bank teller, file
and unambiguous inflexible clerk
activities
Enterprising: Prefers Self-confident, ambitious, Lawyer, real estate agent,
verbal activities in which energetic, domineering public relations specialist,
there are opportunities to small business manager
influence others and
attain power
Artistic: prefers Imaginative, disorderly, Painter, musician, writer,
ambiguous and idealistic, emotional, interior decorator
unsystematic activities impractical
that allow creative
expression

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2. Person-Organization Fit

The person-organization fit essentially argues that people are attracted to and
selected by organization that match their values, and they leave organizations that
that are not compatible with their personalities. Using the Big Five terminology, for
instance, we could expect that people high on extraversion fit well with aggressive and
team-oriented cultures, that people high on agreeableness match up better with a
supportive organizational climate than one focused on aggressiveness, and that
people high on openness to experience fir better in organizations that emphasize
innovation rather than standardization. Following these guidelines at the time of hiring
should identify new employees who fit better with the organization’s culture, which
should, in turn, result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover. Research
on person-organization fit has also looked at whether people’s values match the
organization’s culture. This match predicts job satisfaction, commitment to the
organization, and low turnover. Interestingly, some research found that person-
organization fit was more important in predicting turnover in a collectivistic nation
(India) than in a more individualistic nation (the United States).

INTERNATIONAL VALUES

One of the most widely referenced approaches for analyzing variations among
cultures was done in the late 1970s by Geert Hofstede. He surveyed more than
116,000 IBM employees in 40 countries about their work-related values and found that
managers and employees vary on five value dimensions of national culture.
1. Power distance. Power distance describes the degree to which people in a
country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed
unequally. A high rating on power distance means that large inequalities of
power and wealth exist and are tolerated in the culture, as in a class or caste
system that discourages upward mobility. A low power distance rating
characterizes societies that stress equality and opportunity.
2. Individualism versus collectivism. Individualism is the degree to which
people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups that
believe in individual rights above all else. Collectivism emphasizes a tight social
framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part of
to look after them and protect them.
3. Masculinity versus femininity. Hofstede’s construct of masculinity is the
degree to which the culture favors traditional masculine roles such as
achievement, power, and control, as opposed to viewing men and women as
equals. A high masculinity rating indicates the culture has separate roles for
men and women. With men dominating the society. A high femininity rating
means the culture see little differentiation between male and female roles and
treats women as the equals of men in all respects.
4. Uncertainty avoidance. The degree to which people in a country prefer
structured over unstructured situations defines their uncertainty avoidance. In
cultures, that score high on uncertainty avoidance, people have an increased
level of anxiety about uncertainty and ambiguity, are less rule oriented, take
more risks, and more readily accept change.
5. Long-term versus short-term orientation. This newest addition to Hofstede’s
typology measures a society’s devotion to traditional values. People in a culture

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with long-term orientation look to the future and value thrift, persistence, and
tradition. In a short-term orientation people value the here and now; they accept
change more readily and do not see commitments as impediments to change.

The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures

The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE)

research program is an ongoing cross-cultural investigation of leadership and national
culture. Using data from 825 organizations in 62 countries, the GLOBE team identified
nine dimensions on which national cultures differ.

1. Power Distance. Power distance is the degree to which people accept an

unequal distribution of power and status privileges. In high power distance
countries, there is respect for age and titles, people are expected to follow rules,
and there is more tolerance for concentrated power. India, Mexico, and the
Philippines have high power distance. The United States, Australia, and Israel
have low power distance.
2. Uncertainty Avoidance. The degree to which people are uncomfortable with
risk, change, and ambiguity is called uncertainty avoidance. In high uncertainty
avoidance countries, there is a greater emphasis on rules, structure, order, and
predictability. France, Japan, and Costa Rica, for example, are countries with
high uncertainty avoidance. The United States, India, and Sweden have low
uncertainty avoidance.
3. Performance Orientation. Performance orientation is the degree to which
innovation, high standards, and excellent performance are encouraged and
rewarded. Countries with high performance orientation value materialism and
competitiveness, and they expect to invest in training to promote performance
improvements. The United States and European countries have high
performance orientations; Argentina, Russia, and Greece have low performance
orientations.
4. Assertiveness. Assertiveness is the degree to which individuals are forceful,
confrontational, and aggressive, as opposed to cooperative and compassionate.
In high assertiveness countries such as the United States, Germany, and
Mexico, communication is direct and unambiguous. Individual initiative is
encouraged, and relationships are likely to be competitive. Countries with low
assertiveness rankings are Switzerland and New Zealand. Managers in these
countries are more likely to look for consensus and cooperative decision making.
5. Future Orientation. The degree to which delayed gratification and planning for
the future are valued over short-term gains is called future orientation. Countries
with high future orientation encourage investments for future payoffs over
immediate consumption. It is similar to the ability of individuals to delay
gratification. Canada, Switzerland, and Malaysia have high future orientation;
Poland, Argentina, and Russia have low future orientation.
6. Humane Orientation. The degree to which fairness, altruism, generosity, and
kindness are encouraged and valued is a measure of a country’s humane
orientation. In nations with high humane orientation, individuals are responsible
for promoting the well-being of others as opposed to the state providing social

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and economic support. The Philippines, Ireland, and Egypt have high humane
orientation; France, Germany, and Singapore have low humane orientation.
7. Institutional Collectivism. Institutional collectivism is the degree to which
organizational and societal institutions encourage individuals to be integrated
into groups and organizations. In high institutional collectivism countries,
collective distribution of resources and collective action are encouraged. Group
loyalty is encouraged, even if it undermines the pursuit of individual goals.
Sweden, Japan, and Singapore are examples of countries that have high
institutional collectivism; Germany, Argentina, and Italy have low institutional
collectivism. In the United States, low institutional collectivism has resulted in
debates on appropriate work-life balance.
8. In-Group Collectivism. In-group collectivism is the degree to which individuals
express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families. In
countries with high institutional collectivism, individuals identify with their families
or organizations and duties and obligations determine behaviors. A strong
distinction is made between individuals who are in a group and those who are
not. India, Egypt, and China are examples of countries that have high institutional
collectivism; Sweden, New Zealand, and Finland have low institutional
collectivism.
9. Gender Egalitarianism. The degree to which male and female equality is
actualized is called gender egalitarianism. Countries with high gender
egalitarianism provide more opportunities for women and have more women in
positions of power. Sweden, Poland, and Costa Rica have high gender
egalitarianism. Japan, Italy, and Egypt have low gender egalitarianism. In these
countries, women generally have lower status at work and in the culture.

CONCLUSION

What value, if any, does the Big Five model provide to managers? From the
early 1900s through the mid-1980s, researchers sought a link between personality
and job performance. “The outcome of those 80-plus years of research was that
personality and job performance were not meaningfully related across traits or
situations. However, the past 20 years have been more promising, largely due to the
findings about the Big Five.

Why is it important to know an individual’s values? Values often underlie and

explain attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions. So knowledge of an individual’s value
system can provide insight into what makes the person “tick”.

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REFERENCES

ROBBINS, STEPHEN P and JUDGE, TIMOTHY A., 15th Ed. Organizational

Behavior, Pearson Education Inc., Prentice Hall, 2013

[Link]
[Link]
personality-types
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

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SAQ 1

Directions: Identify the following.

1. Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior.
2. A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of
16 personality types.
3. A personality assessment model that taps five basic dimensions.
4. Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is
personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or
end-state of existence.
5. A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their
intensity.
6. A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between
personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction nd
turnover.
7. The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance,
and believes that ends can justify means.
8. The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance,
require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.
9. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts
that power in institutions and organization is distributed unequally.
10. Factors determined at conception; one’s biological, physiological, and inherent
psychological makeup.

ASAQ 1
1. Personality
2. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
3. Big Five Model
4. Values
5. Value System
6. Personality-Job Fit Theory
7. Machiavellianism
8. Narcissism
9. Power Distance
10. Heredity

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ACTIVITY 1

Cite three examples of best careers for the following personalities.

MBTI Best Careers

Personalities
ISTJ
ISTP
ISFJ
ISFP
INTJ
INTP
INFJ
INFP
ESTJ
ESTP
ESFJ
ESFP
ENTJ
ENTP
ENFJ
ENFP

ACTIVITY 2

Compare and contrast Hofstede’s Five Value Dimensions of National

Culture and the GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures.

RUBRICS

Directions: Please refer to the RUBRICS as your guide in answering the activities.

CRITERIA EXCELLENT GOOD FAIR POOR

Accuracy All of the Most of the Some of
the Few to none of
answers are answers are answers
are the answers
correct correct correct
are correct
Completion All of the Most of the Some of
the Student did
assigned work assigned work answers
are not
is complete is complete correct
accomplish
the assigned
work
Timeliness Assignment Assignment Assignment Assignment
was received was received was received was received
on the due one day late two days late 3 days late
date

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