9.

Current Electricity
1. Define potential gradient of the potentiometre wire (March 2022,July 2023 (1)
2. Distinguish between potentiometer and voltmeter (March 2022) (2)
3. What is shunt (March 2022) (1)
4. State kirchhoff's law of electric network (July 2022) (2)
5. What is the value of resistance for an ideal voltmeter? (Feb 2023, Feb 2024) (1)
6. How will you convert a moving coil galvanometer into an ammeter? (Feb 2023) (2)
7. Explain the use of potentiometer to determine the internal resistance of a cell
(Feb 2023) (3)
8. For moving coil show that S= G/( n-1) (July 2023) (2)
9. Distinguish between ammeter and voltmeter (Feb 2024) (3)
Kirchhoff’s Laws of Electrical Network
some terms used for electrical circuits.

Junction: Any point in an electric circuit where
two or more conductors are joined together is a
junction.

Loop: Any closed conducting path in an electric
network is called a loop or mesh.

Branch: A branch is any part of the network that
lies between two junctions.
1.Kirchhoff’s First Law: (Current law/Junction law)
The algebraic sum of the currents at a junction in an
electrical network, is zero i.e.ΣIi = 0
where Ii is the current in the ith conductor at a junction
having n conductors.

2.Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

The algebraic sum of the potential differences (products of current and
resistance) and the electromotive forces (emfs) in a closed loop is zero.
Wheatstone Bridge:
Wheatstone’s bridge is generally used to measure resistances in the range
from tens of ohm to hundreds of ohms.
Four resistances P, Q, R and S are connected to
form a quadrilateral ABCD as shown in the Fig.
A battery of emf H along with a key is connected
between the points A and C such that point A is
at higher potential with respect to the point C. A
galvanometer of internal resistance G is
connected between points B and D
When the key is closed, current I flows through the circuit. It divides into I1 and
I2 at point A. I1is the current through P and I2 is the current through S. The
current I1gets divided at point B. Let Ig be the current flowing through the
galvanometer. The currents flowing through Q and R are (I1–Ig) and (I2 + Ig)
respectively. From Fig.
Application of Wheatstone bridge:

1 Metre Bridge:
Metre bridge consists of a wire of uniform cross
section and one metre in length,
stretched on a metre scale which is fixed on a
wooden table.
The ends of the wire are fixed below two L
shaped metallic strips.

A single metallic strip separates the two L
shaped strips leaving two gaps, left gap and right
gap.
an unknown resistance X is connected in the left
gap and a resistance box is connected in the
right gap.
One terminal of a galvanometer is connected to
the central strip C, while the other terminal of the
galvanometer carries the jockey (J).
A suitable resistance R is selected from resistance box.
The jockey is brought in contact with AB at various points on the wire AB and the balance
point (null point), D, is obtained.

The galvanometer shows no deflection
Let the respective lengths of the wire between A and D, and that between D and C be Ix and lR
Source of errors.

1. The cross section of the wire may not be uniform.

2. The ends of the wire are soldered to the metallic strip where contact resistance

is developed, which is not taken into account.

3. The measurements of lx and lR may not be accurate.


To minimize the errors

(i) The value of R is so adjusted that the null point is obtained to middle one third of the wire
(between 34 cm and 66 cm) so that percentage error in the measurement of lx and lR are

minimum and nearly the same.

(ii) The experiment is repeated by interchanging the positions of unknown resistance X and known
resistance box R.

(iii) The jockey should be tapped on the wire and not slided. We use jockey to detect whether there
is a current through the central branch. This is possible only by tapping the jokey.

Applications:
• The Wheatstone bridge is used for measuring the values of very low resistance precisely.
• We can also measure the quantities such as galvanometer resistance, capacitance inductance
and impedance using a Wheatstone bridge.
Kelvin’s method:
to determine the resistance of galvanometer (G) by using meter bridge.

The galvanometer whose resistance (G) is to be

determined is connected in one gap and a known
resistance (R) is connected in the other gap.
Working :
1. A suitable resistance is taken in the resistance
box. The current is sent round the circuit by closing
the key. The deflection in the galvanometer is
observed.
2. The rheostat is adjusted to get a suitable
deflection
3.Now, the jockey is tapped at different points of the wire and a point of contact D for which, the
galvanometer shows no change in the deflection
4.Let lg be the length of the segment of wire opposite to the galvanometer and lr be the length of
the segment opposite to the resistance box.
Potentiometer:
A potentiometer consists of a long wire AB of length L and resistance R having
uniform cross sectional area A.
A cell of emf E MN having internal resistance r is connected across AB shown in
the Fig.
When the circuit is switched on, current I passes through the wire.as
Uses of Potentiometer:

A) To Compare emf of Cells

Method I :
A potentiometer wire AB connected to a battery of emf
E , a key K and a rheostat such that point A is at higher
potential than point B.
The cells whose emfs are to be compared are connected
with their positive terminals at point A
Negative terminals connected to two-way key K1,K2 and
the central terminal of the two ways key is connected to
a galvanometer.
The other end of the galvanometer is connected to a
jockey (J).
Keys K and K1 are closed and key K2 is kept open.

Therefore, the cell of emf E1 comes into circuit.

The null point is obtained by touching the jockey at various points on the potentiometer wire AB.
Let l1= length of the wire between the null point and the point A.
l1corresponds to emf E1 of the cell.

E1=K l1
Keys K and K2 are closed and key K1 is kept open.
Therefore, the cell of emf E2 comes into circuit.
The null point is obtained by touching the jockey at various points on the potentiometer wire AB.
Let l2= length of the wire between the null point and the point A.
l2corresponds to emf E2 of the cell.

E2=K l2
Method II: sum and difference method.
Circuit is connected as shown in Fig.

When keys K1 and K3 are closed

the cells E1 and E2 are in the sum mode.
The null point is obtained using the jockey.
Let l1= length of the wire between the null point and the
point A.
This corresponds to the emf (E1 + E2 ).
E1 + E2 = K l1

When keys K2 and K4 are closed

the cells E1 and E2 are in the difference mode.
The null point is obtained using the jockey.
Let l2= length of the wire between the null point and the
point A.
This corresponds to the emf (E1 - E2 ).
E1 - E2 = K l2
B) To Find Internal Resistance (r) of a Cell
The experimental set up for this method consists of a
potentiometer wire AB connected in series with a cell of emf
E , the key K and rheostat as shown in Fig.
The terminal A is at higher potential than terminal B.
A cell of emf E1whose internal resistance r1 is to be

determined is connected to the potentiometer wire through a
galvanometer G and the jockey J.
A resistance box R is connected across the cell E1 through
the key K2.

The key K1 is closed and K2 is open.

The circuit consists of the cell E, cell E1 , and the potentiometer wire.
The null point is then obtained.
Let l1 be length of the potentiometer wire between the null point and the point A.
This length corresponds to emf E1 .
E1 = K l1
Now both the keys K1 and K2 are closed.
the circuit consists of the cell E, the cell E1, the resistance box, the galvanometer and the jockey.
Some resistance R is selected from the resistance box and null point is obtained
The length of the wire l2 between the null point and point A is measured.
This corresponds to the voltage V between the null point and point A.
V= k l2


Application of potentiometer:
1) Voltage Divider:
The potentiometer can be used as a voltage
divider to continuously change the output voltage
of a voltage supply

As shown in the Fig. potential V is set up between
points A and B of a potentiometer wire. One end
of a device is connected to positive point A and
the other end is connected to a slider that can
move along wire AB. The voltage V divides in
proportion of lengths l1
2) Audio Control:
Sliding potentiometers, are commonly used in modern low-power audio systems as
audio control devices.Both sliding(faders) and rotary potentiometers (knobs) are
regularly used for frequency attenuation, loudness control and for controlling different
characteristics of audio signals.
3) Potentiometer as a sensor:
If the slider of a potentiometer is connected to the moving part of a machine, it can
work as a motion sensor. A small displacement of the moving part causes changes
in potential which is further amplified using an amplifier circuit. The potential
difference is calibrated in terms of the displacement of the moving part.

Advantages of a Potentiometer Over a Voltmeter:

Merits:

i) Potentiometer is more sensitive than a voltmeter.

ii) A potentiometer can be used to measure a potential difference as well as an emf of a cell.
A voltmeter always measures terminal potential difference, and as it draws some current, it
cannot be used to measure the emf of a cell.

iii) Measurement of potential difference or emf is very accurate in the case of a
potentiometer.
Demerits:
Potentiometer is not portable and direct measurement of potential difference or emf is not
possible.
Galvanometer as an Ammeter:
Let lg full scale deflection current and G resistance of the coil of moving coil galvanometer
(MCG )
To convert an MCG into an ammeter, the modifications necessary are
1. Its effective current capacity must be increased to the desired higher value.
2. Its effective resistance must be decreased.
3. Care must be taken to protect it from the possible damages due to the passage of an
excessive electric current
In practice this is achieved by connecting a low resistance in parallel with the galvanometer,
This low resistance connected in parallel is called shunt (S).
Uses of the shunt:
a. It is used to divert a large part of total current by providing an alternate path and thus it
protects the instrument from damage.
b. It increases the range of an ammeter.
c. It decreases the resistance between the points to which it is connected.
Calculation of shunt:
In the arrangement shown in the Fig

Ig - the current through the galvanometer.

Is = (I – Ig) the current through S

Galvanometer as a Voltmeter:
To convert an MCG into a Voltmeter the modifications necessary are:

1. Its voltage measuring capacity must be increased to the desired higher value.

2. Its effective resistance must be increased

3. It must be protected from the possible damages, which are likely due to excess applied
potential difference.
All these requirements can be fulfilled, if we connect a resistance of suitable high value
(X) in series with the given MCG.
A very high resistance X is connected in series with the galvanometer for this purpose as
shown in Fig.
The value of the resistance X can be calculated as follows