CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION Architectural firm, but on industrial or

Every construction project is intended to result in infrastructure projects, it is most likely to be an
a finished structure which will perform certain Engineering firm. The designer typically engages
functions in conformance with the project design in a contractual relationship directly with the
requirements. Whether or not satisfactory results owner, and their responsibility is to manage and
are achieved depends upon the materials selected produce the design documents within the design
and how they are used. The designer, the builder, phase of a project. Some design firms are quite
and the user must all understand construction specialized, e.g., a residential architect who
materials to produce the finished facility and to focuses only on single-family houses.
use it to best advantage. Knowledge of design
Design consultants – A lead designer will
procedures, construction methods, and
typically hire additional design consulting firms
maintenance practices is needed.
to perform targeted scopes of design work. These
may include scopes such as the structure design,
lighting design, mechanical system design,
PROJECT PARTICIPANTS AND ROLES electrical design, landscape design, or other
Owner – Every building project has one or more specialty areas. Design consultants are typically
owners. The owner is the organization, or smaller firms with a specialty in an area, although
individual, who has legal title to the building, there are certainly several large design consulting
and typically, the land upon which the building firms.
occupies. There are many (many) different types Contractors – The prime contractor(s) focus on
of owners. Some are individuals, e.g., it is the management of the construction of the
typical for an individual or multiple individuals project, along with potentially performing
to own a single family detached residential specific trade work. The prime construction
house. In other instances, the owner may be a contractor may be referenced by a diversity of
private company, e.g., a corporation may own its names depending upon the project delivery
headquarters building and manufacturing plants. approach (discussed in the next chapter) and upon
Service providers – Most projects, potentially the scope of work that they self-perform with
excluding privately developed small residential their own workforce.
projects, have many different companies that are Specialty contractors – A Specialty Contractor
engaged in delivering and operating a facility. performs a specific scope(s) of construction
These companies may be very targeted, with a within the project. Examples of specialty
strong specialty in a very specific area. contractors are concrete contractors, mechanical
contractors, drywall contractors, masonry
Designers – There is typically a lead designer(s) contractors, roofing contractors, electrical
on a project who takes responsible charge of contractors, etc. The companies typically focus
delivering a comprehensive, integrated design for on self-performing (with their own labor force)
the project. On commercial building projects, this the work for a single trade, or sometimes multiple
company is typically an trades.
Vendors and suppliers – Vendors and suppliers (d) Resist corrosive attack from soil and
are companies that support the project by water
providing different building materials or
OTHER FLOORS AND CEILINGS
equipment to the project. Examples include
(a) Provide a smooth surface
concrete suppliers, lumber suppliers, mechanical
(b) Resist wear
equipment manufacturers, electrical equipment
(c) Support furniture and people without
manufacturers, excavation equipment rental
sagging excessively or breaking
companies, etc. Some of these vendors and
(d) Provide a satisfactory appearance
suppliers are very large, and others may be
(e) Clean easily
smaller, local vendors.
(f) Insulate against noise transmission

OUTSIDE WALLS
NEED FOR MATERIALS WITH VARIOUS (a) Support floors and roof
QUALITIES (b) Resist lateral wind pressure
(c) Provide a satisfactory appearance inside
The construction industry requires materials for a
and out
vast range of uses. The qualities these materials
(d) Insulate against noise and heat
possess are as varied as the strength and
transmission
flexibility required of an elevator cable or the
(e) Keep moisture out
warm, wood grain appearance and smooth finish
of a birch or maple cabinet. The construction of a PARTITIONS
simple building, such as a house, requires (a) Support floors and roof
selection of materials to perform the following (b) Provide a satisfactory appearance
tasks: (c) Insulate against noise transmission

FOOTING ROOF
(a) Distribute the weight of the building to (a) Keep moisture out
the soil (b) Support snow and other weights
(b) Resist cracking despite uneven soil (c) Resist wind pressure and wind uplift
settlement (d) Provide a satisfactory appearance
(c) Resist corrosive attack from soil and (e) Insulate against noise and heat
water transmission

BASEMENT FLOOR SELECTING MATERIALS

(a) Provide a smooth surface
• We constantly encounter man-made
(b) Resist wear
objects built of materials carefully
(c) Resist cracking despite upward water
selected to be the most satisfactory ones
pressure or uneven soil settlement
for that particular use.
(d) Keep moisture out
(e) Resist corrosive attack from soil and • A designer is selected who, among other
water things, is responsible for selection of all
construction materials to achieve the
BASEMENT WALLS desired performance within the budget
(a) Support the rest of the building cost.
(b) Resist lateral side pressure from the earth
(c) Keep moisture out
 • Original cost and maintenance expense choosing construction materials which
must be weighed together against useful will promote the maximum useful life of
life expectancy. the building.
• The designer may select the material or 2. Second, we must seek to operate these
assembly needed, or prepare facilities in a way that significantly
specifications describing the reduces energy consumption and the
performance required and let the builder production of greenhouse gases which
do the selecting within the requirements can contribute to climate change.
of the specifications subject to the Material choices which improve natural
approval of the person supervising ventilation and help to control heat loss
construction. and gain are an example of this.
• If the designer specifies performance in 3. Third, we need to choose construction
terms of appearance, strength, corrosion materials which can be recycled and
resistance, and other features, he has the reused when facilities must be
benefit of the builder’s and vendor’s reconstructed.
experience in selecting the most
SUSTAINABILITY
economical materials
Longevity – In selecting materials today,
The process of selection may include the
designers must be aware of their appropriate use
following steps:
and inherent characteristics that will promote
1. Analysis of the problem (e.g.,
longevity of the buildings where they will be
performance required, useful life
used. Proper detailing, protection, and
required, allowable cost, and
compatibility with other materials are all
maintenance expense).
elements the architect or design engineer must
2. Comparison of available materials or
consider if new and renovated facilities are to
products with the criteria of step 1.
remain useful over time.
3. Design or selection of type of material,
size, shape, finish, method of preserving, Reusability and Recycling – Concrete removed
and method of fastening in place. from demolished structures can be crushed and
stone aggregate removed for reuse. Reinforcing
SUSTAINABILITY – The concept of
steel embedded in the concrete is isolated using
sustainability in building design and construction
magnets and can be reprocessed to make new iron
has grown out of concerns about better utilizing
and steel products. Asphalt paving can be
material and energy resources, enhancing the
remilled and used to create new paving.
environment, and even creating jobs and lowering
construction and operating costs. “Green
building, “sustainability,” and “environmentally
ISSUES DURING CONSTRUCTION
friendly design”.
TOP 12 CONSTRUCTION ISSUES &
The fundamentals of sustainability are
INDUSTRY CHALLENGES
formed around several related concepts:
1. First, we must design and construct new The construction industry has been living through
and renovated buildings through the most an exciting phase of its life, growing nonstop and
efficient use of finite material, energy, facing many challenges at the same time. Some
and labor resources. This includes
of these challenges are relatively new; others are would not be that long if it wasn’t for
as old as the industry itself. another massive problem that the entire
construction industry has been dealing
There are several different approaches to
with for a while now.
construction issues, as well. For example,
3. Slow technology adoption speed The
sometimes slow technology adoption rates are
majority of the construction industry has
treated as a single big challenge, and sometimes
a notoriously lousy technology adoption
it is treated as a multitude of different problems –
speed, and the problem has remained
including communication problems, scheduling
chiefly for several years now. Even
problems, problems with documentation, and so
though many business owners can
on.
acknowledge various benefits that newer
1. Keeping up with compliance technologies are capable of providing,
regulations it’s still fairly common for technological
Technology is constantly changing and departments of construction businesses
evolving, and various rules and to have relatively small budgets.
regulations have to keep up with it. 4. Communication problems A
Keeping up with all that is not an easy surprisingly high percentage of problems
task, especially since many companies within a construction project is directly
are affected by many different levels of related to the lack of faster
regulations. This includes worldwide communication between different teams
compliance rules and country-specific and departments. This is another massive
laws and regulations, or even something problem that is easily solvable by
extremely local and specific for one state modern-day technology in multiple
or a single city. It’s not uncommon for ways. For example, your workers’
regulation update messages to get lost smartphones can be used to make the
and unnoticed in a daily flood of work- communication process that much faster
related mail. And yet, compliance (since there are billions of people that
breaches due to unnoticed changes can have access to a personal smartphone in
easily turn out to be disastrous for most the world) – be it via emails, regular
companies. messages, or even using various
2. Working on a schedule While the construction related apps
experience does matter, it’s not 5. Managing your documentation
uncommon for even the most It’s no surprise that construction
knowledgeable professionals to make generally has a lot of documentation to
mistakes when scheduling if managed deal with – be it contracts, receipts,
manually. This is a problem that modern- insurance certificates, material orders,
day technology can mitigate to the etc. Dealing with all that regularly makes
highest degree, with various automation the entire process of document
systems, project management management slower and more prone to
applications for different devices, virtual human error. At this point, getting your
task boards, and so on. This is one of entire business to work primarily
many problems that modern technology paperless is something that should’ve
and its advantages are either partially or been done for a while now. There are
entirely solvable. However, this list many different systems and solutions that
 can help with document management in their retirement days. The demand keeps
many ways – be it categorization, due growing regularly, and the problem is
dates, project deadlines, and more. pretty much worldwide by its nature.
6. Issues with cash flow While some initiatives are attempted on
As a construction company, you have to that level to fix this problem, it’s also
have free cash to pay for several things possible for actual construction
on a semi-regular basis. This list includes companies to try and mitigate the effects
payments to subcontractors, vendors, of this issue for themselves.
suppliers, your employees, and so on. 9. Vandalism/theft on site
However, it’s quite likely that you’re Theft and vandalism are issues that are
going to get a payment for a project well not typically associated with the
done only once – after the project in construction industry – and yet, this
question is completed. Funds problem has been out there for a while
management is a surprisingly common now and shows no signs of stopping. It’s
problem for many construction especially bad for the construction
companies, and the number of issues that company in question since each missing
this can spawn is also impressive. The or unusable material would decrease the
only viable solution for these kinds of overall margin of a project.
issues, aside from “getting a steady cash 10. Irregular equipment
flow” (which might not be feasible in maintenance/replacement
some cases), is to have an open business One thing that many companies tend to
credit line for “worst-case scenarios” or skip over is construction equipment costs
to get through that challenging period – or maintenance/replacement costs, to
between your bills being due and your be specific. It is also one of the biggest
project is completed and paid for. reasons for project overrun costs since
7. The problem of “pointing fingers” replacing your equipment mid-
It is statistically impossible for construction means additional expenses
construction projects to always go on your end. Additional expenses are
smoothly and with no problems easily transformed into less revenue from
whatsoever. And when a problem a project – and the construction
happens – the fingerpointing begins, equipment tends to cost a lot of money.
more often than not. For example, the 11. “Forgetful” clients
contractor points fingers at This issue is somewhat similar to what
subcontractors, the client blames the we’ve discussed in the context of
contractor, and gets reprimanded by the “pointing fingers” since it refers to a
project manager. similar concept of clients. One of the
8. The lack of a skilled workforce most common cases here is for a client to
This might be one of the biggest request some change mid-project and
problems of the construction industry to then pretend to “forget” it when paying
this date. And this one also gets worse for the project completion. The only way
with each year – with fewer and fewer to avoid these situations is to get a signed
young people interested in working in the change order for each change in your
construction industry and older project if anything was requested after
employees being closer and closer to the initial plan was finalized.
12. The lack of reliable subcontractors recommendations. Asking sub-
This construction issue is the one that contractors you’ve worked for also works
relies the most on networking and wonders on finding reliable
recommendations. The number of communications. It’s also recommended
subcontractors on the market, in general, to check subcontractors’ licenses, general
is massive, and it might be hard to pick liability insurance and list yourself as
one for the job based on their looks. A additionally insured within their
good way to avoid picking an unreliable insurance before finalizing the hiring
contractor would be to ask your vendors process.
or material suppliers for
 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

METALS COPPER is most important for its electrical and

Metals are versatile housing materials because heat conductivity, and resistance to corrosion.
they can be shaped in so many ways. They are Exposed to moist air, it becomes coated with a
available in a variety of natural colors or can be thin layer of green carbonate that protects it from
coated for a wider array of colors and for added further corrosion. It is used in wiring and roofing
protection. Metals are strong, decorative, and materials, cookware, lamps, and decorative
good conductors of heat and electricity. pieces.

CAST IRON is made of iron and carbon, melted STAINLESS STEEL is steel with chromium
in a furnace and cast into shapes such as wood added, making it hard and corrosion resistant over
burning stoves, bathtubs, sinks, skillets, sewer a wide temperature range. It is used for gutters,
lines, waste disposal systems, lawn furniture and downspouts, cooking and eating utensils,
gas pipes. appliances, sinks, countertops, and even
furniture.
WROUGHT IRON is nearly pure iron used for
ornamental lawn furniture, lighting fixtures, LEAD is a heavy but workable metal resistant to
fences, and staircase/porch railings. corrosion. It is used under showers and as liners
for pools, and in drainage pipes. It expands and
BRONZE is an alloy of copper and tin, forming contracts in different temperatures, and it can
a strong, beautiful, stately material that weathers cause lead poisoning… limiting many household
well. It is used for thresholds, screws, plumbing applications. It is used in leaded window designs.
supplies, and decorative pieces including
sculpture. GLASS
Glass is the only housing construction material
BRASS is an alloy of copper and zinc, ranging in that allows the passage of light and permits a clear
color from a coppery red to silvery white. Tin can view. It does not conduct electricity and is almost
be added or it can be coated with clear enamel to completely corrosion resistant.
prevent tarnishing. It can be cast, hammered, The “tensile strength” of glass refers to the
stamped, rolled, or drawn into bolts, screws, pipe amount of force that glass can withstand without
fittings, wire, furniture, and decorative pieces. breaking. Tensile strength can be increased by
increasing thickness or by applying certain
ALUMINUM is lightweight, highly resistant to production techniques. It is decreased by
corrosion, an excellent conductor of electricity, a scratches, imperfections, and rapid temperature
good reflector of light and heat, easily formed changes.
into many shapes, and receptive to many finishes.
Aluminum can be “extruded” into FLOAT GLASS is a flat glass, less expensive
and better quality than sheet glass or plate glass.
window and door frames, railings, and hardware. It is distortion-free, can be made in various
It can also be “cast” into lamp bases, plant stands, strengths and thicknesses, and in very large
cookware, and grills. It can be “rolled” into range sheets. It can be tinted to reduce heat transmission
hoods, awnings, garage doors, appliance panels, and glare.
and ductwork.
HAND BLOWN GLASS is expensive but brown, it is used for flower pots, casual
beautiful. It is used primarily for art pieces, vases, dinnerware, and folk pottery.
and fine glasses. 2. Stoneware is made of finer clay than
earthenware, usually light brown or gray
STAINED GLASS refers to glass colored by in color. It is fired at higher temperatures,
pigments or metal oxides fused to glass. making it waterproof and durable. It
accepts subtle colors with a matte finish.
Types of DECORATIVE GLASS include 3. Porcelain is fired at very high
patterned, etched, cut, or enameled. Patterned temperatures to a white, finely textured
safety glass is often used for tub or shower finish. It is completely “vitrified” (made
enclosures. Cut glass sparkles. Etched glass into glass) and very hard. It has a delicate
appears frosted. Enameled glass has color added appearance, and is used for fine
to its surface. dinnerware or for sinks and bathtubs.

CRYSTAL is perfectly clear glass. Lead crystal PLASTICS

contains lead oxide, giving it clarity and sparkle. Plastics are usually reasonable in cost, moisture
and corrosion resistant, lightweight, tough, and
CLAY PRODUCTS easily molded into complex shapes. Plastics are
Clay is easily shaped, but firing that clay at high replacing many natural building materials due to
temperatures preserves the shape, color, and low maintenance requirements.
texture. After firing, this “ceramic” also becomes
resistant to heat, cold, moisture, acids, and salts. WOOD
It can be glazed, colored, and textured for Wood is a hard, fibrous substance that forms the
decoration. Glazing increases its strength and trunk, stems, and branches of trees. It can be
seals it to make it waterproof. processed to make lumber, plywood, or other
wood products used in construction.
Roofing tile is expensive and more porous than Wood can be generally classified as either a
other roofing materials. hardwood or a softwood. Softwoods are strong
and resilient, but they do not accept finishes as
Glazed tile well as most hardwoods. They are most
commonly used in construction. Examples are
Mosaic tile is made of porcelain or natural clay; cedar, cypress, fir, pine, and redwood.
smaller in size, smoother, and brighter in color.
Hardwoods tend to be more expensive than
Quarry tile or pavers are the strongest ceramic softwoods. They resist denting and scratching
tiles. better and their surfaces yield smooth finishes
with attractive grain patterns. Hardwoods are
Pottery refers to ceramic objects such as most often used for flooring and furniture.
dinnerware, cookware, and vases. There are three Examples are ash, beech, birch, cherry, elm,
types: mahogany, maple, oak, poplar, and walnut.

1. Earthenware products are casual, porous, LUMBER is wood sawed from logs into boards
fragile, and opaque. Generally red or of various sizes.
MILLWORK is processed lumber, such as VARNISHES are used as top coats, emphasizing
doors, window frames, shutters, trim, panel work, wood grain and deepening wood tones.
and molding.
SHELLAC is a type of vanish designed to seal
TIMBER is lumber that is 5” or larger in width wood under a final top coat.
and thickness, and is used mainly for support
posts or beams. LACQUER is a durable top coat, producing a
glossy finish.
LAMINATED TIMBER is layers of wood glued
together with all the grain running in one POLYURETHANE is a clear finish that dries
direction…simply making thicker pieces of quickly, wears well, and has a high resistance to
timber. chemicals, alcohol, and grease. It is popular for
wood floors.
PLYWOOD is made from thin sheets of wood
called veneers or plies. They are glued together to EPOXY RESIN is an excellent floor and exterior
form a panel, with the grain of one ply running at finish because of durability.
right angles to the grain of the next ply to give it
strength and prevent warping or splitting. The OIL penetrates wood to highlight the grain,
outer plies might be fine, attractive veneers if darken the wood, and produce a soft luster.
used in furniture, or rough layers if used in floors
and walls. WAX is used over other surfaces to produce a
smooth luster, but must be renewed frequently.
HARDBOARD is a type of composite board
made from refined wood fibers that are pressed MASONRY
together. One or both sides may be smooth. Masonry materials are versatile, durable, and
beautiful. They are more expensive than wood
PARTICLE BOARD is a type of composite products, but require less maintenance.
board made from wood flakes, chips, and
shavings that are bonded together with adhesives. BRICK is fireproof, weather-resistant, and easy
to maintain. It is popular for fireplaces, chimneys,
WOOD FINISHES walls, and floors. Bricks come in a variety of
BLEACHES remove the natural color of the colors and sizes. Colors vary with the chemical
wood to give it a pale or weathered appearance. make-up of the clay used to make them and the
time and temperature used to fire them. Mortar is
FILLERS are often applied to wood such as oak, used between the bricks to bond them together
walnut, and mahogany that have “open grain”. By and seal the spaces between them.
filling the pores of the grain, the finished surface
will be smooth with an even color. GLASS BLOCK
Glass blocks are hollow units of clear, rippled, or
STAINS add color to wood without masking frosted glass. Some of the air has been removed
grain patterns. They are oil-, alcohol-, or water- from the hollow core to prevent condensation and
based. improve insulation value. They give privacy but
allow light.
STONE engineered into fibers. Examples are acetate,
Stone is difficult to work with in building, so is rayon, triacetate, acrylic, glass, metallic, nylon,
labor intensive and therefore expensive. It has olefin, polyester, rubber, saran, spandex, and
varied colors and textures to provide visual vinyon.
interest. It is fireproof and resistant to decay, and
gives a feeling of Types of natural stone TEXTILE YARN
permanence and stability. include granite (hard Several fibers twisted together are called a
and durable), sandstone (porous and prone to “yarn”. That yarn will eventually be woven,
dampness, with poor insulation value) , limestone knitted, or fastened together to create a fabric.
(weathers rapidly in humid climates), marble The size and texture of a yarn depends on the
(expensive and luxurious but not as durable as types of fibers from which it is made, how tightly
granite), and slate (hard and brittle, made from the fibers are twisted together, and the number of
compressed clay or shale). Manufactured stone plies or strands it has.
(made from lightweight concrete or fiberglass)
and terrazzo (durable material made from marble Cotton: absorbent, shrinks in hot water, easy to
chips bonded together with cement) are stone-like dye, highly flammable; used for sheets, towels,
materials bedspreads, kitchen curtains, rugs

CONCRETE Silk: lustrous, expensive, yellows with age, water

Concrete is used for foundations, exterior walls, spots; used for draperies, upholstery, lampshades,
floors, walks, and driveways. It is economical, and wall hangings.
tough, weather resistant, and long lasting. It can
be colored, have an exposed aggregate (pebbles Flax or Linen: strong, lint free, durable; used for
in it show up), be textured, or be scored into tablecloths, draperies, kitchen towels
geometric patterns.
Wool: warm, absorbent, wrinkle resistant, low
TEXTILE FIBERS flammability, expensive; used for blankets,
Carpets, rugs, upholstery, and curtains are carpets, upholstery, rugs.
common textile products used throughout the
home to add color, texture, and comfort. Fibers Acetate: easy to dye, drapes well, soft and
are the basic element of all fabrics, and are luxurious, nonabsorbent; used for bedspreads,
combined to form a yarn that is woven, knitted, draperies, fiberfill.
or fastened together. Fibers are either natural or
manmade from chemical sources. Acrylic: resembles wool, soft and warm,
colorfast, generates static electricity, resists
NATURAL FIBERS Cotton and flax are from mildew, moths, mildew, and sun damage; used for
plant sources; silk from silkworms, wool from blankets, carpeting, upholstery, draperies,
sheep, and some specialty hair fibers are from fiberfill.
protein sources, and asbestos is from a mineral
source Glass: fiberglass is strong and heavy, resists heat,
flames, and most chemicals; used for draperies
MANUFACTURED FIBERS These fibers are and insulation
derived from substances found in nature such as
wood pulp or petroleum. They are chemically
Metallic: colorfast, durable, resists moths, “Knitted” fabrics are made by interlocking
mildew, and shrinking; used for draperies, yarns. Though not common in home furnishings,
slipcovers, tablecloths. knits are used in some bedding and curtains.

Nylon: very strong and durable, lustrous, “Tufting” is a construction method, primarily
lightweight, drapes well, generates static; used used to make carpet. Tufting machines loop yarns
for upholstery, outdoor furniture covers, into a backing material. This is usually followed
draperies, carpet. by a latex coating to hold the yarns in place.

Olefin: quick drying, resists abrasion, chemicals, “Foam” is the result of incorporating air into a
moths, and shrinking; used for awnings, rubber or polyurethane substance; it’s used for
carpeting, doormats. pillows, cushions, furniture padding, and carpet
backing.
Polyester: colorfast, easy to dye, retains shape,
resists wrinkles, generates static, subject to “Felt” is a fabric made directly from wool fibers,
pilling; used for awnings, blankets, carpets, in a process using heat, moisture, and pressure to
draperies, fiberfill, sheets, tablecloths. permanently press and interlock the fibers
together. It is used for sound-proofing, insulation,
Rayon: resembles cotton, drapes well, wrinkles, padding, and decorative items.
highly flammable; used for sheets, curtains,
upholstery. “Non-woven” fabrics are made by bonding non-
wool fibers to make goods such as mattress pads,
backing for furniture and box springs.
FABRIC CONSTRUCTION
Fabrics with a “twill weave” have diagonal lines “Leather” has no fibers, but is used as a fabric.
or wales. They form a strong fabric that resists Manufactured from animal hides, leather is
wrinkles and hides soil. (denim and gabardine). expensive, beautiful, durable, and moisture
resistant.
A “plain weave” is a simple over and under
weave, forming a strong, durable fabric. (percale, FABRIC FINISHES
broadcloth). Color can be added to textiles in several different
ways. “Yarn dyeing” colors the fibers or yarn
A “satin weave” produces a smooth and lustrous prior to fabric production. “Piece dyeing” colors
fabric that lacks durability and snags easily. the entire piece of fabric after it is made, and
(satin). “printing” applies a design to premade fabric.

A “jacquard weave” is characterized by Fabrics may receive one or more finishes after
intricate patterns. (damask, brocade, and construction to add desirable qualities: antistatic
tapestry). (reduces buildup of static electricity), beetling
Fabric with a “leno weave” is mesh-like, such as (improves luster and absorbency on linen),
some blankets and curtains. bleaching (whitens natural fibers), calendering
(produces a smooth polished surface), crease-
resistance (resists wrinkling), flame-retardant
(reduces chance of burning), fulling (improves
the appearance of wool), mercerization (improves
luster and strength), moth repellent (repels moths
from wool), mildew-resistant (prevents mildew),
napping (pulls up fiber ends such as in velvet),
preshrunk (shrinks the fabric before sale to the
consumer), sanforized (reduces shrinkage),
Scotchguard (resists water and oil stains), soil
resistant (makes fabric less absorbent), water
repellent (coats fabrics with wax, metals, or resins
to resist water).
Written Report February 2025
Group 8

AGGREGATES

Submitted by:

Budoso, Maria Elizabeth S.

Laforga, Gabriel Ivanne I.
Mancenon, Kristin Samantha

Submitted to:

Engr. Algerico Odal

AGGREGATES

What are aggregates?

Aggregates are granular materials, like sand, gravel, and crushed stone, that are
used in construction work. They can be natural, manufactured, or recycled.

TYPES OF ROCKS
Igneous Rocks
- These are formed from cooled magma, so they’re super hard and durable.
Examples are granite and basalt. These are commonly used in high-strength
applications like roads and bridges.

Sedimentary Rocks
- These are formed by the accumulation of sediments over time. Examples are
limestone and sandstone. These are easier to shape and work with less durable
compared to igneous rocks.

Metamorphic Rocks
- These are rocks that have been changed due to heat and pressure. Examples
are marble and slate. They are sometimes used as decorative aggregates in
landscaping and flooring.

TYPES OF AGGREGATE
Mainly two types of aggregates are use in concrete
1. Fine Aggregates
2. Coarse Aggregates

1. Fine aggregates
Fine aggregates consist of small-sized particles, generally less than 4.75
mm in diameter. Fine aggregates fill the gaps between coarse aggregates, improving
compactness, workability, and surface smoothness in concrete.

Examples:

a. Natural Sand – Found in riverbeds, lakes, and seashores.

b. Manufactured Sand (M-Sand) – Crushed rock processed to meet
construction standards. Such as flyash and surkhi.
c. Crushed Stone Dust – A byproduct of stone crushing used as a sand
alternative.
 d. Dune Sand – Found in deserts but requires processing for use.

2. Coarse aggregates
Coarse aggregates are larger-sized particles, greater than 4.75 mm, that
provide strength, stability, and durability to concrete.

Examples:
a. Gravel – Naturally rounded aggregates found in riverbeds and pits.
b. Crushed Stone – Mechanically crushed rocks like granite, basalt, and
limestone.
c. Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA) – Crushed concrete from
demolished structures.
d. Expanded Clay Aggregates – Lightweight aggregates used for
insulation.
e. Blast Furnace Slag – A byproduct of steel production used as an
alternative aggregate.
How are aggregates used?
Concrete Production - Aggregates are mixed with water and cement to create
concrete. Aggregates make up 60–80% of concrete and provide strength.
Mortar - Aggregates are mixed with hydraulic cement to create mortar.
Fillers – Fine aggregates fill spaces between coarse aggregates, increasing
density and reducing voids.
Road Construction – Coarse aggregates are used in base layers for roads and
highways.
Drainage Systems – Coarse aggregates helps in water filtration and stability in
retaining walls.
Foundations – Coarse aggregates are used in garden pathways, retaining walls,
and foundations.
AGGREGATE SOURCES

Natural aggregates
Natural aggregates are made from rock fragments that are mined, quarried, or
dredged. They can be used in their natural form or processed by crushing, washing, and
sorting by size. This includes crushed rock, sand, and gravel.

Manufactured aggregates
These are produced from an industrial process, often as a by-product of the
primary process, where mineral material undergoes change involving thermal or other
modification. Such aggregate products include iron and steel slags, and ash. Some
material may undergo secondary processing. An example would be lightweight
aggregates produced from fly ash, a by-product from coal-fired power stations that is
heated to high temperatures to create hard, rounded pellets.

Examples:

- Flyash is created when coal is burned at high temperatures, which causes

molten droplets to solidify into fine, glassy particles.
- It is primarily used as a partial replacement for Portland cement in concrete
production.

Recycled aggregates
These result from the reprocessing of materials previously used in construction.
Examples are building demolition waste, used railway ballast, and reclaimed asphalt
arising from road resurfacing works.

surkhi: Surkhi (burnt brick powder) is made by grinfing old burnt briks into a fine
powder primarily used as a partial replacement for sand in mortar and concrete.
PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Properties of aggregates that influence the properties of resulting concrete mix

1. Fine aggregates

PROPERTIES:
a. Size – Fine aggregates are smaller than 4.75 mm, ensuring they fill voids
between coarse aggregates in concrete and improve workability.
b. Specific gravity – is the ratio of its density to the density of water. (Higher
specific gravity results in stronger and denser concrete)
c. Bulk density – refers to the density of aggregate considered along with volume
of voids or empty spaces between particles. (Denser fine aggregates improve
load bearing capacity)
d. Water absorption – Ability of aggregates to absorb moisture from the
surrounding environment. Lower water absorption helps maintain the correct
water cement ratio, preventing excess shrinkage.
e. Bulking – is a phenomenon due to which the aggregate swells by absorbing
moisture from humid air.
- When exposed to humid air, fine aggregates absorb moisture, leading to an
apparent increase in volume
- Due to this, the concrete mix design may go wrong and sufficient extra sand is
always added to compensate for this swelling
f. Specific surface – It is the total surface area per unit weight of material.
- Higher specific surface means better bonding with cement.
 2. Coarse aggregates

PROPERTIES:
a. Size – Must be equal or greater than 4.75 mm in size.
b. Shape - The shape affects the workability and bonding in concrete. Types
include:

• Rounded – Fully water-worn or shaped by attrition. Not very suitable for concrete.
Examples include river or seashore gravel, desert, seashore and windblown sand.

• Angular – Possessing well defined edges. Provides better interlocking and strength.
Best for concreting. Obtained from crushed rock from stone quarry or crusher site.

• Irregular or partly rounded – Naturally irregular or partly rounded by natural attrition

and having rounded edges. Medium quality concrete. Examples are pit sand and gravel
flints, cuboid rock.

c. Surface texture – it is the property of coarse aggregate deals with roughness

and smoothness of aggregate. Smooth or rough texture affects bonding with
cement paste.
d. Water absorption – Coarse aggregate absorbs less water than fine aggregates.
e. Soundness –is expansion and contraction of the aggregate when subjected to
temperature variation.
f. Specific gravity – it is the ratio of dry weight of aggregate to the weight of equal
volume of water. Coarse aggregates typically have a specific gravity of 2.5-3.0.
g. Bulk density – ratio of net weight of aggregate to the volume of aggregates.
(Heavier aggregates improve load bearing capacity.

TESTS FOR AGGREGATE

In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction,
following tests are carried out:

1. Crushing test
- One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under
compressive stress. The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of
resistance to crushing under gradually applied crushing load. A test is standardized
by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to determine the crushing strength of aggregates. c
The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied
at the rate of 4 tonnes per minute. Then crushed aggregates are then sieved
through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is expressed as
 percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1) which is the aggregate crushing
value.

2. Abrasion test
- Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to
decide whether they are suitable for different pavement construction works. A
machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520
mm mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated. An abrasive charge
consisting of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g
is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive
spheres varies according to the grading of the sample. The quantity of
aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-10
kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total
of 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.
 After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and
passed fraction is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This
value is called Los Angeles abrasion value.

3. Impact test
- The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of
aggregates. Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is
filled in a cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is
attached to a metal base of impact testing machine. The material is filled in 3
layers where each layer is tamped for 25 numbers of blows (see Fig-3). Metal
hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm by
vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of blows. The
crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact
 value is measured as percentage of aggregates passing sieve to the total weight
of the sample.

4. Soundness test
- Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering
action, by conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates
subjected to freezing and thawing is likely to disintegrate prematurely. To
ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they are subjected to an accelerated
soundness test as specified in IS: 2386 part-V.Aggregates of specified size are
subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of either sodium
sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 – 18 hours and then dried in oven at 105
to 1100C to a constant weight. After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates
is determined by sieving out all undersized particles and weighing.

5. Shape test
- The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of
flaky and elongated particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are
detrimental to higher workability and stability of mixes. The flakiness index is
defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles whose least
dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size. Flakiness gauge (see Fig-4)
is used for this test.

TESTING OF AGGREGATES BASED ON ASTM

1. ASTM C88 (Soundness of aggregate by use of sodium sulfate or

magnesium sulfate)
- Tests the soundness (durability) of aggregates by exposing them to repeated
cycles of soaking and drying in sodium sulfate or magnesium sulfate solutions to
simulate weathering effects.
Procedure:
a. Prepare the Sample: Select a representative sample of aggregate and wash to
remove dust. Dry it to a constant weight.
b. Immerse in Solution: Submerge the sample in either sodium sulfate or
magnesium sulfate solution for a specified time (usually 16-18 hours).
c. Drying Cycle: Remove the sample and dry it in an oven at 110°C (230°F) to a
constant weight.
d. Repeat Cycles: Repeat the soaking and drying process for 5 cycles.
e. Weigh and Examine: After the final cycle, wash and dry the sample, then weigh it
and examine for signs of disintegration.
f. Calculate Soundness Loss: Determine weight loss and compare it to acceptable
limits for durability assessment.

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2. ASTM C117 (materials finer than no. 200 sieve in minerals aggregate by
washing)
- Determines the amount of fine particles (passing No. 200 sieve) in aggregates by
washing, ensuring excessive dust or clay is not present.

Procedure:
a. Weigh the Sample: Take a representative dry aggregate sample and
record the initial weight.
b. Wash the Sample: Place the sample in a wash container and add water.
Stir and agitate to remove fine particles.
c. Sieve the Wash Water: Pour the water through a No. 200 (75 µm) sieve to
capture the fine particles.
d. Dry and Weigh the Residue: Dry the remaining aggregate in an oven at
110°C (230°F) and record the final weight.
e. Calculate Percentage Fines: Compute the percentage of fine materials
lost using the weight difference.

VIDEO: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OY03u4B4t4

3. ASTM C40 (organic impurities in sands for concrete)

- Identifies organic impurities in sand, which can affect concrete strength, by using
a color comparison test.

Procedure:
a. Prepare the Test Sample: Place a sample of fine aggregate in a clear
glass bottle.
b. Add Sodium Hydroxide Solution: Fill the bottle with a 3% sodium
hydroxide solution to a specific level.
c. Shake and Settle: Shake the bottle well and let it stand for 24 hours.
 d. Observe the Color: Compare the color of the solution to a standard color
chart.
e. Interpret Results: If the solution is darker than the reference standard, the
sand contains harmful organic impurities that may affect concrete
strength.

VIDEO: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oqYFVfzfsZU

4. ASTM C127 (specific gravity and absorption of coarse aggregates)

- Measures the specific gravity (density) and water absorption of coarse
aggregates, which helps in mix design and quality control.

Procedure:
a. Dry the Sample: Oven-dry the coarse aggregate at 110°C (230°F) to a
constant weight.
b. Weigh the Dry Sample: Record the dry weight (W_dry).
c. Soak in Water: Submerge the sample in water for 24 hours.
d. Weigh the Saturated Sample: Remove surface water with a towel and
record the saturated surface-dry (SSD) weight (W_ssd).
e. Weigh in Water: Weigh the sample while submerged in water (W_water).
f. Calculate:
• Bulk Specific Gravity = W_dry / (W_ssd – W_water)
• Absorption (%) = [(W_ssd – W_dry) / W_dry] × 100

VIDEO: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35Vnb1KPrGw

5. ASTM C128 (specific gravity and absorption of coarse aggregates)

- Similar to ASTM C127 but applies to fine aggregates instead of coarse
aggregates.

Procedure:
a. Prepare the Sample: Oven-dry the fine aggregate at 110°C (230°F) and
cool to room temperature.
b. Soak in Water: Submerge the sample in water for 24 hours.
c. Remove Excess Water: Drain and achieve a saturated surface-dry (SSD)
condition by rolling the sample on a towel.
d. Weigh the SSD Sample: Record the SSD weight (W_ssd).
e. Determine Volume: Fill a pycnometer with water and measure the
combined mass of the water and sample (W_pycnometer).
f. Weigh the Dry Sample: Oven-dry the sample again and record the dry
weight (W_dry).
g. Calculate:
• Bulk Specific Gravity = W_dry / (W_ssd – W_pycnometer +
W_water)
 • Absorption (%) = [(W_ssd – W_dry) / W_dry] × 100

VIDEO: same as 127

6. ASTM C29 (unit weight of aggregate)

- Determines the unit weight (bulk density) of aggregates, which helps in
calculating volume-based mix proportions.

Procedure:
a. Choose a Measure: Use a cylindrical container of known volume.
b. Fill the Container:
• For loose bulk density, pour the aggregate without compacting.
• For compacted bulk density, use three equal layers and tamp
each layer 25 times.
c. Level the Surface: Strike off excess aggregate with a straight edge.
d. Weigh the Filled Container: Record the total weight (aggregate +
container).
e. Calculate Bulk Density:
• Bulk Density (kg/m³ or lb/ft³) = (Weight of Aggregate) / (Volume of
Container)
f. Calculate Voids (%): Use the bulk density to estimate the percentage of
voids in the aggregate.

VIDEO: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EWwsOp2hyIo
 LESSON 3
AGGREGATES AND CEMENT
(TYPES AND PROPERTIES)

AGGREGATES; ITS STRENGTH AGGREGATES; ITS COMPACTION

• Aggregates • VOID REDUCTION – Aggregates help

o are essential components of reduce void spaces in concrete and pavement
construction materials such as materials, increasing density through proper
concrete and asphalt, significantly compaction.
influencing their strength and • WORKABILITY - Well-graded aggregates
compaction characteristics. These enhance the workability of concrete and
naturally occurring or artificially improve the compaction process in road
produced granular materials, like construction.
sand, gravel, crushed stone, and • INTERLOCKING – The angularity and
slag, provide structural integrity and surface texture of aggregates enhance
durability to various construction interlocking, leading to better compaction
projects. Their properties directly and load distribution.
affect the mechanical performance • WATER CONTENT INFLUENCE –
and workability of composite Aggregates with appropriate water
materials absorption properties ensure proper
moisture levels during compaction,
AGGREGATES AND ITS STRENGTH
reducing shrinkage and cracking
• LOAD DISTRIBUTION – Aggregates in • PARTICLE SHAPE AND TEXTURE –
concrete or pavement structures distribute Rounded aggregates are easier to compact
loads evenly, enhancing the overall strength but may lead to reduced stability, whereas
and stability of the structure. angular aggregates require more effort to
• BONDING WITH BINDERS – Aggregates compact but provide better stability and
form a strong bond with cement paste in interlocking.
concrete or bitumen in asphalt, which is
CEMENT AND ITS TYPES
crucial for strength development.
• DURABILITY – Hard, durable aggregates • Cement – is a binding material used in
improve the resistance of concrete to construction to hold sand, gravel, and other
mechanical wear, environmental factors, and aggregates together in concrete and mortar.
chemical attacks. It is a hydraulic material, meaning it reacts
• SIZE AND GRADING – Proper grading and with water to form a hard, solid mass.
a well-distributed particle size help reduce
voids, improving the compressive strength of
concrete and compaction efficiency. TYPES OF CEMENT
• AGGREGATE STRENGTH – The • ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
crushing strength of aggregates determines o Most commonly used cement in
their ability to withstand applied loads construction projects worldwide.
without breaking. Stronger aggregates o OPC is known for its strength,
improve the overall compressive strength of durability, and workability, making
concrete. it ideal for different construction
needs. It is commonly used in the
 construction of buildings, bridges, o Used in areas with high sulphate
roads, and other structural projects. content, like coastal regions, mines,
• PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT canal linings, and retaining walls.
o PPC is a hydraulic cement made by • WHITE CEMENT
blending Portland cement with o White cement is known for its high
pozzolanic materials like fly ash or whiteness.
silica fume. o Primarily used for decorative
o It offers improved workability and purposes like architectural
durability, making it ideal for elements, precast products, and
various applications. terrazzo flooring.
o This is commonly used in home o Can be mixed with pigments to
construction, dams, and bridges, create colored concrete finishes.
where durability is essential. • COLORED CEMENT
• RAPID HARDENING CEMENT o Colored cement is mixed with 5-
o Rapid-hardening cement is a 10% pigments to create a variety of
hydraulic cement designed for colors.
quick strength gain. o Pigments can be synthetic or
o It is used where fast-setting natural, offering different shades.
concrete is needed, such as in o Used for decorative purposes like
pavements, precast products, and concrete countertops, flooring, and
repairs. paving to enhance the aesthetic
o With higher early strength than appeal.
OPC, it allows structures to be used • AIR ENTERTAINING CEMENT
sooner. o Air entraining cement contains agents
• QUICK SETTING CEMENT such as resins, glues, and sodium salts
o Quick-setting cement sets and that create air bubbles in the mix.
hardens rapidly. o Requires less water than ordinary
o It’s used for time-sensitive projects cement for the same consistency.
like repairing water pipes, sewers, o Used in frost-resistant projects like
and tunnels. pavements, bridges, and cold-climate
o It reaches its initial set in minutes, buildings.
similar to fast-setting concrete.
• LOW HEAT CEMENT
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
o Low heat cement produces less heat
during hydration. • COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
o Made by reducing tricalcium o Portland cement is known for its
aluminate by 6%, leading to slower high compressive strength, making
strength gain. it ideal for structural applications.
o Ideal for large structures prone to Compressive strength is critical for
cracking from heat, like dams, ensuring that concrete can bear the
nuclear plants, and mass concrete loads applied to it, such as in the
projects. construction of buildings, bridges,
• SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT and other infrastructures. The
o Sulphate-resisting cement resists strength of the cement is influenced
damage from sulphate salts in soil by the water-to-cement ratio and the
and groundwater. curing process.
• FINENESS
 o The fineness of Portland cement attacks from substances like sulfur,
affects the rate at which it hydrates chloride, and carbon dioxide. This
and gains strength. A finer cement makes it highly suitable for a wide
allows for faster hydration, range of construction projects,
resulting in quicker strength gain. including those exposed to harsh
However, too fine a cement may weather conditions or chemicals
lead to issues such as shrinkage or like in marine environments or
cracking if the hydration rate is not wastewater treatment plants.
properly controlled. Fineness is a • HEAT OF HYDRATION
key factor in mix design, impacting o The heat of hydration is the amount
both the workability and durability of heat released when cement reacts
of concrete. with water. This property is
• SETTING-TIME significant for large structures like
o Setting time refers to the time it dams, as the heat generated can
takes for cement to transition from cause thermal cracking if not
a fluid to a hardened state. properly managed. Low-heat
o Initial Setting Time: The time it cement is often used in such cases
takes for the cement to begin to to reduce the risks associated with
harden, usually within the first 30 excessive heat.
minutes to 1 hour. • WORKABILITY
o Final Setting Time: The time o The heat of hydration is the amount
required for the cement to fully set of heat released when cement reacts
and become rigid, which typically with water. This property is
ranges from 6 to 10 hours. significant for large structures like
• HYDRATION dams, as the heat generated can
o Hydration is the chemical reaction cause thermal cracking if not
between cement and water, which properly managed. Low-heat
leads to the formation of a solid cement is often used in such cases
mass. This process affects both the to reduce the risks associated with
early and long-term strength excessive heat.
development of the concrete. • CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
Proper hydration is important for o Portland cement is resistant to certain
preventing thermal cracking, which chemicals, such as mild acids and bases.
can occur in large structures due to However, it can be vulnerable to more
the heat released during hydration. aggressive substances, such as
• SPECIFIC GRAVITY chlorides, sulfates, and certain acids.
o Specific gravity is the ratio of the For environments with high exposure to
cement' s density to the density of these chemicals (e.g., coastal regions),
water. This property is used in the special cement types, like sulfate-
mix design process to calculate the resistant cement, may be used to prevent
correct amount of water and deterioration.
aggregate needed to achieve the
desired strength and workability of
concrete.
• SOUNDNESS
o Portland cement is known for its
durability, as it resists mechanical
wear, weathering, and chemical