Elliptical Lift Distribution

C H A PTER 5 Incompressible Flow over Finite Wings 443

First, let us calculate the downwash. Differentiating Equation (5.31), we

obtain
d 40 y
=− 2 (5.32)
dy b (1 − 4y 2 /b2 )1/2
Substituting Equation (5.32) into (5.15), we have

0 b/2
y
w(y0 ) = dy (5.33)
π b2 −b/2 (1 − 4y 2 /b2 )1/2 (y0 − y)

The integral can be evaluated easily by making the substitution

b b
y= cos θ dy = − sin θ dθ
2 2
Hence, Equation (5.33) becomes

0 0
cos θ
w(θ0 ) = − dθ
2π b π cos θ0 − cos θ
 π
0 cos θ
or w(θ0 ) = − dθ (5.34)
2π b 0 cos θ − cos θ0
The integral in Equation (5.34) is the standard form given by Equation (4.26) for
n = 1. Hence, Equation (5.34) becomes

0
w(θ0 ) = − (5.35)
2b

which states the interesting and important result that the downwash is constant
over the span for an elliptical lift distribution. In turn, from Equation (5.17), we
obtain, for the induced angle of attack,
w 0
αi = − = (5.36)
V∞ 2bV∞
For an elliptic lift distribution, the induced angle of attack is also constant along
the span. Note from Equations (5.35) and (5.36) that both the downwash and
induced angle of attack go to zero as the wing span becomes infinite—which is
consistent with our previous discussions on airfoil theory.
A more useful expression for αi can be obtained as follows. Substituting
Equation (5.31) into (5.25), we have
  1/2
b/2
4y 2
L = ρ∞ V∞ 0 1− dy (5.37)
−b/2 b2
444 PA RT 2 Inviscid, Incompressible Flow

Again, using the transformation y = (b/2) cos θ, Equation (5.37) readily inte-
grates to

b π 2 b
L = ρ∞ V∞ 0 sin θ dθ = ρ∞ V∞ 0 π (5.38)
2 0 4
Solving Equation (5.38) for 0 , we have
4L
0 = (5.39)
ρ∞ V∞ bπ
However, L = 12 ρ∞ V∞
2
SC L . Hence, Equation (5.39) becomes
2V∞ SC L
0 = (5.40)
bπ
Substituting Equation (5.40) into (5.36), we obtain
2V∞ SC L 1
αi =
bπ 2bV∞
SC L
or αi = (5.41)
π b2
An important geometric property of a finite wing is the aspect ratio, denoted by
AR and defined as
b2
AR ≡
S
Hence, Equation (5.41) becomes

CL
αi = (5.42)
π AR

Equation (5.42) is a useful expression for the induced angle of attack, as shown
below.
The induced drag coefficient is obtained from Equation (5.30), noting that αi
is constant:
 b/2 
2αi 2αi 0 b π 2 π αi 0 b
C D,i = (y) dy = sin θ dθ = (5.42a)
V∞ S −b/2 V∞ S 2 0 2V∞ S
Substituting Equations (5.40) and (5.42) into (5.42a), we obtain
 
πb CL 2V∞ SC L
C D,i =
2V∞ S π AR bπ

C L2
or C D,i = (5.43)
π AR
 C H A PTER 5 Incompressible Flow over Finite Wings 445

Equation (5.43) is an important result. It states that the induced drag coefficient
is directly proportional to the square of the lift coefficient. The dependence of
induced drag on the lift is not surprising, for the following reason. In Section 5.1,
we saw that induced drag is a consequence of the presence of the wing-tip vortices,
which in turn are produced by the difference in pressure between the lower and
upper wing surfaces. The lift is produced by this same pressure difference. Hence,
induced drag is intimately related to the production of lift on a finite wing; indeed,
induced drag is frequently called the drag due to lift. Equation (5.43) dramatically
illustrates this point. Clearly, an airplane cannot generate lift for free; the induced
drag is the price for the generation of lift. The power required from an aircraft
engine to overcome the induced drag is simply the power required to generate the
lift of the aircraft. Also, note that because C D,i ∝ C L2 , the induced drag coefficient
increases rapidly as C L increases and becomes a substantial part of the total drag
coefficient when C L is high (e.g., when the airplane is flying slowly such as
on takeoff or landing). Even at relatively high cruising speeds, induced drag is
typically 25 percent of the total drag.
Another important aspect of induced drag is evident in Equation (5.43); that
is, C D,i is inversely proportional to aspect ratio. Hence, to reduce the induced
drag, we want a finite wing with the highest possible aspect ratio. Wings with
high and low aspect ratios are sketched in Figure 5.16. Unfortunately, the design
of very high aspect ratio wings with sufficient structural strength is difficult.
Therefore, the aspect ratio of a conventional aircraft is a compromise between
conflicting aerodynamic and structural requirements. It is interesting to note that
the aspect ratio of the 1903 Wright Flyer was 6 and that today the aspect ratios
of conventional subsonic aircraft range typically from 6 to 8. (Exceptions are
the Lockheed U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft with AR = 14.3 and
sailplanes with aspect ratios as high as 51. For example, the Schempp-Hirth

Figure 5.16 Schematic of high- and low-aspect-ratio

wings.
446 PA RT 2 Inviscid, Incompressible Flow

Nimbus 4 sailplane, designed in 1994 with over 100 built by 2004, has an aspect
ratio of 39. The ETA sailplane, designed in 2000 with 6 built by 2004, has an
aspect ratio of 51.3.)
Another property of the elliptical lift distribution is as follows. Consider a
wing with no geometric twist (i.e., α is constant along the span) and no aero-
dynamic twist (i.e., α L=0 is constant along the span). From Equation (5.42), we
have seen that αi is constant along the span. Hence, αeff = α − αi is also constant
along the span. Since the local section lift coefficient cl is given by

cl = a0 (αeff − α L=0 )

then assuming that a0 is the same for each section (a0 = 2π from thin airfoil
theory), cl must be constant along the span. The lift per unit span is given by

L  (y) = q∞ ccl (5.44)

Solving Equation (5.44) for the chord, we have

L  (y)
c(y) = (5.45)
q∞ cl
In Equation (5.45), q∞ and cl are constant along the span. However, L  (y) varies
elliptically along the span. Thus, Equation (5.45) dictates that for such an elliptic
lift distribution, the chord must vary elliptically along the span; that is, for the
conditions given above, the wing planform is elliptical.
The related characteristics—the elliptic lift distribution, the elliptic planform,
and the constant downwash—are sketched in Figure 5.17. Although an elliptical
lift distribution may appear to be a restricted, isolated case, in reality it gives a
reasonable approximation for the induced drag coefficient for an arbitrary finite
wing. The form of C D,i given by Equation (5.43) is only slightly modified for

Figure 5.17 Illustration of the related quantities: an elliptic lift

distribution, elliptic planform, and constant downwash.