Development of Creative Writer Identity Among English Language

Learners During An Online Course In Creative Writing

By

Karina Pearl Thorne

Masters in Digital Technologies for Language Teaching

Student ID: 4234955

A Dissertation
Submitted to the Department of Modern Languages and Cultures
University of Nottingham, UK
In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Master of Arts
September 2020
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Plagiarism Declaration

‘I have read and understood the relevant information on plagiarism and the penalties that may be
imposed where an academic offence is committed, as stated in
[Link]

Karina Pearl Thorne

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Acknowledgments

First, I would like to thank my supervisor, Angelos Konstantinidis, for his patience, ongoing

support and guidance through each stage of the dissertation process. His expertise and

constructive and timely feedback have been instrumental in defining the path of my research and

the success of my work.

I would also like to acknowledge Veronica Layunta-Maurel for inspiring my interest in technology-

enhanced creative writing, both as a teacher and as a writer, and, ultimately, the development of

this project.

In addition, the director of my course, Cecilia Goria, has greatly influenced my interest in digital

technologies for language teaching, providing the theoretical and practical tools that I need to

make pedagogically-sound choices in my online classroom.

Finally, I would like to dedicate this work to my darling daughter, Kara.

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Abstract

The construction of writer identity in L2 creative writing is not usually explicitly addressed in
language classrooms, yet it plays a significant role for English language students learning to write
creatively. This study investigates the construction of writer identity by English L2 adult
participants in an online creative writing course, considering the skills and attitudes they express
about themselves and how much those attributes were shaped by their learning experiences. A
total of 29 students registered for the 4-week study centred around literature and reading circles,
along with creative writing tasks, with 21 students completing semi-structured questionnaires
before and after the course. Thematic analysis was applied to the responses to identify skills and
attitudes as related to creative writing. Findings referenced playfulness, authenticity, self-
expression/emotion, self-empowerment, distinct literary style and enhanced reading and writing
competence and writerly as key creative writer attributes which compose an L2 Creative Writer
Identity.

Keywords: L2 Creative Writing; L2 Creative Writer Identity; Literature Circles; Reading Circles;
Creative Writing; Online Course Design

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Contents

List of Figures

List of Tables

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………6

Literature Review ……………………………………………………………………………………..8

Creative Writing
Benefits of Creative Writing
Creative Writing Courses
Creative Writer Identity
Online Course Design Theory
Dialogical Self Theory

Research Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………22

Overall Research Methodology
Data Collection
Underlying Theory
Online Course Details
Findings ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 35
Online Course Task Completion Spreadsheet
Questionnaire Data Overview Tables
Online Course Satisfaction Survey Results

Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 48
Research Question 1
Research Question 2
Research Question 3
Research Question 4

Implications ……………………………………………………………………………………………58

Limitations …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 60

Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………60

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 62

Appendices …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 71

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Introduction

Context of the research

Creativity is the most sought after 21st century skill (P21 Partnership for 21st Century Learning,

n.d) in the workplace today (LinkedIn, 2019). At the same time, language teachers continue to

search for new and innovative ways to increase students’ skills and confidence in order to become

capable and independent learners (Hisatsune, 2012). As such, reading literature and writing short

stories in small groups are creative activities which can help students to acquire and use new

language through meaningful, collaborative language exchanges (Maher, 2018), transferable

skills for the new global economy (OECD, 2008; OECD, 2018).

And yet, “it does not seem as though confidence in writing skills is nurtured as students progress

through school, even in the face of the skills themselves being developed” (Pajares, 2003, p152).

So, as students mature, negative connotations are attached to writing performance. No more so

is that evident than among adult English language learners, who fear their literary work “is an

oddness to be frowned upon” (Zhao, 2015, p16).

That said, Maley (2015, p79) rejects the premise that writers are born and believes “we all have

creative potential”. He sees value in compositions written by bilingual authors and agrees with

Ron Carter’s (2004, p13) assertion that “linguistic creativity is not simply a property of exceptional

people but an exceptional property of all people”. But what ‘exceptional property’ does a creative

individual possess? And how may the design of an online course in creative writing nurture these

skills and attitudes?

To answer these questions, the present study will look at how English language learners perceive

themselves while engaging in an online course on creative writing. Dialogical Self Theory

(Hermans & Van Loon, 1992) will be employed to capture these perceptions of self, which

proposes that an individual may host “...a dynamic multiplicity of relatively autonomous I-

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positions” (Hermans, 2001, p248). That is to say, each position possesses a ‘voice’ and emerges

from the ‘dialogue’ of different and even opposed positions or conflicting ‘selves’, influenced by

different situations, relationships or periods of time. In sum, by analysing the participants’

responses to questions investigating their experience before and after the course through a

dialogical lens, we intend to uncover, not only how they construct their L2 Creative Writer Identity

over time, but also which aspects of the online course on creative writing facilitate the adoption of

this new identity.

The online course will be based on design principles drawn from Gagne’s (1985) Nine Events of

Instruction, the elusive ADDIE model (Molenda, 2003) of Instructional Design and the Seven’s

C’s of Learning Design (The 7 C’s of design and delivery, e4innovation, 2012.) In this way, the

teacher will take the primary facilitator role, getting to know the students and allowing them to get

to know each other. By providing clear learning outcomes, and designing engaging activities that

foster individual and collaborative learning, the tutor will provide a scenario whereby participants

may put into practice what they have learned in a real context. Each original piece of work

produced will be self-evaluated in terms of its creativity against an adapted rubric for assessing

creative writing (Mozaffari, 2012; see Appendix A.) And having received feedback on

performance, participants will agree on how to apply this new knowledge and experience in the

future.

Research problem

Chamcharatsri (2012, 2013a, 2013b) suggests that various genres of creative writing by language

learners encourage emotional expression. Similarly, Hanauer & Liao (2016, p224) found that

writing creatively “offers a range of positive experiences focusing on self-discovery and emotional

engagement without many of the negative experiences of academic writing.” While Iida (2010,

p33) claims that it “enables students to develop an identifiable voice.” It is also argued that creative

writing facilitates the acquisition of lexical and creative skills (Disney, 2012), playful engagement

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with the target language (Cook, 2000; Elgar, 2002; Belz, 2002) and the development of a writerly

identity (Maley, n.d.; 2012).

Feuer’s (2011) project on collaborative creative writing reveals social and intrapersonal benefits

as it regards identity formation as well as language proficiency development - increasing

confidence and writing level. Whereas Zhao’s (2015, p2) investigation of L2 creative writers’

literary experience demonstrates that creative writing is not only performed in relation to past

cultural and linguistic experiences but also “simultaneously for the achievements of certain self-

identification and hence self-esteem, which in turn feeds into motivation for language learning.”

Since previous research has analysed written texts (Cumming, 1989; Rijlaarsdam and van der

Bergh, 2006) and writing processes (Zhao, 2015) to interpret L2 writers’ voices, little has been

done to understand the L2 creative writers’ self-positioning in a shared virtual Community of

Practice where each member brings a distinct array of social identities. Therefore, the concept of

self-expression in a foreign language and understanding one’s position in the creative writing

world, in other words, how L2 learners therein identify themselves, needs further empirical

consideration and theoretical definition.

Research questions

To better understand the construction of L2 Creative Writer Identity, the following research

questions will be addressed:

Q1: According to the literature, what attitudes and skills compose an L1 creative writer identity?

Q2: What voices related to L2 creative writer identity do English language learners express before

and after their participation in an online course on creative writing, and how are they developed?

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Q3: What attributes compose an L2 Creative Writer Identity and how do they relate to L1 Creative

Writer Identity?

Q4: Which aspects of the online course on creative writing facilitate the adoption of the L2 Creative

Writer Identity by the learners?

Aim and organisation of the research

The aim of the research is to design an online course in creative writing and a model on L2

Creative Writer Identity. To this end, the course will focus on the close reading of 2 short stories

to develop reading comprehension and analysis skills, as well as a deeper understanding of the

elements of short stories. Digital and collaborative skills will be nurtured through tutor support and

writing skills of an original short story developed through peer and self-evaluation. An analytical

rubric for evaluating creativity in creative writing will be applied to the final products. And using a

dialogical approach, surveys completed by participants before and after this experience will

uncover the distinct elements that make an L2 Creative Writer Identity.

The result of the study will be valuable to language teachers as well as curriculum designers in

developing better practice and tools for helping second language writers maintain, integrate and

amplify their personal and cultural identities.

Literature Review

1. Creative Writing

Dr Derek Neale, Senior Lecturer in Creative Writing at The Open University UK, states that

“Creative Writing is a relatively young term, first arising in the mid-nineteenth century, and one

that has come to describe writing, typically fiction or poetry but also script, which displays

imagination or invention, often contrasted with academic or journalistic writing” (Creative Writing

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in the UK in English, n.d.). Similarly, Ken Hyland, an expert in teaching writing to students of

EFL/ESL, views creative writing “as any writing, fiction or non-fiction, that occurs outside everyday

professional, journalistic, academic and technical forms of writing” (Hyland, 2009). Following on,

Alan Maley, another specialist in using creative writing for teaching English, highlights the modes

of creative writing as focusing on aesthetic, imagination, internal discipline and stretching rules,

while still being intuitive and personal (Maley, n.d.).

From defining creative writing to the different forms that embody it, Hyland (2009) believes that

novels, short stories and poems are all central to creative writing, but concedes that “it can also

include screenwriting and playwriting, which are texts to be performed, and creative non-fiction

such as personal and journalistic essays.” For Maley (n.d.), “Creative writing normally refers to

the production of texts which have an aesthetic rather than a purely informative, instrumental or

pragmatic purpose.” Such texts often take the form of poems or stories, and are the result of

“intuition, close observation, imagination, and personal memories ” (Maley, n.d.). While, for Toby

Litt, who is a British writer as well as a lecturer, the compactness of the short story is it’s biggest

appeal among all genres: “The short story forces the writer, the beginning writer, to give a

beginning, a middle and an end, and to show how they attack a whole story, the arc of a whole

story... It also forces attention to the line, attention to the punctuation, the most minute things

about a work” (At home with ghosts and werewolves, 2017).

Apart from the beginning, middle and end, the key elements of creative writing vary among

proponents. Some cover voice, characters and point of view, and the elements specific to fiction

as character, plot, setting, theme, style, point of view and tone (Duke University, 2020). Whereas

others put emphasis on the process of writing by “... exploring creative voice, identifying point of

view, the implied author and authorial guises whilst considering the creative and interactive nature

of reading” (Lancaster University, 2020) And weekly workshops at this institution help students to

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understand concepts such as “...structure, linguistic texture and resonance, point-of-view, form,

pace, characterisation, the mediation of tone, and reader awareness.” Here there is a clear

overlap in the elements that make up creative writing as regards fiction, where voice, character

and point of view are most important, as well as a requirement to raise reader awareness of these

elements, in the form of self-criticism.

For the purpose of this project creative writing is defined as ‘using your imagination, being

disciplined, stretching the rules, while being personal’. The genre of short story has been chosen

as the main type of reading and writing for its’ ‘compactness’, with a focus on hooks, plot,

character, location, setting.

2 Benefits of Creative Writing

A survey conducted in 2006 (Maley, n.d.), uncovered four primary benefits of creative writing for

language teachers. First, the power of teacher-as-model (and co-writer) for motivation, as well as

the opportunity for keeping the teacher’s own English fresh and vibrant. Thirdly, they become

more interesting to students, positively impacting the teacher-student relationship and teachers

become better teachers of writing, in general. Many of those teachers believed “...that CW had a

positive effect on students’ writing of expository texts and helped them develop that much-desired

but rarely-delivered ‘authentic voice’.” Essentially, creative writing reduces the distance between

the teacher and student, allowing personal and meaningful elements to be incorporated into the

learning process.

Based on the same analysis, the benefits of creative writing for learners are language

development, playing with language leads to taking risks which leads to learning, emphasis on

right-side brain development, such as emotions and intuition, increase in self-confidence and self-

esteem, increase in motivation and an increase in creative reading and development of reading

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skills.. What is clear is that we learn better when we are in the ‘flow’ state, comple tely absorbed

and focused on the task at hand (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Similarly, the deeper level of

psychological processing that creative writing encourages, leads to better learning and retention

(Craik & Lockhart, 1972).

In sum, the potential of creative writing as a language learning tool is in its dual nature of freedom

of language expression through experimentation and taking risks, while also adhering to the rules

of the chosen genre. Indeed, “the very constraints which the rules impose seem to foster rather

than restrict the creativity of the writer” (Maley (n.d.).

3. Creative Writing Courses

In the UK, one of the most newly prestigious writing schools is the Faber Academy (FA).

Interestingly, they focus primarily on teaching the art of critiquing in order to develop “self-

sufficient writers”. The value of peer critiquing “...includes receiving thoughtful feedback on every

exercise you do, becoming part of a close-knit group of fellow writers you can trust to give honest

and insightful critiques, and feeling supported through common writing hurdles.” (FA, How we

teach writing online, 2020). Conversely, tutor feedback is minimised: “Within academic circles

there is continuing debate about tutor feedback – there’s a fine line between making someone

dependent on their tutors and giving them the confidence and competence they need effectively

to judge their own work.” Here, the role of the tutor is to guide new writers towards an independent

writing practice. This is learnt by following the exercises devised, by writing according to the

prompts set, by reading as directed, and by critiquing the work of fellow participants and receiving

critique in return.

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The University of Oxford’s (UO) beginner’s course introduces key aspects of creative writing and

enables students to use them in their own writing (UO, Getting Started in Creative Writing Online,

2020). Here, over 10 weeks, studying 10 hours a week, participants do receive tutor feedback on

course assignments, unlike at the Faber Academy, and are encouraged to discuss each other’s

writing in course forums. Finally, guidance is given on offering constructive and useful criticism.

This course runs asynchronously to fit around busy schedules, with content accessible at times

convenient to the participants. In this way, it can be said that participation in and contribution to

online conversations are vital to the learning experience.

Future Learn offers Start Writing Fiction (The Open University, 2020), an 8 week, 3 hours weekly

study, distance course based on pre-recorded videos of established writers sharing their wisdom.

Here, students have the opportunity to interact with their peers, trade work, and offer and receive

constructive criticism. The course instructor centralises the creation of characters in the creative

writing process by guiding students through techniques such as journaling observations, writing

from experience and editing, offers reading and writing prompts, and discusses revision and

critiquing strategies. Overall, following models of good writing by successful writers is prioritised

here, by learning to read as a writer.

Masterclass (2020) are “online courses taught by the world’s greatest minds”, currently in 9

specific fields, which include Writing. The platform offers on-demand pre-recorded video content

from famous and talented writers, with class workbooks, interactive assignments and community

activities. Classes are short, 2-5 hours in total, with an average of 24 individual lessons lasting 5-

25 minutes per lesson. Participants are invited to learn at their own pace across devices.

By cross-examining the structure of the courses mentioned above we see a strong emphasis, not

only on learning the craft, that is the techniques or key elements of story writing, by analysing the

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work of well-established authors, but also the value of peer critiquing, in groups, with the main

objective being the ability to skillfully self-edit one’s own written work. It should be noted that most

courses are short in length but high in video content. And the final result is not only a polished

piece of writing but also a newly self-directed learner and independent writer-reader.

4. Creative Writer Identity

With a clear understanding of what Creative Writing is, the benefits it may bring and the typical

formats of such courses, it is interesting to note the typical traits creative writers exhibit, where

English is the writer’s first language (L1).

4.1 L1 Creative Writer Identity

Barron’s study (1966) found that five items best described successful, distinguished writers: high

intellectual capacity, valued intellectual and cognitive matters, valued independence and

autonomy, had high verbal fluency and quality of expression, and enjoyed aesthetic impressions.

In addition to these traits, they were also judged to be productive, concerned with philosophical

problems, to have high aspirations, a wide range of interests, to think unconventionally, to be

interesting people, to be honest with others, and to behave consistently with personal ethical

standards.

Day (2002) interpreted the life stories of four creative writers as constructive narratives of identity.

She found that each participant experienced isolation in their youth and felt a strong feeling of

being different, like an outsider. Writing became therapy “as a means of soothing themselves and

establishing themselves as individuals” (p132). While observation of the world around them was

highlighted “as a way of enhancing ordinary life” (p133) And humour was seen as “critical” (p134)

for dealing with difficult life situations.

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While conducting personality tests of creative writers, Piirto (2009) discovered through her Myers-

Briggs type indicator that most writers preferred intuition and perception, so feeling rather than

thinking. Her Overexcitability questionnaire for poets, prose writers and playwrights uncovered

five distinguishing traits: high levels of ambition and envy, highly concerned with philosophical

issues, including the meaning of life, as well as the search for truth and beauty, high levels of

frankness, risk-taking, and political and social activism, high value on empathy, and expressed a

desire to feel and communicate the emotions of others and an unusually keen sense of humor.

Forbes (2017) shared empirical research into the self-identities of eight developing creative

writers. Her creative writer model has four inter-related facets: maker, artist, creator and

performer. The maker is someone involved in the act of writing, who writes for pleasure, but may

not easily ascribe the term ‘writer’ to themselves. The artist observes and reflects on their

surroundings and experiences. The creator draws on personal experiences, evoking personal

emotions and presenting a ‘voice’. But, “despite this…there is a conscious distancing from their

characters and their work, while recognising that their own individuality is reflected in their work”

(p268). The performer exists in relation to an audience, for example, of readers, giving the writer

a sense of purpose.

As the personality traits mentioned above will be further scrutinised in the Discussion section,

now we turn to the evolution of research in regards to creative writers whose second language

is English (L2).

4.2 L2 Creative Writer Identity

Writing is the least developed language skill among English language learners (Cloud, Gemesee

& Hamayan, 2009.) Within the domain of L2 Writing itself, the focus has been on investigating

young learners (Chen, Carger & Smith, 2017; Michel et al., 2019; Peng & Jiang, 2020) and

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adolescents (Enright & Ortmeier-Hooper, 2010; Meltzer & Hamann, 2004; Reynolds, 2005).

Where the experience of L2 adult learners has been centred, the focus has been on academic

writing (Vassilaki, 2017), including identity in academic writing (Hyland, 2002; Li & Deng, 2019;

McKinley, 2017; Scheffler, 2017). Finally, some work has been carried out to understand writer

identity among children (Hong, 1997; Burgess, 2013), leaving space to explore the construction

of identity among L2 adult creative writers.

There are many examples of creative writing in the foreign language classroom. For example,

research reveals that academic and creative writing involve different sets of experiences and that

creative writing involves fewer negative experiences (Hanauer & Liao, 2016). And Hanuaer (2012)

proposed that writing literary genres may increase student enjoyment, enhancing personal

motivation for second language writing, leading to more language learning. Many academics

highlight the value of language play and the authenticity of creative fictional discourse in language

learning (Cook, 1997, Elgar 2002, Belz 2002). Whilst EFL/ESL teachers have enhanced their

classroom practice through adopting poetry and short story writing workshops (Mukundan, 2006;

Maley & Mukundan, 2011a, 2011b; Tin, 2004, 2011).

Chamcharatsri (2012, 2013a, 2013b) suggests that various types of creative writing are

understood as fulfilling different roles in terms of emotional expression. Second language

participants in the Hanauer & Liao (2016) study valued creative writing because it provides

emotional engagement, self-understanding and reliving memories. While Hanauer (2010) & Iida

(2010) claim that creative writing in the language classroom generates a sense of personal voice.

And it is also argued that creative writing encourages learners to engage playfully with the target

language and develop a writerly identity (Maley and Duff 1994, 2005; Duff and Maley 2007; Maley

2009, 2012).

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Zhao (2014b) incorporates Community of Practice theory to explain L2 creative writers self-

perceived literary experience and their related self-identification. She suggests that the practice

of L2 creative writing is performed by L2 users in relation to past creative literary experiences, not

just for language or literacy acquisition, but also as a means of self-empowerment to achieve

particular social positioning and self-esteem (Zhao, 2014a, 2014b).

The present study, therefore, will look at how English language learners perceive themselves

while engaging in an online creative writing course. By analysing the responses from

questionnaires issued before and after the course, we will uncover, not only how they construct

their L2 Creative Writer Identity over time, but also which aspects of this new identity compare

with typical attributes associated with (L1) Creative Writer Identity.

5 Online Course Design

Over the years different principles have been developed to create effective learning experiences

(see Table 1).

Table 1. Key principles of prominent course design models.

Course Design Nine Events of Instruction ADDIE (Molenda, 2003) Learning Design (Conole,
Model/Stages or Phases (Gagne, 1965) 2015)

Stage/Phase 1 Preparation Analysis Vision

● Gaining attention ● Analyse the ● Conceptualise
● Informing learners - who
learners of the they are, what
objectives they do and don’t
● Stimulating recall know
of prior learning

Stage/Phase 2 Instruction & Practice Design Activities

● Presenting the ● Design ● Create
stimulus instruction - what ● Communicate
● Providing the learning ● Collaborate
learning outcomes/objecti ● Consider
guidance ves are, what
● Eliciting activities will help
performance students achieve

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● Providing those goals

feedback

Stage/Phase 3 Assessment & Transfer Development Synthesis

● Assessing ● Develop learning ● Combine
performance opportunities/acti
● Enhancing vities which
retention and requie reading,
transfer writing, listening,
speaking skills,
using different
media such as
image, text,
audio, video, plus
examples and
rubrics

Stage/Phase 4 Implementation Implementation

● Teach the course ● Consolidation

Stage/Phase 5 Evaluation
● Evaluate whether
students
achieved the
learning goals,
what aspects of
the course was
and was not
effective

5.1 Online Course Design Models

Gagne’s (1985) Nine Events of Instruction offers a clear framework of external events that help

the student achieve certain learning outcomes. Whereas Gagne Nine Events focuses on the

learner, the ADDIE model (Molenda, 2003) of Instructional Design (ID) serves instructors

designing activities, and which may be applied in the online context. In turn, the Seven C’s of

Learning Design (e4innovation, 2012) may be seen as a more thorough approach that more

usefully combines pedagogy and technology. These prominent course design models combine

with online community building concepts to form the foundation of this research project.

5.2 Community of Inquiry

The Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework (Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2000) is built upon

constructivist approaches to learning inspired by the likes of epistemologist Piaget who saw

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learning as an active process, sharing perspectives and constructing meaning through

collaborative exchange. Indeed, “Higher education has consistently viewed community as

essential to support collaborative learning and discourse associated with higher levels of

learning.” (p158). The CoI model is made up of three elements: social, cognitive and teacher

presence.

Brown’s (2001) process of building online community highlights 3 important stages for boosting

social presence, positively affecting learner satisfaction and outcomes: i) make online

acquaintances ii) exchange thoughtful ideas to feel part of the community iii) “after long-term

and/or intense association with others involving personal communication” camaraderie is

achieved. Here we can see social presence acting as a ‘base layer’ or foundation where it is only

after relationships are established that the focus of the community may shift to academic activities:

“The purpose of social presence in an educational context is to create the conditions for inquiry

and quality interaction (reflective and threaded discussions) to achieve worthwhile educational

purposes” (p161).

Regarding Cognitive Presence, Garrison & Armargh (2007) state that “It appears that critical

thinking skills might be enhanced via a variety of online course formats.” The value of group

composition suggests that having a group of individuals with mixed backgrounds is more positive

and stimulating than one with similar types of people. In fact, being able to move through the

stages of inquiry, from establishing social links with the group, to active learning with and from

the group, is said to be related to the task design and instructions given. This is the responsibility

of the tutor where “well designed tasks are important to see evidence of resolution in a community

of inquiry” (p162). Thus, a way to interpret if learning acquisition has occurred is to ensure that

learners are meta-cogntively aware of those very stages of inquiry. In sum, cognitive presence is

possible through clear task design, clear questions and a rubric to self-assessment, showing

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learners know what they are supposed to be learning and why; essentially by being made explicitly

aware of the learning process.

Teaching presence focuses on instructional design and organisation of the course, facilitation of

interaction between the students and course materials and direct instruction including giving

examples, comments and feedback. Garrison et al., (2010) discovered the dominant influence of

teaching presence over the other two elements: “...it was shown through student perceptions that

teaching presence directly influences the perception of social and cognitive presence.

Perceptions of social presence also significantly predict perceptions of cognitive presence” (p35).

And overall, “It reinforces the central role of teaching presence to establishing and sustaining an

online learning environment and realising intended learning outcomes.”

Jaggers & Xu (2016) developed an assessment rubric for online course quality based on course

organisation and presentation, learning objectives and assessments, interpersonal interaction

and technology. The results indicated that the quality of interpersonal interaction within a course

relates positively and significantly to student grades. Other analyses indicated that frequent and

effective student-instructor interaction (as opposed to student-student interaction) creates an

online environment that encourages students to commit themselves to the course and perform at

a stronger academic level.

Comparing and contrasting these approaches, the key principles applied to this study are: the

teacher taking the primary facilitator role, getting to know the students and allowing them to get

to know each other, providing clear learning outcomes, designing engaging activities that foster

individual and collaborative learning (between both student-instructor and student-student),

providing a scenario whereby participants may put into practice what they have learned in a real

context, giving clear feedback following a rubric to assess performance and agreeing on how to

apply this new knowledge and experience in the future.

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6 Dialogical Self Theory

Prior to the co-creation of Dialogical Self Theory by Dutch psychologist Hubert Hermans (1992)

alongside Kempen and Van Loon, heavily influenced by the intersection of American (James,

1890) and Russian (Bakhtin, 1929/1973) psychology and literary science concepts, the theory of

self assumed that there was only one centralised ‘I’ that controlled individual thinking. However,

the dialogical self is primarily based on the premise that an individual may host many I-positions:

“The I in the one position, moreover, can agree, disagree, understand, misunderstand, oppose,

contradict, question, challenge and even ridicule the I in another position” (Hermans, 2001, p249).

The second defining element of the dialogical self is that it is bound to a particular moment in time

and space. And finally, the dialogical self is internally ‘social’, where multiple I’s have multiple

voices which in turn represent multiple selves. So each position possesses a ‘voice’ and I emerges

from the ‘dialogue’ of different and even opposed positions, brought about by the combination of

continuity and discontinuity or temporal and spatial characteristics. As a result our ‘selves’ are

constantly changing in relation to the stimuli we interact with, and may even incorporate conflicting

‘selves’. In sum, the notion of self is seen as “...a dynamic multiplicity of relatively autonomous I-

positions” (Hermans, 2001, p248), each of which can be influenced by different situations,

relationships or periods of time.

Applying Ivanic’s (1998) framework for the construction of writer identity to student teacher

reflections, Vassilaki (2017) found that “students’ writing identities run across the academic

through the professional and personal.” Following on, Leijen & Kullasepp (2013) were able to

unlock potential conflicts between ‘selves’ during their study of professional identity development

facilitation during initial teacher training through I-statement analysis. They identified the common

issue of when and how student teachers may eventually identify themselves as teachers. Utilising

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Dialogical Self Theory, they developed seminars which facilitated the i) voicing of personal

positions in a highly prescribed professional context ii) identifying tensions between personal and

professional positions and iii) solving tensions between different positions. In this way, they

facilitated the negotiation and solving of tensions between student teachers’ personal and

professional I-positions by giving voice to their tensions, and allowing participants to solve

tensions between conflicting positions by forming coalitions between positions, or establishing a

personal orientation to solve these tensions. Indeed, much research has been carried out

regarding academic discourses, whereas less research has focused on creative discourses.

As the basis of this project is creative writing, it is interesting to think about how “... voices function

like interacting characters in a story, involved in a process of question and answer, agreement

and disagreement. Each of them has a story to tell about his or her own experiences from his or

her own stance” (Hermans, 2001, p248). In this way, a dialogical approach could be applied to

those interested in becoming a creative writer. Indeed, “...people may create new positions in the

self...new positions often result from the combination of old ones” (Hermans, 2001, p254.) For

example, the dynamics of an individual’s identity could be revealed by examining the self-dialogue

that is expressed by an L2 learner striving to attain a Creative Writer Identity in an online creative

writing community.

Research Methodology

1 Overall Research Methodology

This study is rooted in the learning theory of Social Constructivism, and strongly influenced by the

concepts of Social Learning and Technology-Enhanced Learning.

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Vygotsky defined social constructivism as incorporating social and cultural interactions, the

centering of the learner in the learning process and the co-construction of knowledge, whereby

one learns from and with others. For example, the main learning activity in this investigation being

a synchronous discussion in small groups, represents Vgotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development

(1987). Here, each participant prepares and performs a role in order to understand the meaning

of a short story text. So, through individual contributions from group members, a deeper, thorough

and more nuanced understanding of the story can be gained. In this way, the “range of tasks that

are too difficult for an individual to master alone, (but) can be mastered with the assistance or

guidance of adults or more-skilled peers (Vygotsky, 1987).

Social Learning, an active social participation in a community of practice (Wenger, 1998), builds

on Bandura’s belief that people learn from other’s through observation, imitation and modelling

(Bandura, 1962). Participants in the online course in creative writing established and maintained

relationships by interacting socially, both synchronously and asynchronously. In fact, “When

students act as a part of a group, they can gain experience during collaboration and develop the

important skills of critical thinking, self-reflection, and co-construction of knowledge” (Brindley,

Walti, & Blaschke, 2009).

Of course, technology is the glue that sticks online learning together. And since the 1980’s the

internet has facilitated not only the connection of individuals in different locations online, but also

supported learners to interact with their environment and acquire new information. In sum,

technology-enhanced environments are a key driver in the process of learning.

2 Data Collection

2.1 Data Collection Method

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This short-term investigation employs a longitudinal qualitative methodology to discover the skills

and attitudes of English language learners toward their creative writer identity during an online

course in creative writing, as well as their attitudes towards the course itself. “Although email

surveys tend to attract greater response than web-based surveys, web-based surveys have the

potential to reach greater numbers of participants” (Cohen, 2007, p226), so an internet-based

survey was chosen. A pre-course questionnaire and a post-course questionnaire were

administered online via Google Forms and were open to all 30 students; however, not all of the

students answered them. 28 students filled out the pre-course questionnaire, but only 21 of them

successfully completed the post-course questionnaire.

2.2 Data Collection Instrument

A descriptive survey method is adopted because we “are concerned both to describe what the

present relationships are among variables in a given situation and to account for changes

occurring in those relationships over time.” (Cohen, 2007, p205) One qualitative data collection

instrument was used, before and after the online course in creative writing. The first internet

survey gathers data at a particular point in time, before the start of the online course, describing

the nature of existing attitudes and skills in language learning, in order to identify standards

against which they may be compared in the second internet survey after the online course.

The most common data collection instrument for internet surveys is the questionnaire (Cohen,

2007, p229). The Pre-Course Questionnaire was designed by the researcher in three parts and

contained 20 items. The first part contained 7 items focused on learner demographics, such as

age, work/study, log-in location, motivation and expectations for the course; perceived language

success; in the second part 7 questions are about learners’ perceived language skills and

attitudes towards English language learning, reading and writing in general. The final part of the

questionnaire contained 6 items about attitudes and skills towards creative writing, specifically.

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Almost all of the questions were open-ended allowing the participants to write as much detail as

they saw fit.

The Post-Course Questionnaire contained items and was constructed of four parts, with 28 items

in total. There were two items in part one requiring name and email address input to ensure

duplicate responses were easily spotted. Part two had 6 items focusing on the impact and change

of attitudes and skills towards English language learning, reading and writing throughout the

duration of the online course. The third part had 8 items looking at any change in attitudes and

skills towards creative writing. The final part of the survey containing 12 items collected

information about the overall course experience. While most of the questions were open-ended,

some of them in Part 4 offered a selection of choices as responses.

As it can be seen, the survey scope is small-scale and limited to only 30 participants. And the

survey style is confirmatory whereby a model of L2 creative writer identity is tested, with questions

moving from the general to the more specific.

2.3 Data Analysis Method

Thematic analysis (TA) was used to examine how participants perceived their attitude and skills

change throughout the duration of an online course in creative writing. This common technique

for analysing qualitative data (Boyatzis, 1998) allows researchers to identify, analyse and interpret

patterns or ‘themes’ from the information collected (Clarke & Braun, 2017). Key themes emerge

from small chunks of text or codes that “…capture interesting features of the data (potentially)

relevant to the research question.” (Clarke & Braun, 2017). And as code reliability is an issue

(Boyatzis, 1998, Yu & Hai, 2005), strategies for monitoring code development were implemented

(Guest, MacQueen & Namey, 2014).

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A six-phase process (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p87) was followed to identify core themes emerging

from the free-text responses on two surveys, utilising Microsoft Excel as a simple, low-cost

analytic tool (Bree et al., 2016):

Phase 1: Familiarising yourself with your data. The researcher read and re-read a printed copy of

the data, looking for connections and patterns.

Phase 2: Generating initial codes. The researcher copied the data into a Microsoft Excel

spreadsheet, allocating each response a question number (from 1-13) and letter (from a-u) to

represent the corresponding participant.

Phase 3: Searching for themes. Potential key themes within the text responses were highlighted

and colour coded.

Phase 4: Reviewing themes. For the first review, a filter was applied to the spreadsheet to sort by

colour in order to collate themes. Then, the data underwent a second review eliminating duplicate

information and consolidating data points where possible.

Phase 5: Defining and naming themes. Several iterations of the review process were carried out,

further condensing and refining the data of each theme. At this stage, detailed definitions and

names for all themes were created.

Phase 6: Producing the report. A broad analytic interpretation of the latest data was made,

generating a report which included an overview of each theme, quotes from the extracts and final

analysis linking back to the research question and current literature.

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3 Underlying Theory

Critical success factors in online language learning include student’s individual characteristics,

technology, teacher characteristics, instructional design, provision of support and existing

language skills (Alberth, 2011).

Indeed, it stands to reason that individuals who choose to partake in activities related to online

language learning, perceive the medium to be valid and align with their own learning style and

preferences (Terrell, 2002). Therefore, we may assume that the participants in this online course

in creative writing, who brought not only a positive attitude towards technology but also experience

of technology use for language learning, were likely to experience significant satisfaction (Ushida,

2005; Kobayashi, 2010). That said, the challenging nature of an online learning environment

means it is better suited to self-regulated learners (O’Hanlon, 2001), a component which was not

explicitly mentioned in either the promotional materials or the FAQs document for this learning

experience. All the same, by providing detailed information about the online course at the time of

promotion, such as aims, content, deadlines and expectations, any negative bias toward online

language learning can be counterbalanced (Schulze & Scholz, 2018).

Heeding the advice that “unnecessarily intricate designs may be intimidating, even for those who

have previous experience with computers” (Alberth, 2011, p22), the course website hosted on

Moodle had a simple interface design with one main page which included a link to the discussion

boards at the top, a section for resources below that, and daily tasks listed chronologically below.

(See image of main page). In addition, a screencast was shared prior to the course start date

showing the instructor logging in to and navigating the platform. (See video link?). In fact, for the

sake of simplicity, the only occasion where learners moved away from the main page was when

accessing their own group’s Discussion Board. Furthermore, in order to avoid overwhelm, the

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method of drip-feeding content was adopted, whereby the next daily task was only made available

(‘unhidden’) the night before (as opposed to making the entire curriculum immediately available.)

Addressing the deficiencies of online language courses perceived by students, Schulze & Scholz

(2018, p202) calls for the course design to focus on “an expansion of the infrastructure for

synchronous audio or video student-instructor and student-student communication”. As the

participants logged in from around the world in different time zones, asynchronous activities, such

as reading, writing and commenting, made up the bulk of the learning. However, synchronous

video remained central to the tasks, with two one-hour live sessions taking place each week, each

with half of the group (15 members). At this time, the instructor facilitated short getting-to-know-

you discussions among arrivals, before organising the attendees into 3 breakout rooms (in the

first hour, group 1, group 2 and group 3. In the second hour, group 4, group 5 and group 6.)

Due to the uptick in student task responses following the one-off video message at the beginning

of week 3, it is clear that weekly video messages from the instructor summarising what has been

achieved so far and offering words of encouragement would support persistence among the

learning group.

Although interaction with other students is often incorporated into online course design, Gering et

al. (2018) found that success in online courses relates more to teaching presence than social

presence. Schulze & Scholz (2018, p202) also suggest that “Resources for an increased teacher

presence in the online course need to be made available” to make online learning more effective.

This took the form of the instructor, not only making timely comments on individual written posts,

but also the timely release of the new daily tasks, as well as direct comments and interaction with

all participants in the weekly synchronous Zoom sessions. The live sessions were recorded and

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made available to the participants who were absent to watch or reviewed again by those who

attended.

4 About The Course

Pre-Course Activities

Prior to the course start date individual welcome emails containing the pre-course questionnaire,

the course website and login details, confirmation of the participant’s group number (1-6) as well

as a video orientation of the platform itself were circulated among participants.

Prior to the first daily task, students were invited to introduce themselves in the Self-Introduction

discussion thread on their group Discussion Board, in order to facilitate making online

acquaintances, the first stage of community building according to Brown (2001). Alongside this,

the instructor set up the Virtual Cafe 247 discussion thread, which invited all participants to chat

about topics unrelated to the course. This ‘always open’ social space served as an additional way

for learners to get to know each other while reducing inhibition.

Course Description

The online course in creative writing was designed to raise the awareness of adult English

language learners to the key elements of short story writing, such as hook, plot, characters,

location and dialogue, as well as vocabulary and real-life connections. In addition, learners

activated all four language learning skills through short story reading, free writing, live discussions

and by giving peer feedback. Reflection also played a critical role throughout the course.

A curriculum composed of twenty tasks was designed by the online course instructor; five tasks,

up to one hour in length, being allocated per week over 4 weeks, so 20 hours in total. The first 3

weeks followed the same task pattern, whereas the final week tasks differed slightly.

Table 2. Online Course Weekly Tasks.

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Week Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4 Task 5

1 Read short Role prep Live Free Writing Reflection 1

story 1 Literature Literature & Peer
Circle Circle Feedback

2 Re-read short Role prep Live Creative First Draft Reflection 2

story 1 Creative Writing Circle & Peer
Writing Feedback
Circle

3 Read short Role prep Live Lit & CW Second Draft Reflection 3
story 2 Lit & CW Circle & Peer
Circle Feedback

4 Read Apply Live Reading Third Draft Reflection 4

Creative Creative of Drafts & Peer
Writing Writing Feedback
Rubric Rubric

Task 1

For the first task each week participants were required to read or re-read a short story and make

notes according to the prompts written. Certainly, the benefits of using short stories in the EFL

context are well known. Not only do they motivate language learners to persist in reading, but

also allow instructors to introduce literary elements such as character, plot and setting, explore

cultural difference and teach higher-order thinking skills (Erkaya, 2005).

Brookhart (2013) advocates rubric composed of criteria and descriptions levels of performance.

So, in the fourth week, participants familiarised themselves with a creative writing rubric for the

first task, adapted from Mozaffari’s (2013) analytical rubric for assessing creativity in creative

writing.

Task 2

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Maher (2018) proposed that reading and writing stories through collaborative effort can be an

effective way to engage student’s L2. Therefore, task two of the week focused on rolework

preparation for a Live Discussion Circle (see Appendix B). That is to say, each member of the

group was randomly allocated a role representing one aspect of short story language and/or

structure, such as vocabulary, real-life connections or dialogue. By reading the story and noting

examples for their role, therefore, they would arrive at the following day’s Circle ready to contribute

to the live discussion. Groups were limited to 5 people in order to be effective (Maher, 2018,

p103), and to allow the exchange of thoughtful ideas to feel part of the community (Brown, 2001).

According to Brookhart (2013), “Rubrics are important because they clarify for students the

qualities their work should have” (p11). That is to say, “…students understanding the learning

target and criteria for success.” Therefore, in the second task for week 4, participants were

encouraged to apply the creative writing rubric criteria in order to improve their own writing (see

Appendix E).

Task 3

“It is the quality of human interaction that determines online learning success” (Quitadamo &

Brown, 2001). Hence, the pivotal third task, that of synchronous teacher-student and student-

student interaction, fell in the middle of the week. Learners participated in a live discussion sharing

the insights discovered while preparing for the rolework for the Literature Circle and/or Creative

Writing Circle. However, in the final week the live session focused on the voluntary reading of

drafts to all attendees. In fact, the idea of a ‘workshop’ where small groups engage in peer oral

critiques of written work is not new, and appears in some form in the syllabus of both the American

MFA and the British Creative Writing MA. (Quotes?)

Task 4

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According to Rooster (2005), “...most writing instructors would agree that good writers read a lot

and that understanding written texts offers models, tools, and ideas for one’s own writing.” Thus,

the fourth task of each week was to free write or write a new draft in response to the story

discussed on the previous day, or in response to the prompts posted. The drafts were posted in

a discussion thread to allow for peer commentary and feedback.

Task 5

The benefits of systematic learner introspection and reflection over time, as outlined by Porto

(2007), highlight the importance of providing learners with opportunities for reflection and critical

thinking in foreign language learning contexts. This idea was adapted into 4 weekly written

reflections set up in Google Forms. In this way, the week ended with a reflective activity composed

of three questions, slowing down interaction time, advantageous for rigorous cognitive learning

(Garrison et al., 2000).

Post-Course Activities

The post-course activities included the post-course questionnaire, invitation to a FB group and

the opportunity to share their writing anonymously on a website

([Link]

5 Participants

Promotion of and recruitment of participants was made via a video presentation, introducing the

instructor, outlining the course schedule tasks as well as highlighting the benefits, which was

posted in numerous English Language Teacher groups on Facebook.

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Although 30 people were registered for the course, 1 withdrew early on, leaving 29 participants

taking part on day 1; 27 female, and 2 male. Half of the group were in their 30’s, with just under

a quarter in their 40s and the final quarter in the 16-30 age bracket. The majority (17/18) identified

as English Language Teachers, one Spanish Language Teacher, 4 university students, an

accountant, a doctor, a radiologist, a clinical psychologist, a journalist, administrative assistant

and a guided reading practitioner. Participants were truly international, logging in from over 19

locations including 7 in Brazil, 2 in Spain, 2 in the UK, and 1 in each of Angola, Croatia, Myanmar,

Poland, Greece, Denmark, South Africa, Russia, Romania, Saudi Aria, Crimea, UAE, USA and

the Ukraine. Two participants did not reveal information as regards to their location.

Motivations and Expectations

Both internal and external motivations for taking part in the course were revealed in Part 1 of the

pre-course questionnaire, revolving around a lack of experience, confidence and skill.

Motivations

Table 3: Participants’ reasons for participation in the course

Participation reasons Number and percentage
of participants

Practice and develop (creative) writing skills 9; 31.0%

Likes/loves reading and (creative) writing 8; 28.0%

Used to write and wants to start again 5; 17.0%

Ideas for teaching creative writing in own setting 5; 17.0%

No experience in creative writing 4; 14.0%

Practice and improve English skills 4; 14.0%

Inspired by previous experience in a creative writing workshop 3; 10.0%

Personal/professional development 3; 10.0%

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Learn with a great English tutor 2; 7.0%

Develop confidence 2; 7.0%

Better self-expression 2; 7.0%

For business purposes 2; 7.0%

Promotional video/course content & design 1; 3.0%

Course aimed at non-native speakers of English 1; 3.0%

Talk with native speakers of English 1; 3.0%

Some participants came to the course with a strong history of reading and writing:

‘I’ve always loved reading and writing stories’; ‘I’m really into creative writing’; ‘I write mostly short
stories and poems’; ‘I really like to read poetry and novels’

Or they used to write regularly but had not for some time:

‘I would like to resume my creative writing’; ‘I have the desire to write for a long time’; ‘I also would
love to write, specially poetry, but I have only done it on my own long time ago’

Even those with limited experience, exhibited great motivation for taking part:

’I I have no experience with writing fiction in English, but have always wanted to give it a try’; I do
not have any experience in creative writing however I have a high motivation to start doing some
writing if I have proper advise to a motivation from other people’

Expectations

Conversely, then, we can say that where the participants lacked experience, skill and confidence,

this is what they hoped to gain during the online course in creative writing. Indeed, the opportunity

to formulate and write down these ideas in the pre-course survey served as a powerful way to

project their ideal L2 self (Dornyei & Ushioda, 2009).

Table 4: Participants’ expectations of participation in the course

Participation expectations Number and percentage
of participants

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Develop (creative) writing skills 18; 62.0%

Ideas for teaching creative writing 7; 24.0%

Confidence in writing English 6; 21.0%

Interact positively with others 3; 10.0%

Develop English skills 2; 7.0%

Better self-expression 2; 7.0%

Have fun 1; 3.0%

General motivation for work 1; 3.0%

Personal/professional development 1; 3.0%

The overriding desire was to improve skills in creative writing:

‘Hopefully I will improved and polished my writing skills’; ‘Improve my creative writing skill’;
‘Understanding of the writing process, the language used…’

To learn about structure:

‘More insights on how to structure and organise my text…’;‘I want to understand better the
structures of a text, for example, in order to put my creativity in practice’

And to pick up some useful techniques:

‘Understanding of creative writing techniques, like what you should do to make your writing
sound naturally. I know a lot of lexical and stylistic devices used to express ideas, but have no
level in applying them to my own writing’; ‘Better writing techniques to use in my day to day life
and hopefully not forget’; ‘I hope to gain new knowledge and to develop my writing skills as well
as practice new techniques.’

Findings

Online Course Task Completion Table

The total number of tasks completed by each student is included in the table below. Although,

these numbers are low in relation to the actual total number of tasks (20), this is because

completion was not made explicit at the start of the course.

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Table 5. Online Course Task Completion

Student Tasks Tasks

Number completed as a %
1 8 40
2 6 30
3 8 40
4 7 35
5 10 50
6 11 55
7 5 25
8 6 30
9 8 40
10 11 55
11 2 45
9 5 25
13 8 40
14 10 50
15 6 30
16 14 70
17 10 50
18 6 30
19 7 35
20 8 40
21 12 60
Average 8.33 41.67%

Pre & Post Course Questionnaire Responses

The responses from the two online questionnaires (see Appendix C and Appendix D) were

downloaded and exported into Microsoft Excel. A thematic analysis was applied to each question

which resulted in 26 data overview tables. Each table includes one main theme, a data overview

statement explaining the theme, and the top 3 key points which give examples to support the

theme. The data tables have been grouped by similar theme.

Pre PT2Q1 Data Overview and key points

Theme Perception of English Language Skills

Data overview Good, fluent* and/or strong in English.

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CEFR used to describe language level ranging from B1 to C2, or independent

1 learner to expert user.
Specific language skills (listening, reading, writing and speaking) rated as good,
2 fluent and/or strong
Connection between past and present use of English and current ability, for
example, previously attended an English-speaking school or now works in an
3 English-speaking environment

*Please note that two participants were native English speakers

Post PT2Q1 Data Overview and key points

Theme Change in Perception of English Language Skills

Language skills were positively impacted and awareness of language learning
Data overview process raised
Reading & Writing skills significantly impacted through text analysis, story
1 structure, writing technique, literary devices
Listening & Speaking skills positively impacted through regular live discussions
with participants from different cultures and backgrounds and with differing levels of
2 English
Developed a more confident, less anxious attitude focused on learning as a
3 personal process which shapes our identity

Pre PT2Q2 Data Overview and key points

Theme Attitude Towards Language Learning

Positive attitude towards language learning with some anxiety regarding speaking
Data overview and writing skills

1 Views language learning as a means to express oneself in new ways

Views language learning as a means to connect with other cultures which "opens
2 up opportunities"
Views language learning as an ongoing process, which is facilitated by
3 simultaneously being a teacher and a student

Post PT2Q2 Data Overview and key points

Theme Change in Attitude towards Language Learning

More positive about language learning in general, and specifically English reading
Data overview and writing skills

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1 Happy, positive, confident and determined attitude towards language learning

Positive, exciting and fun attitude towards reading in English. Greater motivation to
2 read more, specifically short stories.
Confident, curious, encouraging attitude towards writing in English, acknowledging
3 it "demands time and focus"

Pre PT2Q3 Data Overview and key points

Theme Confidence Among Native English Speakers

Confident interacting with native English speakers, but confidence varies according
Data overview to the situation
Generally happy, comfortable and confident to communicate with native speakers
1 of English

2 In social situations and with a supportive group, confidence is high

In work situations, with a high number of native speakers, in a closed group, or
3 depending on the topic, confidence is lower

Post PT2Q3 Data Overview and key points

Theme Change in Confidence Among Native English Speakers/Writers

Data overview Increased Confidence Among Native English Speakers/Writers

Change in attitude towards communicating with native speakers/writer of English
1 and increased willingness to interact with and learn from them

2 Increased Confidence was related to participation in the online course

Increased confidence related not only to communicating but also writing and
3 analysing literature

Post PT3Q6 Data Overview and key points

Theme Increased Confidence in Speaking/Writing in English

Data overview Better storytelling skills and positive attitude towards self as creative writer
Valued reading more and acquiring new vocabulary in order to tell and share
1 stories

2 Freedom to have fun and play with the language

3 Supported by community with similar skills and attitude

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Pre PT2Q4 Data Overview and key points

Theme Reading Skills in English

Data overview Regularly reads a lot of different texts in English for work and pleasure
Reads a wide range of different texts, e.g., journal articles, books, novels, poetry,
1 the news, newspapers and magazines

2 Reads "both for pleasure and for language learning purposes"

Reads regularly ("I love reading in English - reading is a life skill and something
3 that should be done every day")

Post PT2Q4 Data Overview and key points

Theme Change in Perception of Reading Skills in English

Reading skills were positively impacted and awareness of short story elements
Data overview raised
Reading practice is more attentive, reading frequency of texts increased, attention
to stylistic devices and short story elements raised, understanding of own writing
1 enhanced
Gained motivation and inspiration to read and write more in English, making the
2 practice more interesting and fun
Enhanced attention to detail - not ony vocabulary, spelling and grammar, but also
language structures, literary devices, hidden and deeper meanings ("reading
3 between the lines")

Pre PT2Q5 Data Overview and key points

Theme Writing Skills in English

Data overview Regularly writes different texts in English for work, study and pleasure
Writes in English in a variety of ways as a learner, teacher and friend e.g., emails,
1 diary, journal, social media posts, exams, academic essays, poetry and reflections
Writes regularly in English because "it is very important for me and I try to do it very
2 often"

3 Would like to write more regularly, for example, a diary or blog

Post PT2Q5 Data Overview and key points

Theme Change in Perception of Writing Skills in English

Data overview Writing skills were positively impacted and awareness of short story structure

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raised

1 Stronger motivation to write creatively and write more often

2 Greater confidence in own writing

3 Deeper understanding of short story structure

Pre PT2Q6 Data Overview and key points

Theme Creative Writing Experience in English

Data overview Has a range of recent creative writing experience in English

Has written creatively in English independently, e.g., completing a gratitude journal,
1 poetry, letters, novels
Has written creatively in English as part of a group, for example, a short story
course, a journalism course, reflection diary with prompts, letter writing to an
2 imaginary person for exam preparation at school, memoir, short play

3 Has written creatively in English in the past, for example, at school or university

Post PT2Q6 Data Overview and key points

Theme Change in Perception of Creative Writing Skills in English

Data overview Creative writing skills were deepened and widened

Typical writing style is short, minimalistic, formal, academic without regard for the
1 reader ("just to communicate and express my thoughts to be understood")
Creative writing style is less structured and cohesive, but more personal,
2 descriptive and imaginative, using playful language and engaging dialogue
The similarities between the styles are that they both require structure and details,
3 starting with a plan and leading to a final draft

Pre & Post Course Questionnaire Part 3

Pre PT3Q1 Data Overview and key points

Theme Creative Writing Ability in English

Data overview In possession of some of the skills and attitudes required for creative writing
Awareness of creative writing as a skill to be developed, feeling capable, but
1 lacking the opportunity

2 Some uncertainty about commitment to making an effort on the course

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'Being personal' or writing from a personal perspective was seen as most

3 challenging of the 4 creative writing elements

*using your imagination, being disciplined, stretching the rules, while being
personal

Post PT3Q1 Data Overview and key points

Theme Change in Perception of Creative Writing Ability

Data overview In greater possession of the skills and attitudes required for creative writing
Stronger belief in having the necessary skills and attitudes required for creative
1 writing
Raised awareness of creative writing ability within themselves, including being
more focused and structured, expressing oneself freely, while learning to stretch
2 the rules

3 Discipline and commitment remained a major problem for a few participants

Pre PT3Q2 Data Overview and key points

Theme Importance of Creative Writing in English

Data overview Belief that creative writing is important

Creative writing satisfies a psychological need to create, express oneself and have
1 a sense of freedom with the English language

2 Helps participants understand and connect with their audience, client or reader
Helps participants living or wanting to live in an English-speaking country to
express themselves better, and 2 others feel more comfortable with the English
3 language

Post PT3Q7 Data Overview and key points

Theme Change in Perception of Importance of Creative Writing in English

Data overview Belief creative writing is important for a variety of reasons

1 Desire to improve creative writing skills and help others to do the same

2 See creative writing as a tool to express feelings and emotions

3 Confidence to share writing with others

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Post PT3Q8 Data Overview and key points

Theme Continue Creative Writing Activities in Future

Data overview Clear intention to pursue creative writing activities in the future

1 Enthusiasm to continue practising and acquiring creative writing skills in the future
Through group work - to join a club or course or set up their own community of
2 writers

3 Through individual work - either on their own or with a tutor

Pre PT3Q3 Data Overview and key points

Theme Personal Narratives in Creative Writing I

Data overview Varied Short Story Writing experience in English

Preference for mixing authentic details from their personal life with made up
1 narratives, often exaggerated, in the recent or distant past
Those with short story writing experience find the process therapeutic and a way to
2 express emotions
Among those without short story writing experience: some would like to start, while
others suffer from a "lack of motivation, ideas or even fear of writing in a foreign
3 language"

Pre PT3Q4 Data Overview and key points

Theme Personal Narratives in Creative Writing II

Subtle understanding of the value of including personal experience in creative
Data overview writing
Personal experience and memories, such as childhood or life with family and
1 friends, brings authenticity
Belief that when creative writing is not based on self, the result is unreal and "very
2 bland"

Characters or situations changed slightly in order to "keep real identities secret"

3 while seeming natural and relatable

Post PT3Q4 Data Overview and key points

Theme Change in Perception of Personal Narratives in Creative Writing

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Data overview Growing awareness of the personal value of creative writing

True and autobiographical stories, drawing on their own memories, past and
1 current experiences are common
Writing reveals what is important, e.g. problems faced in life, cultural or religious
background, personal views, important life events, such as university, the role of
women in society, physical surroundings as well as personal feelings and
2 personality
The freedom to write what you want is seen as a type of therapy; "...the fact that it
3 becomes fiction when I put it on paper makes me feel so free."

Pre PT3Q5 Data Overview and key points

Theme Self-Expression While Writing Creatively in English

Data overview Ability to express oneself through Creative Writing in English

Ability to express oneself purposefully for an audience, for example, make my
writing useful, not just entertaining, to give people an insight and make them think
1 and question things
Ability to express oneself purposefully for oneself, for example, express ideas and
feelings more accurately, gain a better understanding of yourself, a great way to
2 get things out that cannot be said openly
Those unsure if they have creative writing ability are committed to making an effort
3 on the course

Pre PT3Q6 Data Overview and key points

Theme Distinct Creative Writing Style in English
Data overview Rasied awareness of the distinction of style
A distinct style is when "writing is consistent", favourite words and expressions are
1 used, a certain pattern is followed and the way characters speak
A distinct style is not using "a lot of standardized words and structures" and
2 sounding unnatural "compared to natives"
Examples of distinct styles: "I use a poetic style when writing my prose" and "I was
3 told my writing was mysterious"

Post PT3Q5 Data Overview and key points

Theme Perception of Distinct Creative Writing Style in English

Data overview Uncertain of having a distinct voice in creative writing

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Some ability to express own voice and have own distinct style, for example, "my
1 writing is unique" and "distinct"
Those unsure suggest more practice to discover their own unique voice and style
2 of writing in English

3 Some have a distinct style of writing creatively in their own language

Post PT3Q2 Data Overview and key points

Theme Elements of Creative Writing Applied to Own Writing

Real-life connections and engaging vocabulary are the most common elements
Data overview adopted for own writing
Real-life connections were applied to connect with the reader: "What I have taken
1 into account and helped me write has been to be inspired by life's experiences"
Engaging vocabulary was the second most popular element to be consciously
included while crafting a piece of written work: "I tried to be as descriptive as I
2 could and to create a picture of what the reader was seeing."
Raised awareness of the reader while crafting a short story/essay: "as one of the
roles included creating a timeline, I tried to be careful when creating this, so the
3 reader could have some sense of progression."

Pre PT2Q7 Data Overview and key points

Theme Play With The English Language

Data overview Awareness of how to play with English language when writing creatively
Plays with language through different types of writing, e.g., creative blog posts,
poetry or writing mysteriously by "not divulging completely what I mean or what I try
1 to say"
Plays with language in English in different ways, e.g., language structure, use
synonyms, metaphors, puns, jokes, proverbs or "twist the meaning of certain
2 expressions"
Those who do not play with language cite a lack of ability, skills and vocabulary,
3 preferring to stick to rules or adopt an academic style of writing in English instead

Post PT3Q3 Data Overview and key points

Theme Play With The English Language

Data overview Freedom to play with the English language "without fear of being wrong"

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More play with the language either in terms of choice of vocabulary (adjectives,
1 adverbs, metaphors, similes) to make writing more interesting and vivid
Less anxiety about respecting grammar rules: "I normally like to mix both
languages, Spanish and English, or play by writing the phonetic sound of the word,
2 even if it is a grammatical mistake."

3 More play with the language in terms of double or hidden meanings

Part 4 Post-Course Questionnaire Responses

The post-course questionnaire included an additional set of questions relating to their

satisfaction with the online course.

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Discussion

Research Question 1

According to the literature, what attitudes and skills compose an L1 creative writer

identity?

The definition of ‘identity’ is the not only “the condition of being oneself and not another” but also

one’s “sense of self, providing sameness and continuity in personality over time and sometimes

distrubed in mental illnesses, as schizophrenia” ([Link]) The latter description, where a

‘singular’ self may become ‘plural’ due to psychological disturbances, relates most closely to a

writer identity. Indeed, an analysis of the literature reveals there is no singular or fixed creative

writer identity, rather ‘writer identities’ (Ivanic, 1994) or better ‘multiple identity’ (Ivanic, 1994:4)

which “account for the plurality and complexity” (Ivanic, 1994:5) of the writer self, changing over

time, according to the situation or social group, where multiple ‘selves’ may sometimes be in

conflict (Hermans, 2001). Similarly, the composition of these identities varies from ‘abilities and

personality’ and ‘characteristics’ (Barron, 1966:158), to ‘sense of self’ (Ivanic, 1994:4; Day, 2002),

‘personality attributes’ (Piirto, 2009:5), and even ‘facets’ and ‘multiple facets’ (Forbes, 2017).

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Identity is discussed here, then, in reference to certain traits possessed by both accomplished

and developing creative writers.

Independence is a key attribute of a creative writer highlighted by Barron (1966) specifically

‘achievement through independence’ (Barron, 1966:159) often established in youth. In Day’s

(2002) study of narrative construction, four writers spoke of feeling different and odd in their

childhood, which led them to write in isolation or to describe the activity of ‘writing as solitary’

(Day, 2002:132). Solace in writing was “a means of soothing themselves and establishing

themselves as individuals” (Day, 2002:132). However, being an outsider and feeling socially

awkward meant these writers matured into adulthood with ‘very strong senses of self’ (Day,

2002:132) who valued their own autonomy.

Productivity, referring to composing texts, is another characteristic of a creative writer (Barron,

1966). Furthermore, Forbes (2017) talks of a ‘maker’, who is ‘about doing, producing words’

(p270), that is someone who is involved in the act of writing and who writes for pleasure. She

notes that “reinforcement of identity for some came through increased commitment to the practice

of writing in terms of regularity or arrangements involving family and others” (p268). So forming

habits and writing with others is crucial to a writer’s identity.

A creative writer enjoys aesthetic impressions and is aesthetically reactive (Barron, 1966: 158),

observing others as “a form of play as well as an important way of defining the self” and as “a way

of enhancing life” (Day, 2002:133). Moreover, Forbes’ (2017) artist observes and reflects on their

surroundings and experiences, with “the capacity and disposition to observe, drawing on their

experiences, emotions and memories to create their work” (p268)

One of Day’s (2002) writers relied on humour to combat isolation as a young person: “I went to

the library and checked out every possible book which had jokes and riddles in it. I spent a lot of

second through sixth grade developing a wit. It was something, just learning how to be funny.

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That was the thinking I ended up trying to do.” (p132) Piirto (2009), too, describes an unusually

keen sense of humor, one which is written down and transmitted through speech.

Writers tend to have a desire to feel and communicate the emotions of others (Piirto, 2009) The

diaries of a Dutch writer reveal that “writers often feel for the rest of the world; take on troubles of

the rest of the world” (p13). And sometimes this deep connection with other’s struggles lead to

depression. For the creator (Forbes, 2017) “There is an emotional commitment and investment in

the work requiring authenticity from the writer”. Thusly, this facet of writer identity draws on

personal experiences, evoking personal emotions and presenting a ‘voice’. “The relationship with

the writing itself was deep; it was described not just as something they did but a way of being”

(Forbes, 2017:267)

It is important to note key differences between the professional and apprentice writers. One main

item mentioned by new writers was “their concern with their own adequacy as a person”. (p158)

They also expressed anxiety, mood swings and experienced daydreaming, which the author

summarised as a form of self-therapy “or at least an attempt at working out their problems through

displacement and substitution in a social acceptable form of fantasy.” (p158) Day’s (2002) writers

also referred to overcoming their childhood issues through writing as therapeutic: “They had all

constructed life stories that were meaningful and coherent, making their traumas into the material

of positive identity.” (p132)

The L1 Creative Writer, therefore, is independent and values autonomy, actively engages in the

act of writing, likes to observe, is authentic by drawing inspiration from the world around him as

well as from personal experience and memories, is a risk-taker, expresses emotions often,

employs humour and projects a distinct voice, always aware of her audience.

Research Question 2

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What voices related to L2 creative writer identity do English language learners express

before and after their participation in an online course in creative writing, and how are they

developed?

Different voices were projected by these English language learners learning to write creatively

online. Through thematic analysis of the questionnaires, multiple positions emerged revealing the

complexity and fluid nature of individuals who participate in creative writing.

The participants expressed voices as regards their self as a playful person who enjoys and has

an ability to play with language (Cook, 1997, Elgar 2002, Belz 2002). Prior to the online course,

they showed an awareness of how to play with the English language when writing creatively, but

there was uncertainty: “I don’t think I play with the language, but I write sometimes in a sort of

mysterious way not divulging completely what I mean or what I try to say", or was limited to

knowledge of different types of writing, such as blog posts or poetry, and a surface level

understanding of different types of vocabulary, such as synonyms, metaphors, puns and jokes,

which may help them “twist the meaning of certain expressions.” After the course, however, the

rather prescriptive ability-to-play developed into a more natural sense of playfulness, where

individuals describe themselves as feeling free to manipulate the English language “without fear

of being wrong”. While some found it difficult to play with the language intentionally or felt

constrained by previously acquired rigid structures of writing, (“I mostly write with a very practical

purpose”), later there was more depth and nuance in the manner in which playfulness became

manifest in their work. For instance, hidden and double meanings became more important to the

writers: “The most evident example I can think of is in the title I chose ‘An outside on the inside’

in an effort to describe the protagonist as someone who is literally an outside in their community

being their disease and depression that was stopping them from being an active participant in

society.” Humour was also apparent: “In my draft I included one of the ‘lapses’ that I had when I

started to speak English and instead of saying: ‘Oh, my god’, I said ‘Oh, my dog’. I think it is a

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good laugh and recycle slips, in any language.” At the same time, there was less anxiety about

respecting grammar rules, and even risk-taking by including two different languages in a text: “I

normally like to mix both languages, Spanish and English, or play by writing the phonetic sound

of the word, even if it is a grammatical mistake.”

Creative writing can reveal a lot about an author, and throughout the course members indicated

a growing appreciation for weaving personal experiences into their craft. Some found this difficult

before the course started, lacking ideas and confidence in their language skills, being “afraid of

putting myself in the story” and wanting to detach oneself from the writing (“I transferred my

feelings and experiences there”). While others admitted it is “impossible to create without putting

something of your own” into a story, voicing a preference for blending real details from their

personal life with made up information. And some participants spoke of changing characters or

situations slightly in order to "keep real identities secret" as "it must be real enough to be

interesting, but disguised enough that nobody would recognise themselves in the characters".

After the course, the desire to draw from their own memories was deepened, underlining the value

of authentic narratives for the reader: “I tried to described my dreams and there were some hints

about my current lige and about my relatives.” True and autobiographical compositions were

evident among the writers as they now turned to topics of personal importance, such as culture,

religion or personal feelings: “The story I told was not a real story, but rather a collection of stories

that I hear from women friends from time to time. It is not one woman, but maybe any woman.”

Being open is not always easy to cope with, so some preferred to combine experience with

imagination as a form of self-preservation: “The label ‘fiction’ protects me from the world” and

even as a way to remain unseen: “I normally ‘hide’ myself in my writing”. Those with previous

short story writing experience found it an “outlet for (my) suppressed emotions” and this voice

was echoed and extended after the course as a type of therapy that makes you feel more open

“…the fact that it becomes fiction when I put it on paper makes me feel so free.” From these

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examples, it is clear that authenticity was a common theme articulated by the participants as

regards their self as an authentic person writing personally true and authentic narratives (Cook,

1997, Elgar 2002, Belz 2002).

Participants report they are mostly happy and comfortable communicating with native English

speakers, however, some did indicate occasions of low confidence, which manifested itself both

externally and internally. Before the course, where lower confidence was external, participants

felt they were perceived negatively, being judged by accent or being correctly harshly: “Yes,

joining a group of native English speakers I feel less confident, particularly because of my accent.”

And “I'm afraid to be judged, and sometimes it can be overwhelming to keep a long conversation”

Internalised lower confidence related to perceptions of self as inferior: “Most times when native

speakers are involved I feel less confident because it is hard to keep the pace they use at

speaking. I my view it is a personal issue as many other people having similar or even inferior

English level than mine do not feel the same insecurity as I do”. After the online experience, there

was a realisation that personality was more important than language in social situations: “I don't

feel the accent or some common mistakes make me less valuable when joining the company of

native speakers... I feel a general knowledge, sense of humour and just, this untouchable energy,

make us acceptable in any social group, or not.” Additionally, improved reading and writing skills

served to boost their confidence: “my attitude towards facing native English speakers is changing

increasingly as I learn more especially, as I practice more speaking. This course has boosted my

confidence to the highest level and has created in me some sort of addiction to writing and

speaking. Right now I feel like I need more of that.” Whereas in certain situations, such as with a

high number of native speakers, may have filled some participants with fear, now they see the

value of interacting with them: “I feel comfortable enough to take risks and embrace my condition

as a non-native speaker. However, I think I wouldn't feel very confident to be part of an English

native writers, but I'd be curious and motivated to observe how they write and learn from them.”

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It can be said, therefore, that participants expressed voices as regards their self as a person with

particular social positioning and self-esteem (Zhao, 2015), in relation to their communication skills,

where self-empowerment was the outcome. How learners show ownership of the L2 while

writing creatively, making them feel empowered.

Before the course, participants believed that writing for an audience requires a text of practical

value that people can really learn from, a chance to make people reflect and question what goes

on around them: “I want people to enjoy what they read, or at least feel connected to what I have

to ‘say’”. They also stated that writing creatively allows one to express their own ideas more

accurately, and by doing so to learn about oneself: “yes, I feel that it can be an outlet for internal

desires, idas, monsters, fears, hopes, illusions... It can be a great way of letting out things that we

can't openly say.” Prior to the course, the participants were aware of the distinction of style and

one stated: “I use a poetic style while writing my prose. It is distinctive. Metaphors, the way

characters speak etc.” However, after the course, they were uncertain as to having their own

distinct voice in creative writing: “I think I've got my own style by bringing a little bit of abstraction,

or part of my parallel universe to my writing. I personally like to do that, to have a little bit of poetry

or drama.” This is something many want to practice in order to achieve this goal: “I do feel, and I

think I try to do that. However I am sure I need more practice if I want to have a recognizable

voice when writing. When we write for our daily lives, or when we teach writing for exams, as I

do, we tend to be invisible, impersonal. It was very hard to practice something in which we are

seen.” In this way, the voices participants express as regards their self as a person with a distinct

literary style who adopts a writerly identity (Hanauer, 2010; Iida, 2010), remains a concept in

development.

While participants reported reading regularly before the course, some claimed not to use any

methods or strategies, equating the practice to reading in their mother tongue: “I love reading in

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English. I do not use any strategies. I believe that the more I read, the better I am at it and later it

has a positive impact on my writing.” Over time perception of reading skills moved from reading

in general “both for pleasure and for language learning purposes”, using common methods such

as predicting, skimming and scanning, to reading more attentively, with greater ability to notice

what may or may not be of interest to the reader: “I started reading more attentively, looking for

style features. Writing and reading are connected, so it makes you pay more attention.” Similarly,

exposure to the key elements short stories are composed of, led to better understanding and

application of stylistic devices, as well as the adoption of new methods to make the practice more

interesting and fun: “Clearly these exercises have allowed me to discover all the layers, nuances

and textures that a text contains. I think that all of the above has influenced me more when reading

than writing, basically because writing still costs me a lot. As a reader I think that the analysis that

we have made of the 2 readings has allowed me to enjoy much more, to stop to savor instead of

""swallowing history". What is clear is that better reading impacted their writing: “I changed lots

of things in my second draft because I noticed they were not interesting for the reader, or would

not be fully resolved in the plot.” All in all, even during the short time of the course, the participants

clearly showcase their enhanced reading competence. This was embodied in the voices they

expressed as regards their self as a person whose augmented readings skills allow a better

appreciation of the construction of texts, which, in turn, ameliorates their writing (Maley, 2009)

As reading and writing skills are connected, so perception of writing skills in English were also

similarly impacted as the reading skills described above. Some participants mentioned writing

both in their native language and in English. While a few preferred not to write in English for a

variety of reasons, such as living in a non-English environment, wanting to avoid making mistakes

and finding it “difficult to be original”. After the course, with their awareness of short story structure

raised, so was their ability to think from the perspective of a reader and to analyse their own story

writing: “Yes! Improve because before was 0 writing.. So first thing... I was writing all with "She

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went to the place, then she ate and she felt better" a lot of pronous. I didn't know how to connect

sentences! Or use passive voice... nothing. So I went deeper with that to learn more.” Hence, the

participants become more confident in their own writing which fed into a stronger motivation to

write creatively and more often: “by writing and improving my draft I was able to put in practice

what I learned from the stories, the group discussions and from other people's text and feedback.

I now try to think more about how my reader can understand my text, and I've been changing my

writing style from abstract to more realistic. It's been really fun.” An enhanced writing

competence was displayed by these new writers. That is, voices participants express as regards

their self as a person whose awareness of story structure is raised, while lexical and creative

knowledge are advanced (Feuer, 2011; Disney, 2012).

(2236 words)

Q3: What attributes compose an L2 Creative Writer Identity and how do they relate to L1

Creative Writer Identity?

Taken together the L2 Creative Writer Identity is a composition of feelings, attitudes and skills:

emotion, self-empowerment, playfulness, authenticity, distinct literary style, and enhanced

reading and writing competence. All of those positions overlap with those of an L1 Creative Writer,

yet, there are some clear differences. First, that these English language learners more closely

match the profile of student creative writers, rather than the professional writers, exhibiting the

same anxiety about and lack of commitment to their work. Second, the participants feel self-

empowered in relation to their selves as English language learners trying to make their voices

heard in social settings where the target language is used, whereas this is not something faced

by L1 Writers per se. Also, for this group of participants, collaborative learning in a group is highly

valued, while this contrasts with the autonomous nature of L1 writer working in isolation, rather

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than in groups. Being personal and authentic, was acknowledged as valuable but remained a

challenge for the participants; wanting to share real life details, but also wanting to remain hidden

at the same time. Finally, a distinct literary style, common among our literary giants, is something

these learners are more aware but have not yet achieved.

Q4: Which aspects of the online course on creative writing facilitate the adoption of the

L2 CWI by the learners?

Effective teaching styles coupled with sound knowledge of instructional design are imperative for

successful online learning environments (Quitadamo & Brown, 2001). Being visible to students

not only textually, via the learning platform, but also visually, via weekly video conferencing

sessions enabled to “build in the instructor’s presence and personality” (Winfield et al., 1998).

Instilling trust in the groups and forming a sense of community, increased confidence in the

teacher and the learning process, allowing the participants to be more open and share personal

memories, necessary in the creation of authentic fiction.

Following Alberth’s (2011) advice of uncomplicated interface design with simple navigation and

aesthetics, allowed “the technology to blend into the background and become more transparent;

as a result, the students spent more time engaged in rigorous discourse and developing research

abilities and critical thinking skills” (Quitadamo & Brown, 2001: 7). Certainly, the use of

synchronous and asynchronous communication tools enabled participants to meet and converse

with peers from around the world on a regular basis, which was both educational and enjoyable.

The experience not only ameliorated their language skills but also boosted their confidence. For

example, reading and writing skills were positively impacted through text analysis, raising

understanding of story structure, writing technique and literary devices. At the same time, listening

and speaking skills were significantly impacted through regular live discussions with participants

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from different cultures and backgrounds. And so, by combining a text-based platform with an

audio-visual platform, reading and writing with listening and speaking, these new writers felt more

self-empowered in a creative writing environment, and more willing to communicate with native

English speakers and writers.

Developing a distinct literary voice involves frequent producing and sharing of work.

Participants on the online course shared their drafts in group discussion threads, making and

receiving comments from each other, as well as the tutor. And this seemed to encourage less

motivated students to follow by example and produce and share good their compositions. In this

fashion, an online environment provides easy access to an international audience, and a safe

space to publish and receive critique. In truth, if work is published, either online or offline, this

ownership may also lead to increased self-confidence in their own writing performance. (Brown,

1994).

The learning online environment also facilities collaborative activities such as literature circles,

which lead to enhanced reading and writing skills. Studying literature in groups simultaneously

leads to deeper analysis of the text, and promotes critical thinking through discussion, where new

and different meanings are scaffolded by the performance of different literature circle roles

(Maher, 2018). The outcome of this short, online course in creative writing was a group who

valued reading more and acquired new vocabulary which they used to tell their stories.

Implications

Firstly, in order to exploit learning opportunities in writing, writer identity or ‘personal literacy’ must

be recognised (Gardner, 2018, p17), especially as it is common to be taught formal and structured

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methods of writing, known as ‘schooling literacy’, this contrasts heavily with the informal and

unstructured methods promoted in this study. According to Gardner (2018:17), personal literacy

is “a means of discovering oneself; one’s relationship to the world and a means of finding one’s

voice using the power of language to construct, for the individual writer, fresh meanings.”

Transferring this scenario to an adult language learner context, there is an opportunity for

language teachers to heighten the ‘personal literacy’ of their students through curriculum design,

allowing them to both enhance their identities as writers and their passion for writing.

Secondly, it is important to note that individuals become writers over time and this may affect self-

esteem. Hong (2015) used Dialogism (Bahktin’s, 1981; 1984; 1986) to explore young English

language learners’ transition from ‘others as authors’ to ‘self as an author’ to ‘self as a reflective

writer’. The investigation revealed that “becoming a writer was ongoing and actively engaged

multiple voices of the children, their teacher and others.” (Hong, 2015, p301). Similarly, Burgess

(2012) looked at how writer identity changes and develops over time in one piece of writing by an

adult literacy student, stating “The voices represented in the writing can help second language

writers maintain their personal identities and cultural identities that are continually and discursively

constructed and networked.” Therefore, it is necessary to provide space and support to capture

and uphold the complex and multiple voices of new creative writer identity.

Thirdly, helping writers understand their own identity can increase confidence. For instance, Lee

(2016) noted that there were differences in the way three Korean ESL students perceived

themselves as writers in two genres of writing. In argumentative writing they were less confident

L2 writers. In narrative writing, they showed confidence and authoritativeness. As Burgess (2012)

argues “development as a writer entails developing greater understanding of, and control over,

all aspects of writer identity” (Burgess, 2012, p233). Thus, if language teachers were to highlight

and examine the different aspects of L2 creative writer identity with their students, this could lead

to a stronger identification as a creative writer with regards to constructing an authoritative voice.

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“A rich and balanced pedagogy therefore needs to encompass explicit teaching about each

aspect of identity and its relation to others” (Burgess, 2012, p233). Understanding that L2 writers

may integrate cultural and personal elements into their writing based on their authoritative voice

(Matsuda, 2001; 2012), and exhibit different selves based on different timescales (Burgess, 2012)

will enable teachers to better guide them in their writing (Lee, 2016).

Limitations

One important limitation of this qualitative study was the small number of participants and the

short timeline. Further research might focus on a longitudinal study with a larger group for broader

results. Another limitation was the use of surveys as data collection tool, where interviews may

provide a richer, more detailed and nuanced analysis of L2 creative writer identity construction.

As the group was primarily made up of women is another limitation. It may be fruitful to further

investigate the similarity and differences of male and female English language learner

experiences while participating in an online course in creative writing.

Conclusion

Online course in creative writing for English language learners do exist, but are less common

than other types of writing; and those that focus on the development of their creative writer

identity, even less so. This paper attempted to address this based on the literature about

creative writers, literature circles and the best practices of online course design. In this study,

appropriate pedagogical choices enabled an alleviation of technological anxiety, paving the way

for the development of reading and writing proficiency and the identification of key attributes

which may be referred to as L2 Creative Writer Identity. Although not comprehensive, these

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attributes include playfulness, authenticity, self-empowerment, distinct literary style and

enhanced reading and writing competence. It has been argued in this paper that these attributes

should be strongly considered when designing effective creative writing courses for English

language learners.

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Appendices

Appendix A

An analytical rubric for assessing creative in Creative Writing (Mozafarri, 2013)

Criteria 1. Excellent [Link] [Link] [Link]

Image Maximal use of Several use of Minimal use of No use of

significant details significant details significant details significant details
(there is no or just (they are (they are (sole use of
1 abstraction, significantly more significantly less abstractions,
generalisation and than abstractions, than abstractions, generalisations and
judgement) generalisations generalisations judgements)
and judgements) and judgements)

Characterisation Maximal use of Several use of Minimal use of No use of

characters’ characters’ characters’ characters’
physical physical physical physical
appearance, appearance, appearance, appearance,
action, thought, action, thought, action, thought, action, thought,
symbol, etc. to symbol, etc. to symbol, etc. to symbol, etc. to
reveal characters reveal characters reveal characters reveal characters
(complete indirect (complete direct
characterisation) characterisation)

Voice Maximal use of Several use of Minimal use of No use of images

images to make images to make images to make to make the voice
the voice appealing the voice the voice appealing
appealing appealing

Story The use of - - No use of narrative

narrative to convey to convey purpose
purpose (purpose is
conveyed through
formal statement)

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Appendix B

‘Role-work’ (adapted from Maher, 2018)

Literature Circle Roles

Discussion Leader: Your role is to lead the discussion and manage the time. Write up to 10 discussion
questions for the group that helps examine and reflect on the story.

Graphic Organiser: This role is artistic. The goal is to draw a timeline with the main plot points and key
scenes to help the group visualise the story. You may use pictures from the internet to make the timeline
more engaging.

Passage Person: This role examines key passages/plot points within the chosen text, to discuss further.
Include any passage(s) you found linguistically challenging.

Vocabulary & Idiom Wizard: Your role is to examine the language (words and phrases) you found
(un)interesting/(un)surprising/(un)usual in the text. Include any idioms, similes and/or vocabulary you liked,
disliked or found difficult to understand. You may use photos from the internet, to help your group visualise
the word or idiom.

Real-life Connector: This person will generate discussion based on elements of the story that might inspire
connections with participant’s real lives. For example, if there is an element of the story where characters
interact with a police officer, this role may examine the interaction others’ have had with police officers.
Create as many connections as possible and examine cultural differences.

Creative Writing Circle Roles

Hook Impact Person: This role will examine all hooks, and describe which ones had the most impact as a
reader, and why. How compelling is the story at hooking us within the first few paragraphs? Also, does it
relate to later events?

Plot Examiner: This person will examine the plot and its effectiveness. If it doesn’t work, how could it be
developed more? If it does work, what characteristics make it effective? This role writes out a plot curve
and place events into a timeline. The traditional plot curve examines character introduction, initial conflict,
escalation, climax and resolve.

Character Development Demonstrator: This role examines the characters (a maximum of three). How
they are introduced into scenes, how they are developed, and how they are shown to have relationships
with other characters in the piece. Also, examine why certain characters were more interesting than others.

Location and Scene Seer: This role will search for all aspects of scene and location within the story. How
does the author describe the scene? What kind of events can take place because of the area? How does
the author show it? What other aspects did the author miss, that might have been interesting to display
based on location? To conclude, say which scenes were most vivid, most memorable.

Dialogue Demon: This person will examine all aspects of dialogue. How it was used, and what were
characters doing during dialogue (if anything). Is the dialogue natural or does it feel unnatural? What, if any,
are the statement verbs that the author chooses for dialogue? Also, examine what elements made good
dialogue.

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Appendix C

Pre-Course Questionnaire

Consent Statement
1. Please read the following Informed Consent statement:I confirm that: (a) I am over 16, (b) I have
understood the purpose of this study, (c) that all data are anonymous and that there will not be any
connection between the personal information provided and the data, (d) there are no known risks or
hazards associated participating in this study. By submitting this questionnaire I agree that my answers,
which I have given voluntarily, can be used anonymously for research purposes.

Part 1
1. Please write your full name.
2. Please write your email address.
3. Please select your age range.
4. What work/study do you do?
5. From which location will you participate in this online course on creative writing?
6. What motivated you to sign up to this course? Describe your creative writing experience so far.
7. What do you hope to gain from this course?

Part 2
1. How would you describe your language skills? For example, good/bad, beginner/fluent, weak/strong,
etc.
2. What is your attitude towards your language learning? Please expand on your answer. (For example,
when I have to speak English I am stressed or when I write in English I find it very cool.)
3. Generally speaking, when entering a group of native English speakers, do you feel less confident to
communicate and/or do you feel that you are peripheral in the group because of your English level? If no,
why?
4. Tell me about your reading skills. Do you read texts in English? If so, why? And what methods or
strategies do you use? If not, why not?
5. I’d like to know about your writing skills. Is it important to you to practice writing in English? Let me give
you some examples and you can tell me how frequently you write each type of text. For example, do you
keep a diary in English? Do you write letters/emails to friends in English? Do you write posts/comments in
English on social media?
6. What is your experience to date of learning to write in English? Tell me about any writing assignments
you have completed that can be considered types of creative writing. For example, a letter to an
imaginary friend, a journal entry from the perspective of a person you don’t know, a poem, etc.
7. When you are writing texts in English, do you play with the language? If yes can you provide an
example? If no, why?

Part 3
1. Creative writing is a way to express your thoughts, emotions and ideas freely. The main elements
include using your imagination, being disciplined, stretching the rules, while being personal. To what
extent do your skills and attitudes match this definition?
2. Do you feel that writing creatively in English is important for you? Why yes/no? Give as much detail as
possible.

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3. Have you written short stories in English before? Think of one story. Was it personally true or did you
make up the narrative? Which parts were personally true and authentic? And which parts did you make
up? Why? If not, why?
4. Think about any creative writing you have written in the past. Are there aspects of it which reveal
something about yourself? What are they? Did you use your own memories while writing creatively?
Please elaborate on your answer.
5. Do you feel that through writing creatively in English you can express yourself?
6. And do you think that your writing style is distinct? That is to say, if someone reads a few of your
written texts, by reading a new text they can say whether it is written by you or not?

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Appendix D

Post-Course Questionnaire

Consent Statement
1. Please read the following Informed Consent statement:I confirm that: (a) I am over 16, (b) I have
understood the purpose of this study, (c) that all data are anonymous and that there will not be any
connection between the personal information provided and the data, (d) there are no known risks or
hazards associated participating in this study. By submitting this questionnaire I agree that my answers,
which I have given voluntarily, can be used anonymously for research purposes.

Part 1
1. Please write your full name.
2. Please write your email address.

Part 2
1. How has this experience impacted your language skills?
2. What is your attitude towards your language learning now? Please expand on your answer. (For
example, when I have to read English I am happy or I am negatively/positively inclined to write in
English.)
3. Generally speaking, if you were to enter a group of native English speakers/writers, would you feel less
confident to communicate and/or feel that you are peripheral in the group because of your English level?
Go into as much detail as possible.
4. You recently read and analysed two short stories. Do you notice any differences in your reading skills?
Has the experience of writing creatively had an impact on how you read?
5. Writing was the main feature of the course. Do you feel that your writing skills improved or changed
during the course? If yes, how?
6. Can you describe any similarities or differences between your current writing style(s) in English and
your writing style when writing creatively in English? Give as much detail as possible.

Part 3
1. Creative writing was defined to you as a way to express your thoughts, emotions and ideas freely. The
main elements include using your imagination, being disciplined, stretching the rules, while being
personal. To what extent do your skills and attitudes now match this definition?
2. During the course you wrote a short story/essay reflection in English. Which of the elements of creative
writing (organisation, focus & development, engaging vocabulary, real-life connections, hooks, plot,
characters, location/scene, dialogue) did you apply to your own writing? Please expand on your answer.
3. Creative writing can be fun. Did you play with the language during the course? Is that evident in your
writing? Can you provide some examples?
4. Stories often reveal something about the author. Can the reader learn something about you from the
short story/essay reflection you wrote? What can they learn? Do you draw on and include your own
memories while writing creatively? Feel free to elaborate on your answer.
5. The term ‘voice’ is used to describe individual style. Do you feel that through writing creatively in
English you can express your voice? And do you think that your writing style is distinct? That is to say, if
someone reads a few of your written texts, by reading a new text they can say whether it is written by you
or not?
6. Do you think that learning how to write creatively helped you increase your confidence in
speaking/writing English? In what ways?

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7. Do you feel that writing creatively in English is important for you? Why yes/no? Give as much detail as
possible.
8. If writing creatively has become more important for you after participation in the course, do you feel that
in the future you will pursue activities related to creative writing?

Part 4
1. Overall, I found the quality of the course to be (very poor/poor/average/high/very high)
2. The quality of tutor support in the course was (very poor/poor/average/high/very high)
3. I found the online meetings during the course to be (unimportant/slightly important/moderately
important/important/very important)
4. I found the readings of the course to be (uninteresting/slightly interesting/moderately
interesting/interesting/very interesting)
5. I found the assignments of the course to be (uninteresting/slightly interesting/moderately
interesting/interesting/very interesting)
6. I found the assignments of the course to be (not at all demanding/slightly demanding/moderately
demanding/demanding/very demanding)
7. I found the workload on the course (very easy to maintain/relatively easy to maintain/manageable/quite
difficult/unmanageable)
8. I would recommend the course to others (not at all/with a significant number of reservations/with
several reservations/with only a few reservations/unhesitatingly)
9. How much time on average did you spend on the course each week?
10. In your opinion, what was the greatest strength of the course?
11. What was its greatest weakness?
12. Please add any other comments you wish to make about the course here

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Appendix E

Online Course Creative Writing Assessment Rubric (Thorne, 2020)

Criteria Excellent Good Fair Poor

Organisation Very well Quite easy to Little Random ideas

Is the writing well- organised with a read with an organisation with which lack
organised? strong adequate some evidence organisation.
beginning, beginning and of a beginning
middle and end. end middle, and end.

Focus & Focus on topic is Focus on topic Focus on topic is Focus on topic is
Development very clear and is clear and somewhat clear not clear and little
Is the topic focus creative ideas good ideas are and some ideas creativity in terms
clear and the main are supported supported with are supported of ideas.
ideas developed? with details details with details

Vocabulary Effective word Uses a variety of Shows some Problematic

Is the vocabulary choice, using word choices to use of varied wording which
engaging? high-level make writing word choice makes some
vocabulary and interesting, passages difficult
a wide range of including some to read
descriptive descriptive
words and words and
phrases phrases

Real-life Many passages Several One passage Lacks passages

Connections clearly inspire passages may help the which help the
Are there connections with inspire reader relate it reader relate it to
connections to real- real life connections with to their own life their own life
life? real life

Hooks Compelling There are hooks One or two There are no

Is there a strong hooks in the first at the beginning vague hooks apparent hooks
hook at the few paragraphs of the story, but that attempt to to engage the
beginning? which relate to they are not engage the reader.
later events. referred to later reader.
on.

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Plot The plot is very The story mostly The story The plot is
Is the plot clear? clear and follows follows the contains some confusing and
the traditional traditional plot of the elements does not follow
plot curve of curve. of a traditional the traditional
character plot curve. plot curve.
introduction,
initial conflict,
escalation,
climax and
resolution.

Characters 1-3 interesting Characters are Characters are Uninteresting and

Are the characters characters developed minimally under-developed
well-developed? developed through developed characters
strongly through thoughts,
thoughts, feelings and
feelings and actions.
actions.

Location/Scene The setting is The setting is The reader can No attempt has
Is the setting described described using tell where and been made to tell
described clearly? clearly, some when the story the reader where
rendering descriptive takes place, but or when the story
scenes vivid and words there is not takes place
memorable. much detail.

Dialogue Characters Contains natural Contains some Characters do

Is the dialogue speak and the dialogue that unnatural not speak
believable? dialogue is helps to develop dialogue
realistic, the characters
furthering the
plot

78