Al Mustansiriyah University

Faculty Of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

Engineering Surveying II

Lecture 10

By
Dr. Lubna Salih Al-shammari
Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

1. Directions and angles :-

The direction of a line is defined by the horizontal angle between the line and an arbitrarily
chosen reference line called a meridian. Different meridians are used for specifying directions
including (a) geodetic (also often called true), (b) magnetic, (c) grid, (d) record, and (e)
assumed.
Geodetic meridian:- is the north-south reference line that passes through a mean position of
the Earth’s geographic poles
A magnetic meridian:- is defined by a freely suspended magnetic needle that is only
influenced by the Earth’s magnetic field.
Grid meridian :-Are lines that are parallel to the central meridian .
Record meridian:- refers to directional references quoted in the recorded documents from a
previous survey of a particular parcel of land.
Assumed meridian:- assumed meridian can be established by merely assigning any arbitrary
direction—for example, taking a certain street line to be north. The directions of all other
lines are then found in relation to it.

Example :-
The bearing of a line with reference to an arbitrary meridian is 850 30' . At a later date it was
established that the angle between the arbitrary meridian and the true meridian is 150 10' W .
Calculate the true bearing of the line AB.

Solution
True bearing of the line AB
150 10' + 850 30' = 1000 40'

Example :-
If the magnetic declination = 200 E, find the true north for the line
A B if the magnetic meridian of the line = 300

Solution
[Link] = 200 + 300 = 500

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

2. Designation of bearings
A. The whole circle bearing system (Azimuthal system) (W.C.B) : in this system
bearing of a line is measured from the true north or magnetic north in the
clockwise direction. The value of a bearing may vary from 00 to 3600.

B. The quadrantal bearing system (Q.B): Bearing of survey lines are measured
eastward or westward from north and south whichever is nearer. The numerical
value of the bearing may vary from 0 – 900.

(Q.B) for lines

OA NØ1E
OB SØ2E
OC SØ3W
OD NØ4W

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

3. Conversion of bearings from one system to the other.

• Conversion of W.C.B into Q.B

• Conversion of Q.B into W.C.B

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example
Convert the following Q.B to W.C.B

AB = N 300 15' E AB = N 150 20' W

AZAB = 300 15' AZAB = 3600 – 150 20' = 3440 40'

AB = S 250 35' W
AB = S 400 10' E
AZAB = 1800 + 250 35' = 2050 35'
AZAB = 180 – 400 10' = 1390 50'

AB = north AZAB = 00 or 3600 AB = south AZAB = 1800

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

4. Fore and back bearing

Every line may be defined by two bearings. The bearing of a line in the direction of the
progress of survey is called forward bearing, while the bearing in the opposite direction of the
progress of survey is known as a back bearing.

AB represents forward direction

BA represents backward direction
Backward direction = forward direction + 1800

Example
The forward direction of traverse sides are as follow:-
AB 850 10' , BC 1550 30' , CD 2650 5' and DE 3550 30'
Find their backward directions.

Solution

Back bearing of a line = fore bearing + 180

Back bearing of AB = 850 10' + 1800 = 2650 10'

Back bearing of BC = 1550 30' + 1800 = 3350 30'

Back bearing of CD = 2650 05' - 1800 = 850 05'

Back bearing of DE = 3550 30' - 1800 = 1750 30'

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

5. Calculate of included angles from bearings

• Given W.C.B of lines

AZAB = α

AZAC = B

∴ The included angle of BAC = B - α

• Given Q.B of lines

∡CAB = θ1 + θ2 ∡CAB = θ2 – θ1

∡CAB = 180 – (θ1 - θ2) ∡CAB = 180 – (θ1 + θ2)

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example
Calculate the interior angels of the following travers:
Line Fore bearing (F.B)

AB 700 30'

BC 1320 00'

CD 560 00'

DE 2150 30'

EA 3100 00'

Solution :-
⇒ The included angel at A = bearing at AE
– bearing of AB

θ1 = (3100 00' - 1800) - 700 30' = 590 30'

⇒ The included angle of B = bearing of BA
– bearing BC

θ2 = (700 30' + 1800) - 1320 00' = 1180 30'

⇒ The included angle of C = bearing CB –
bearing CD

θ3 = (1320 0' + 1800 0') - 560 0' = 2560 0'0

⇒ The included angle at D = bearing DC – bearing DE

θ4 = (560 + 1800) - 2150 30' = 200 30'

⇒ The included angle at E = bearing EA – bearing ED

θ5 = (360 - 310) + (2150 30' – 1800) = 850 30'

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example
The bearings of the sides of a closed traverse ABCDEA are as follows:-
Side F.B B.B

AB 1070 15' 2870 15'

BC 220 00' 2020 00'

CD 2810 30' 1010 30'

DE 1810 15' 10 15'

EA 1240 45' 3040 45'

Compute the interior angles of the traverse.

Solution

⇒ Included angle at A

3600 – B.B EA = θ1 θ1 + F.B AB =

Included angle at (A)
3600 - 3040 45' = 550 15'
550 15' + 1070 15' = 1620 30'

⇒ Included angle at B

3600 – B.B AB = θ2 θ2 + F.B BC =

Included angle at (B)
3600 - 2870 15' = 720 45'
720 45' + 220 00' = 940 45'

⇒ Included angle at C

F.B CD – B.B BC = Included angle at (C)

2810 30' - 2020 00' = 790 30'

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

⇒ Included angle at D

F.B DE – B.B CD = included (D)

1810 15' - 1010 30' = 790 45'

⇒ Included angle at E

F.B EA – B.B DE = Included angle at (E)

1240 45' - 10 15' = 1230 30'

For check
Sum of interior angles = (n – 2) x 180 for traverse
1620 30' + 940 45' + 790 30' + 790 45' + 1230 30' = (5 – 2) x 180
5400 = 5400 o.k

6. Deflection angle

The angle which any survey line makes with the prolongation of the preceding line is called
deflection angle. Its value may vary from 00 to 1800 and is designated as right deflection if it
is measured in clockwise direction and as left deflection angle if it is measured in an
anticlockwise direction.

𝜽𝜽1 and 𝜽𝜽4 at stations B and E (left deflection angles)

𝜽𝜽2 and 𝜽𝜽3 at stations C and D (right deflection angles)

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

For open traverse

AZ final - AZ first = ∑ R (right defection angle) - ∑ L (left defection angle)

For closed traverse
∑ R - ∑ L = + 360

Example
Traverse beginning from point A and ending at point G, the measurements of deflection
angles between sides are as follows:-
Station B C D E F
Def. angle 25017'R 12019'L 36019'R 14040'R 2047'L
Compute the real directions for all sides of the traverse , if the direction of side AB is
N60015'E .

Solution

AB = N60015'E
BC = AB + def. angle B = 60015' + 25017' = 85032'
CD = BC - def. angle C = 85032' - 12019' = 73013'
DE = CD + def. angle D = 73013' + 36019' = 109032'
EF = DE + def. angle E = 109032' + 14040' = 124012'
FG = EF - def. angle F = 124012' - 2047' = 121025'
Check

AZ last - AZ first = ∑ R - ∑ L
121025' - 60015' = (25017' + 36019' + 14040' ) – (12019' + 2047')
61010' = 61010' O.K.

E.C.2024 10
Al Mustansiriyah University
Faculty Of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

Engineering Surveying II

Lecture 11

By
Dr. Lubna Salih Al-shammari
Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

1. Traversing:-

A traverse is a series of consecutive lines whose ends have been marked in the field and whose
lengths and directions have been determined from observations. In traditional surveying by
ground methods, traversing, the act of marking the lines, that is, establishing traverse stations
and making the necessary observations, is one of the most basic and widely practiced means
of determining the relative locations of points.
There are two kinds of traverses:
⇒ Closed traverse:- Two categories of closed traverses exist: polygon and link. In the
polygon traverse, the lines return to the starting point, thus forming a closed figure that
is both geometrically and mathematically closed. Link traverses finish upon another
station that should have a positional accuracy equal to or greater than that of the starting
point. The link type (geometrically open, mathematically closed), must have a closing
reference direction, for example, line Closed traverses provide checks on the observed
angles and distances, which is an extremely important consideration. They are used
extensively in control, construction, property, and topographic surveys.

Control Point

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

⇒ Open traverse: - An open traverse (geometrically and mathematically open) consists

of a series of lines that are connected but do not return to the starting point or close
upon a point of equal or greater order accuracy. Open traverses should be avoided
because they offer no means of checking for observational errors and mistakes. If they
must be used, observations should be repeated carefully to guard against mistakes.

Control Point

2. Traverse computation

In dealing with a closed traverse, we have computations in:

⇒ Determining latitudes and departures
⇒ Calculating total error of closure
⇒ Balancing the survey
⇒ Determining adjusted positions of traverse stations

⇒ Coordinates (latitude and departure)

Latitude :- (northing or southing) of survey line is defined as its

coordinate measured parallel to the assumed meridian .
Departure :- (easting or westing) of a survey line is defined as its
coordinate measured at a right angles to the assumed meridian .

Departure D = S sin 𝜽𝜽
Latitude L = S cos 𝜽𝜽

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example :-
Calculate the coordinates of all stations in the following traverse given that station A is the
origin :-
Line AB BC CD DE EA

W.C.B 29030' 100045' 146030' 2420 278045'

Length(m) 83.5 59.4 62.0 50.3 90.4

Solution
Departure Latitude
Line W.C.B Length E+ W- N+ S- Coordinates
(D , L)
A (0 , 0)
AB 29030' 83.5 +
41.117 +
72.675 B (41.117 , 72.675)

BC 100045' 59.4 +
58.358 -
11.080 C (99.475 , 61.595)

CD 146030' 62.0 +
34.22 -
51.701 D (133.695 , 9.894)

DE 2420 50.3 -
44.412 -
23.614 E (89.283 , -13.72)

EA 278045' 90.4 -
89.348 +
13.752 A (-0.065 , 0.032)

� 345.6

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Departure for the line AB = L sin 𝜃𝜃 = 83.5 sin 29030' = + 41.117

W

Departure for the line DE = L sin 𝜃𝜃 = 50.3 sin 2420 = - 44.412

+N
The same procedure for latitude
-S
N

Latitude for the line AB = L cos 𝜃𝜃 =83.5 cos 29030' = + 72.675

S

Latitude for the line DE = L cos 𝜃𝜃 = 50.3 cos 2420 = - 23.614

Coordinated B
XB = XA + departure (AB)
YB = YA + latitude (AB)
Coordinated C
XC = XB + departure (BC)
YC = YB + latitude (BC)
Coordinated D
XD = XC + departure (CD)
YD = YC + latitude (CD)
Coordinated E
XE = XD + departure (DE)
YE = YD + latitude (DE)

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

⇒ Calculating total error of closure

a) For polygon travers

Calculation of the closing error of the previous

example :-
RX = ∑E - ∑W
= 133.695 – 133.760 = -0.065
RY = ∑N - ∑S
= 86.427 – 86.395 = 0.032

Linear Error of Closure (R ) = �R𝑋𝑋 2 + R 𝑌𝑌 2

= �(−0.065)2 + (0.032)2
= 0.072 m
Linear Error of Closure 0.072 1
∴ Relative precision = = =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 345.6 4800

⇒ Balancing the consecutive coordinates

For any closed traverse, the linear misclosure must be adjusted (or distributed) throughout the
traverse to “close” or “balance” the figure. There are several elementary methods available for
traverse adjustment, but the one most commonly used is the compass rule (Bowditch method)
and transit rule.
Compass rule

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥

= CDi = x Si = K x Si
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 ∑𝑆𝑆 ∑𝑆𝑆
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦
= CLi = x Si = K x Si
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 ∑𝑆𝑆 ∑𝑆𝑆

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Where
CDi = correction to departure
CLi = correction to latitude
Rx = total error of closure in departure = ∑ 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
Ry = total error of closure in latitude = ∑ 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
∑𝑺𝑺 = total length of the traverse
Si = length of any line of the traverse

Example :-
Balance the traverse of the previous example using compass rule.
Solution
Total error of closure in departure = Rx = ∑𝐸𝐸 - ∑𝑊𝑊 = -0.065 m
Total error of closure in latitude = Ry = ∑𝑁𝑁 - ∑𝑆𝑆 = +0.032 m
Total length of the traverse = ∑𝑆𝑆 = 345.6 m

Correction to departure
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
CDi = x Si = K x Si 1.881 x 10-4
∑𝑆𝑆
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 0.065
AB = x Si = K x Si = ( ) x 83.5 = 0.016 m
∑𝑆𝑆 345.6

CD (AB) = 0.016 m
-4
CD (BC) = 1.881 x 10 x 59.4 = 0.011 m
CD (CD) = 1.881 x 10-4 x 62 = 0.012 m
CD (DE) = 1.881 x 10-4 x 50.3 = 0.009 m
CD (EA) = 1.881 x 10-4 x 90.4 = 0.017 m
∑ = 0.065

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Correction to latitude
-9.26 x 10-5

𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 −0.032
CL (AB) = x Si = K x Si = ( ) x 83.5 = -0.008 m
∑𝑆𝑆 345.6

CL (AB) ≈ -0.008 m
CL (BC) = -9.26 x 10-5 x 59.4 = -5.5 x 10-3 ≈ -0.006 m
CL (CD) = -9.26 x 10-5 x 62 = -5.741 x 10-3 ≈ -0.006 m
CL (DE) = -9.26 x 10-5 x 50.3 = -4.657 x 10-3 ≈ -0.004 m
CL (EA) = -9.26 x 10-5 x 90.4 = -8.37 x 10-3 ≈ -0.008 m
∑ = - 0.032

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Correction Adjusted Coordinate St.

Line W.C.B Length D(m) L(m) D(m) L(m) D(m) L(m)

0 0 A

AB 29030' 83.5 41.117 72.675 0.016 -0.008 41.133 72.667 71.133 72.667 B

BC 100045' 59.4 58.358 -11.08 0.011 -0.006 58.369 -11.086 99.502 61.581 C

CD 146030' 62.0 34.220 -51.701 0.012 -0.006 34.232 -51.707 133.734 9.874 D

DE 2420 50.3 -44.412 -23.614 0.009 -0.004 -44.403 -23.618 89.331 -13.744 E

EA 278045' 90.3 -89.348 13.752 0.017 -0.008 -89.331 13.744 0 0 A

-
345.6 0.065 0.032 0.065 -0.032 0 0

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

b)For link traverse

Example :-

The table below shows the field measurements for closed traverse J , K , L , M , if the
coordinate of points J , M (3000 , 3000) , (3780.32 , 2670.18) respectively and the Azimuth
of AJ = 188031'52'' . Calculate

i. closing error and relative accuracy of traverse.

ii. the correct coordinates, bearings and lengths for the traverse.

Point Line Azimuth Angle to the right

AJ 188031'52''

J 86032'01''

JK

K 223054'10''

KL

L 114046'53''

LM

Solution

• Computed azimuth
from (angle to the
right).
Az JK = (188031'52'' - 1800) +
86032'01''

Az JK = 95003'53''

Az KL = 223054'10'' – [360 –
(95003'53'' + 1800)] = 138058'03''

Az LM = 114046'53'' – [360 – (138058'03'' + 1800)] = 73044'56''

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

• Latitude and Departure of each line

Coordinates

St. Side Length AZimuth D L Easting Northing

J 3000 3000

JK 346.95 9503'53'' +345.60 -30.63

K 3345.60 2969.37

KL 449.76 138058'03'' +295.26 -339.27

L 3640.86 2630.10

LM 144.82 73044'56'' +139.03 +40.53

M 3779.89 2670.63

Total error of closure in Easting coordinate (Rx)= Easting calculated - Easting given
For last point for the last point
Rx = 3779.89 – 3780.32 = - 0.43

Northing calculated - Northing given

Total error of closure in Northing coordinate (Ry)=
For last point for the last point
Ry = 2670.63 – 2670.18 = + 0.45

• Linear Error of Closure (R ) = �R𝑋𝑋 2 + R 𝑌𝑌 2

= �(−0.43)2 + (0.45)2

= 0.62 m
Linear Error of Closure 0.62 1
∴ Relative precision = = =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 941.53 1500

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

i. The corrected coordinates, lengths and azimuth of the traverse.

Correction Adjusted Adjusted coordinates Adjusted adjusted

Point Line D L D L D L E N Azimuth Length

J 3000 3000

JK +345.60 -30.63 +0.16 -0.17 +345.76 -30.8 9505'26'' 347.13

K 3345.76 2969.2

KL +295.26 -339.27 +0.20 -0.21 +295.46 -339.48 138057'57'' 450.05

L 3641.22 2629.72

LM +139.03 +40.53 +0.07 -0.07 +139.1 40.46 73046'55'' 144.86

M 3780.32 2670.18

∑=0.43 ∑=-0.45 √ √

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Directions and Angles. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Correction to departure using compass rule

𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
CDi = x Si = K x Si
∑𝑆𝑆
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 +0.43
JK = x Si = K x Si = ( ) x 346.95 = 0.16
∑𝑆𝑆 941.53

CD (JK) = 0.16 m
+0.43
CD (KL) = ( ) x 449.76 = 0.21 m
941.53
+0.43
CD (LM) = ( ) x 144.82 = 0.07 m
941.53

∑ = 0.43

Correction to latitude using compass rule

𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 −0.45
CL (JK)= x Si = K x Si = ( ) x 346.95 = -0.17 m
∑𝑆𝑆 941.53

CL (JK) ≈ -0.17 m
−0.45
CL (KL) = ( ) x 449.76 ≈ -0.21 m
941.53
−0.45
CL (LM) = ( ) x 144.82 ≈ -0.07 m
941.53

∑ = - 0.45

𝑫𝑫
Adjusted Azimuth for JK = 𝜽𝜽 = tan-1 𝑳𝑳 𝑱𝑱𝑱𝑱
𝑱𝑱𝑱𝑱

345.76
𝜃𝜃 = tan-1 = 84054'35''
−30.8

AZ of JK = 180 - 84054'35'' = 9505'26''

Adjusted Length for JK
𝐷𝐷𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽 345.76
S JK = = = 347.13 m
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃 sin 840 54′ 35′′

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Al Mustansiriyah University
Faculty Of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

Engineering Surveying II

Lecture 12

By
Dr. Lubna Salih Al-shammari
Traverse. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Inverse computation:-
If the departure and latitude of a line AB are
known, its length and azimuth or quadrantal
bearing are readily obtained from the following
relationships:
D = S x sin 𝜃𝜃
L = S x cos 𝜃𝜃
𝐷𝐷
tan Azimuth or Q.B of AB (𝜃𝜃) =
𝐿𝐿
𝐷𝐷 𝐿𝐿
S=𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = �(𝐷𝐷)2 + (𝐿𝐿)2
Where
D = departure of the line AB
L = latitude of the line AB
S = length of AB

To express departures and latitudes in terms of coordinate differences ∆ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and

∆ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 as follows:
Departure of the line AB= XB – XA = ∆ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Latitude of the line AB= YB – YA = ∆ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

∴ S = �(∆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. )2 + (∆𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙. )2
∆𝐷𝐷 ∆𝐷𝐷
tan 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃 = tan-1
∆𝐿𝐿 ∆𝐿𝐿
‫وھﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺔ ﻋﻛﺳﯾﺔ اي ﺗﻌطﻰ اﺣداﺛﯾﺎت ارﻛﺎن اﻟﻣﺿﻠﻊ وﯾﻛون اﻟﻣطﻠوب اﯾﺟﺎد طول اﻟﺧط اﻟواﺻل‬
. ‫واﻻﺗﺟﺎه ﺑﯾن ﻧﻘطﺔ واﺧرى‬

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Traverse. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example: -
Compute the length and the bearing of the perpendicular line that falling down from point K
(160 , 30) to the line AB if the coordinates of A (100 , 100) m and B (250 , 20)m.
Solution

‫ ﻧﺳﺗﺧرج طول‬A , K ‫– ﻣن اﻟﻧﻘطﺗﯾن اﻟﻣﻌﻠوﻣﺗﻲ اﻻﺣداﺛﯾﺎت‬D- ‫ اﻟﻘﺎﺋم اﻟزاوﯾﺔ‬ADK ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﺛﻠث‬-1

‫ واﺗﺟﺎھﮫ‬AK ‫اﻟﺿﻠﻊ‬

∆𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = DK – DA = 160 – 100 ∆𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 60 m

∆𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = LK – LA = 30 – 100 ∆𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = -70 m

∴ SAK = �(∆𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 )2 + (∆𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 )2

SAK = �(60)2 + (−70)2 = 92.2 m

∆𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 60
𝜃𝜃1 = tan-1 = tan-1 = - 40036'5''
∆𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 −70

∴ AZ of AK = 180 - 𝜃𝜃1 = 180 - 40036'5'' = 139023'55''

AB ‫( ﻧﺳﺗﺧرج اﺗﺟﺎه اﻟﺿﻠﻊ‬A , B) ‫ ﻣن اﺣداﺛﯾﺎت اﻟﻧﻘطﺗﯾن‬-2

∆𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =DB – DA = 250 – 100 ∆𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 150 m

∆𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =LB – LA = 20 – 100 ∆𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = - 80 m
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Traverse. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

∆𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 150
𝜃𝜃2 = tan-1 = tan-1 = - 61055'39''
∆𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 −80

∴ AZ of AB = 180 - 𝜃𝜃2 = 180 - 61055'39'' = 11804'21''

∴ 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃2 - 𝜃𝜃1 = 61055'39'' - 40036'5''
𝜃𝜃 = 21019'34''
180= ‫ ∡ ﻣن ﻣﺟﻣوع اﻟزواﯾﺎ اﻟداﺧﻠﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﺛﻠث‬α ‫ ﻧﺟد ﻗﯾﻣﺔ‬-1

α = 180 – 90 - 𝜃𝜃
α = 180 – 90 - 21019'34'' = 68040'26'
‫ واﺗﺟﺎھﮫ‬KD ‫ اﻟذي ھو‬AB ‫( ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺧط‬K) ‫ ﻧﺟد طول اﻟﻌﻣود اﻟﻧﺎزل ﻣن‬-2
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
=
sin 𝜃𝜃 sin 90
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 92.2
′′ =
KD = 33.53 m
sin 210 19′ 34 sin 90
AZ of KD = (360 – B.B of AK) – α
= (360 – (139023'55'' + 180) - 68040'26'')
= 360 - 319023'55'' - 68040'26''
= 2804'21''

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Traverse. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example: -
In figure shown below two tunnels AB and EF are being driven forward until meet in order to
accommodate telephone cables. Calculate
the distance still to be driven in each
tunnel given the following information: -
Bearing of AB = 15000'
Bearing of EF = 265000'
Coordinate B (624.30 E , 1300.50 N)
Coordinate F (845.90 E , 1482.3 N)

Solution

Length BF = �(∆𝐷𝐷𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 )2 + (∆𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 )2

= �(845.9 − 624.3)2 + (1482.3 − 1300.5)2

= �(221.6)2 + (181.8)2
Length BF = 286.63 m

∆𝐷𝐷𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 221.6
F.B BF = 𝜃𝜃 = tan-1 = tan-1 = 50038'05''
∆𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 181.8

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Traverse. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

α = 𝜃𝜃 – AZ of AB = 50038'05'' - 150

∴ α = 35038'5''

[Link] (FB)= [Link] + 1800 = 50038'05'' + 180

[Link] (FB)= 230038'5''

∴ ɣ = AZ of EF – B.B BF (FB)= 2650 - 230038'5''

∴ ɣ = 34021'55''

[Link] (BA)= AZ of XB = 150 + 1800 = 1950

AZXF = B.B EF(FE) = 2650 - 1800 = 850

∴ 𝛽𝛽 = [Link] – AZ XF = 1950 - 850

𝛽𝛽 = 1100

For check

Sum. Angles of triangles = 1800

1100 + 350038'05''+ 34021'55'' = 1800 O.K.

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛼𝛼 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝐵 sin 350 38′ 5′′ 𝑥𝑥 286.63

= XF = = 177.712 m
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 sin 1100

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ɣ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝐵 sin 340 21′ 55′′ 𝑥𝑥 286.63

= BX = = 127.176 m
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 sin 1100

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Traverse. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Area by double-meridian distance method

The area within a closed traverse can also be computed by the double-meridian distance (DMD)
method. This procedure requires balanced departures and latitudes of the tract’s boundary
lines, which are normally obtained in traverse computations. The DMD method is not as
commonly used as the coordinate method because it is not as convenient, but given the data
from an adjusted traverse, it will yield the same answer. The DMD method is useful for
checking answers obtained by the coordinate method when performing hand computations.

By definition, the meridian distance of a traverse course is the perpendicular distance from the
midpoint of the course to the reference meridian. To ease the problem of signs, a reference
meridian usually is placed through the most westerly traverse station.

In the above figure, the meridian distances of courses AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA are MM’,
PP’, QQ’, RR’, and TT’ respectively. To express PP’ in terms of convenient distances, MF
and BG are drawn perpendicular to PP’ Then

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Traverse. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

PP’ = P’F + FG + GP

1 1
= meridian distance of AB + departure of AB + departure of BC
2 2

Thus, the meridian distance for any course of a traverse equals the meridian distance of the
preceding course plus one half the departure of the preceding course plus half the departure of
the course itself. It is simpler to employ full departures of courses. Therefore, DMDs equal to
twice the meridian distances that are used, and a single division by 2 is made at the end of the
computation.

Applying these rules, for the traverse in above figure

DMD of AB = departure of AB
DMD of BC = DMD of AB + departure of AB + departure of BC

A check on all computations is obtained if the DMD of the last course, after computing around
the traverse, is also equal to its departure but has the opposite sign. If there is a difference, the
departures were not correctly adjusted before starting, or a mistake was made in the
computations.

With reference to Figure above, the area enclosed by traverse ABCDEA may be expressed in
terms of trapezoid areas (shown by different color shadings) as

Area = E’EDD’E’ + C’CDD’C’ - (AB’BA + BB’C’CB + AEE’A)

The area of each figure equals the meridian distance of a course times its balanced [Link]
example, the area of trapezoid C’CDD’C’ = Q’Q * C’D’ where Q’Q and C’D’ are the meridian
distance and latitude, respectively, of line CD.

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Traverse. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example :-

The latitudes and departures of the lines of a closed traverse are given below . calculate the
area of the traverse .

Side Lat. Dep. D.M.D Double area = col.2 x col.4

1 2 3 4 + -
AB +220.5 +120.0 120 26460
BC -240.2 +200.5 440.5 105808.1
CD -160.0 -100.5 540.5 86480.0
DA +179.7 -220.0 220 39534
∑=+65994 ∑=-
192288.1

Calculation of D.M.D

D.M.D AB = 120

D.M.D BC = [Link] + DAB + DBC = 440.5

D.M.D CD = [Link] + DBC + DCD = 540.5

D.M.D DA = [Link] + DCD + DDA = 220

Double area = algebraic sum = |65994 − 192288.1|

Double area = |−126294.1|

126294.1
∴ area of closed traverse =
2

= 63147.05 m2

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Traverse. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

E.C.2024 9
Al Mustansiriyah University

Faculty Of Engineering

Civil Engineering Department

Engineering Surveying II

Lecture 13

By

Dr. Lubna Salih Al-shammari

Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

1. Horizontal curves:-

Horizontal curves are used in the design of roads and railways, straight sections of road or
track are connected by curves of constant or varying radius. The purpose of the curves is to
deflect a vehicle travelling along one of the straights safely and comfortably through the
angle 𝜃𝜃 to enable it to continue its journey along the other straight. For this reason, 𝜃𝜃 is
known as the deflection angle.

The two main types of horizontal curves are:

• Circular curves, which are curves of constant radius.

Transition curves, which are curves of varying radius.

Circular curves Transition curves

Usually, some combination of straights, circular curves and transition curves is used in the
final design. Together, they form what is known as the horizontal alignment. This lecture
covers the circular curves.

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

2. Types of circular curve

⇒ Simple circular curves

A simple circular curve consists of one arc of constant

radius R. This is the most commonly used type of
circular curve.

⇒ Compound circular curves

These consist of two or more consecutive

simple circular curves of different radii
without any intervening straight section. The
object of such curves is to avoid certain points,
the crossing of which would involve great
expense and which cannot be avoided by a
simple circular curve.

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

⇒ Reverse circular curves

These curves consist of two consecutive curves of the same or different radii without any
intervening straight section and with their centres of curvature falling on opposite sides of
their common tangent point. They are much more common than compound circular curves
and, like them, can be used to avoid obstacles. More usually, however, they are used to
connect two straights which are nearly parallel and that would otherwise require a very long
simple circular curve.

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

3. Degree of circular curve

There are two different definitions of degree of curvature:

⇒ Arc Definition S

Arc definition degree of curvature is defined as angle in

degrees subtended by an arc of standard length. This definition
is generally used in highway practice.

Let 𝑫𝑫𝒂𝒂 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
R
𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎 360
=
𝑆𝑆 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑅𝑅 ∗ 𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎 ∗
180
Or

𝑆𝑆 180
𝑅𝑅 = ∗
𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎 𝜋𝜋

If 𝑆𝑆 = 20𝑚𝑚

20 180 1145.92
𝑅𝑅 = ∗ =
𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎 𝜋𝜋 𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎

If 𝑆𝑆 = 30𝑚𝑚

30 180 1718.87
𝑅𝑅 = ∗ =
𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎 𝜋𝜋 𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

⇒ Chord Definition

Chord definition degree of curvature is defined as angle in

S
degrees subtended by a chord of standard length. This definition
is commonly used in railways.
S/2
Let 𝑫𝑫𝒄𝒄 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

S/2
Sin 𝐷𝐷𝑐𝑐 / 2 = Dc/2
𝑅𝑅 R

4. Elements of a simple curve

𝜃𝜃 = deflection angle = central angle

R = radius of curve

T = tangent length

L = length of curve

Lc = long chord

M = mid-ordinate

E = external distance

P.C = point of curvature

P.I = point of intersection

P.T = point of tangency

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

‫ واﻟﺗﻲ ﯾطﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﯾﮭﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻣﺣطﺎت ﺣﯾث ﺗزاداد ﻗﯾم اﻟﻣﺣطﺎت ﻣن اﻟﯾﺳﺎر اﻟﻰ اﻟﯾﻣﯾن واﺑﺗدا ًء ﻣن‬P.C – P.I – P.T ‫وﺗﻌﯾن ﻣواﻗﻊ اﻟﻧﻘﺎط‬
. P.T ‫ واﻧﺗﮭﺎ ًء ﺑـ‬P.C

5. Calculation of various elements of a curve

⇒ From ∆ (O - P.C - P.I)

𝜃𝜃 𝑇𝑇
tan =
2 𝑅𝑅

∴ T = R tan 𝜽𝜽/𝟐𝟐

⇒ From ∆ (O - P.C - P)
𝐶𝐶/2
sin 𝜃𝜃/2 =
𝑅𝑅

∴ C = 2 R sin 𝜽𝜽/𝟐𝟐

𝐿𝐿 2 𝜋𝜋 𝑅𝑅
⇒ =
𝜃𝜃 3600

𝝅𝝅 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹
∴L=
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

⇒ From ∆ (O - P.C - P.I)

𝑅𝑅
Cos 𝜃𝜃/2 =
𝑅𝑅+𝐸𝐸

𝟏𝟏
∴E=R( - 1) = R ( sec 𝜽𝜽/𝟐𝟐 – 1)
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜽𝜽/𝟐𝟐

⇒ From ∆ (O - P.C - P)
𝑅𝑅−𝑀𝑀
cos 𝜃𝜃/2 =
𝑅𝑅

∴ M = R (1 - 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜽𝜽/𝟐𝟐)

⇒ Station P.C = Stat. P.I – T

⇒ Station P.T = Stat. P.C + L

‫ وذﻟك ﻻن طوﻟﻲ اﻟﻣﻣﺎﺳﯾن‬T ‫ وطول اﻟﻣﻣﺎس‬P.I ‫ ﻣن اﻟﻣﺣطﺔ‬P.T ‫ ﻻ ﯾﺟوز ﺣﺳﺎب اﻟﻣﺣطﺔ‬: ‫ﻣﻼﺣظﺔ‬
. ‫ﻻ ﯾﺳﺎوي طول اﻟﻣﻧﺣﻧﻲ‬

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example: -

In figure shown below the whole circle bearings

(W.C.B) and length of AI and IB are: -

Line W.C.B Length (m)

AI 200 450.30 m

IB 700 275.00 m

The radius of the curve joining the straights is

300m. Calculate the changes of the tangent
points.

Solution

𝜃𝜃 = deflection angle

𝜃𝜃 = 700 – 200 = 500

T = R tan 𝜃𝜃/2

T = 300 tan 250 = 139.89 m

P.C = P.I – T

P.C = 450.3 – 139.89 = 310.41 m

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
L = R. 𝜃𝜃. = 300 x 50 x = 261.80 m
180 180

P.T = P.C + L = 310.41 m + 261.8 m = 572.21 m

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example: -

Lines AB and BC intersected at station (68 + 27) with intersection angel (1400) to connect
these lines by simple circular curve , degree of curve (50) according to the arc definition .
Compute radius of curve and distance of the tangent points if the length of arc is 30 m .

Solution

𝜋𝜋
L = R x 𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎 x
180

𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 180
R=
𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 𝜋𝜋

30 𝑥𝑥 180
R= = 343.77 m
5 𝑥𝑥 𝜋𝜋

T = R tan 𝜃𝜃/2

= 343.77 x tan 200 = 125.12 m

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
L = R x 𝜃𝜃 x = 343.77 x 40 x
180 180

= 240 m

P.C = P.I – T

= (68 + 27) – (1 + 25.12) = 67 + 1.88 m

P.T = P.C + L

= (67 + 1.88) + (2 + 40) = 69 + 41.88 m

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example: -

The following data were derived from the traverse ACDB

Angle ACD 252015'00'' AC = 559.28 m

Angle CDB 227025'00'' CD = 256.50 m

Calculate the chainage of the tangent point P.C if the straights are to be joined by 300m
radius curve as shown in the figure below.

Solution

∡C = 180 - 107045' = 72015'

∡D = 180 - 132035' = 47025'

∡P.I = 180 – (72015' + 47025') = 60020'

∴ defl. angle 𝜃𝜃 = 180 - 60020' = 119040'

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
= IC = 217.349
sin 470 25 sin 600 20′

P.I = AC + IC = 559.28 + 217.349 =

776.692

T = R tan 𝜃𝜃/2 = 300 tan 59050' = 516.14

m

P.C = P.I – T = 776.629 – 516.14

∴ P.C = 260.487 m

E.C.2024
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Al Mustansiriyah University

Faculty Of Engineering

Civil Engineering Department

Engineering Surveying II

Lecture 14

By

Dr. Lubna Salih Al-shammari

Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

• Important relationships in circular curves

⇒ Triangle P.C-P.I-P.T is isosceles, therefore angle

P.I,P.C,P.T=P.I,P.T,P.C=𝜃𝜃 ⁄2

⇒ Using the above definition, the tangential angle,

𝛼𝛼, at T to any point, X, on the curve TU is equal
to half the angle subtended at the centre of
curvature, O, by the chord from T to that point.

⇒ Similarly the tangential angle, 𝛽𝛽, at X to any

point, Y, on the curve TU is equal to half the
angle subtended at the centre of curvature, O, by
the chord from X to that point.

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

⇒ Another useful relationship is that

angle TOX= 2𝛼𝛼; hence angle ITX=𝛼𝛼.

angle XOY= 2𝛽𝛽; hence angle AXY=𝛽𝛽

Therefore, angle TOY=2(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽) and it

follows that angle ITY (𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽). In words
this can be stated as:

The tangential angle to any point on the

curve is equal to the sum of the tangential
angles from each chord up to that point.

• Setting out horizontal curves on site

There are a number of methods by which the centre line can be set out, all of which fall into
one of the following two categories.

⇒ Traditional methods, which involve working along the centre line itself using the
straights, intersection points and tangent points for reference. The equipment required
to carry out these methods can include tapes, theodolites and total stations.
⇒ Coordinate methods, which use control networks as reference. These networks take
the form of control points located on site some distance away from the centre line for
use with theodolites, total stations or GNSS receivers.

Although both of the above categories are still used, coordinate methods have virtually
superseded traditional ones for all major curve setting out operations for a number of reasons:

1. There is now widespread use of total stations on site and GNSS equipment is
increasingly being used for setting out purposes.
2. The universal adoption of highway design software packages, which are invariably
based on coordinate methods, has eliminated the tedious nature of the calculations
involved in such methods and enables setting out data to be produced in a form ready
for immediate use by total stations and GNSS receivers.
3. Coordinate methods have the advantage that relocating centre line pegs, which have
been disturbed, is much easier to carry out than by traditional methods.

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

• Setting out circular curves on site by traditional methods

There are three traditional methods by which pegs on the centre lines of circular curves can
be set out on site from their tangent points, which are the tangential angles method, offsets
from the tangent lengths and offsets from the long chord.

1. Setting out using the tangential angles method: this is the most accurate of the
traditional methods and it can be used for any circular curve. It can be carried out using
either a theodolite and a tape, two theodolites or a total station and a pole-mounted
reflector. The formula used for the tangential angles is derived as follows and uses the
important relationships that explained above. The assumption is made that arc TK =
chord TK if the chord ≤(R/20). The length of the chord TK is given by

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 180
𝛼𝛼1 = � �� �
2𝑅𝑅 𝜋𝜋

Similarly

𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 180
𝛼𝛼2 = � �� �
2𝑅𝑅 𝜋𝜋
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 180
𝛼𝛼3 = � �� �
2𝑅𝑅 𝜋𝜋

Note that the chord for 𝛼𝛼2 is KL not

TL and that for 𝛼𝛼3 is LM not TM.

In general

𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 90
𝛼𝛼 = � � � � 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑅𝑅 𝜋𝜋

Tangential angles method using a theodolite and a tape

Calculation procedure: -
• Determine the total length of the curve.
• pegs are placed on the centre line at exact multiples of through chainage For example,
if pegs are required at exact 25 m multiples then they would be placed at 0 m, 25 m,
50 m, 75 m and so on along the centre line. A general chord should be chosen which
has a horizontal length equal to this value. For example, if pegs are required at 25 m

E.C.2024
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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

multiples of through chainage, then the horizontal length of the general chord would
also be 25m providing R/20 <=25m. If R/20 > 25 then a m shorter value must be
chosen for the horizontal length of the general chord.
• In order to ensure that pegs are placed at exact chainage multiples, it is usually
necessary to have an initial sub-chord to get from the entry tangent point to the first peg
on the curve and a final sub-chord to get from the last peg on the curve to the exit
tangent point.
• A series of tangential angles is obtained from equation to give 𝛼𝛼1, 𝛼𝛼2, 𝛼𝛼3 and so on,
corresponding to chords TK, KL, LM and so on. In practice, 𝛼𝛼1= 𝛼𝛼2= 𝛼𝛼3 and so on,
since all chords except the first and the last will be equal. Therefore, only three
tangential angles need to be calculated – one for the initial sub-chord, one for the
general chord and one for the final sub-chord.

Setting out procedure

• The tangent points are fixed, and the theodolite is set up at one of them, preferably the
one from which the curve swings to the right. This ensures that the tangential angles set
on the horizontal circle will increase from 0° clockwise, which tends to be the preferred
direction of operation.
• The intersection point I is sighted, and the horizontal circle is set to read zero.
• The theodolite telescope is rotated clockwise so that the tangential angle 𝛼𝛼1 for the first
chord TK is set on the horizontal circle.

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

• The first chord TK is then set out by lining in the tape with the theodolite along this
direction and marking off the length of the chord from the tangent point then the point
should be marked using a peg with a nail driven in its top to define the exact position
of K.
• The telescope is then turned clockwise until the horizontal circle gives a reading of
(𝛼𝛼1+ 𝛼𝛼2) – it is now pointing from T towards L. With one end of the tape hooked over
the nail in the peg at point K, the length of the second chord KL is ‘swung’ from K until
it meets the direction TL defined by the theodolite. A peg and nail are then located at
the position where the ‘swung’ chord meets the direction; this fixes the second point L
on the curve.
• The procedure is repeated for all the other points to be fixed on the curve until point U
is set out. In each case the cumulative angle from the tangent point T with reference to
the tangent line TI is set on the theodolite, but the chord length swung is the individual
length from the previous peg fixed on the curve.
Once point U has been fixed, the theodolite should be moved to U so that
tangential angle IUT can be measured – it should equal (𝜃𝜃 ⁄2).

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example: -

Two tangents intersected at a chainage 1190 m the deflection angles being 360. Calculate all
data necessary for setting out a curve with R = 300 m by the tangential angles method using a
theodolite and a tape. The peg interval is 30 m.

Solution

P.I = 1190 m

T = R tan ∆/2 = 300 tan 180 = 97.48 m

𝜋𝜋R∆ 𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 300 𝑥𝑥 36
L= = =188.50 m
180 180

P.C = P.I – T = 1190 – 97.48 = 1092.52 m

To fix the first point on the curve at chainage 1110 m (the next multiple of 30 m) an initial
sub-chord is required where

The length of the initial sub – chord = 1110 – 1092.02 m = 17.48 m

P.T = P.C + L = 1092.52 + 180.500 = 1281.02 m

Hence a final sub-chord is also required since 30 m chords can only be used up to chainage
1260 m. Therefore

The length of the final sub – chord = 1281.02 – 1260 = 21.02 m

188.5−(17.48+21.02) 150
No. of general chords = = =5
30 30

Hence three chords are necessary:

initial sub-chord of 17.48 m

general chord of 30.00 m

final sub-chord of 21.02 m

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Stat. Chord (m) Individual tangential angle Cumulative

𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 90 tangential angle

𝛼𝛼 = � �� �
𝑅𝑅 𝜋𝜋

P.C 1092.52 0 0 0

1110.00 17.48 𝛼𝛼1 = (

17.48 𝑥𝑥 90
) = 1040'9'' 1°40'9''
𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 300

1140.00 30 m 𝛼𝛼2 = (
30 𝑥𝑥 90
) = 2025'53'' 4032'2''
𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 300

1170.00 30 m 𝛼𝛼3= 2051'53'' 7023'55''

1200.00 30 m 𝛼𝛼4 = 2051'53'' 10015'48''

1230.00 30 m 𝛼𝛼5 = 2051'53'' 13007'41''

1260.00 30 m 𝛼𝛼6 = 2051'53'' 15059'34''

P.T 1281.02 21.02 m 𝛼𝛼7 = (

21.02 𝑥𝑥 90
) = 2000'26'' 180-00'00'' =
𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 300
(𝜃𝜃 ⁄2) check

188.50 check

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

E.C.2024
8
Al Mustansiriyah University

Faculty Of Engineering

Civil Engineering Department

Engineering Surveying II

Lecture 15

By

Dr. Lubna Salih Al-shammari

Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Tangential angles method using two theodolites

This variation is used when the ground between the tangent points is of such a character that
taping proves difficult, with very steep slopes, in undulating ground and across ploughed
fields or if the curve is partly over marshy ground.

Two theodolites are used, one being set at each tangent point. The method is one of
intersecting points on the curve with the theodolites. For example, to fix point Z in Figure
above, 𝛼𝛼1 is set out clockwise from T relative to TI and (360° – (𝜃𝜃 /2) + 𝛼𝛼1) is set out
clockwise from U relative to UI. The two lines of sight intersect at Z where an assistant drive
in a peg and a nail. Good liaison between the instrument operators and the assistant is vital
and, for large curves, two-way radios are essential.

Tangential angles method using a total station and a pole mounted reflector

In this method, a total station is set

up at the tangent point and used to
turn the tangential angles as in the
method using a theodolite and a
tape.

However, instead of measuring

lengths from one peg to another, the
distance measuring component of
the total station is used to set out
the length to each peg directly from
the tangent point.

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

The length of the long chord TU was derived as [2R sin (𝜃𝜃 /2)], hence: -

line TK = long chord of the curve of arc TK = 2R sin (𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶 )

line TL = long chord of the curve of arc TL = 2R sin (𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶 + 𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶)

line TM = long chord of the curve of arc TM = 2R sin (𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶 + 𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶+ 𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶 )

Calculation procedure: -

⇒ The tangential angles 𝛼𝛼1 , 𝛼𝛼2, 𝛼𝛼3 and so on are obtained in exactly the same way as

that described earlier for the method involving a theodolite and a tape.

⇒ Using the formula for the long chords given above, the lengths of the long chords

required to fix each point are determined to give the horizontal lengths TK, TL, TM

and so on.

⇒ The tangential angles and long chord lengths are tabulated for use on site.

Setting out procedure: -

⇒ With reference to the method described earlier when using a theodolite and tape, the
theodolite at T is replaced by a total station and the tape is replaced by a pole mounted
reflector, as shown in Figure above.
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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

⇒ The intersection point I is sighted and the horizontal circle on the total station is set to
read zero.
⇒ The tangential angle, 𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶, for long chord TK is turned clockwise from TI to establish
the direction TK. The total station is set to read horizontal distances directly and the
horizontal distance TK is set out along this direction using the pole-mounted reflector.
Point K is fixed using a nail in the top of a peg.
⇒ The tangential angle (𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶 + 𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶) for the long chord TL is turned clockwise from TI to
establish the direction TL, horizontal distance TL is set out along this direction using
the pole mounted reflector and point L is fixed using a nail in the top of a peg.
⇒ The procedure continues for point M and any other points on the curve until the second
tangent point U is set out.
⇒ Finally, as a check, the total station should be moved to U so that tangential angle IUT
can be measured – it should equal (𝜃𝜃 /2).

Example

It is required to connect two intersecting straights whose deflection angle is 13°16'00" by a

circular curve of radius 600 m. The through chainage of the intersection point is 2745.72 m
and pegs are required on the centre line of the curve at exact 25 m multiples of through
chainage. Tabulate the data necessary to set out the curve by the tangential angles method
using a total station and a pole-mounted reflector.

Solution

1. In order to set this out using a total station and a pole-mounted reflector, the tangential
angles (𝛼𝛼 values) are turned on the total station and the long chord lengths (TC1, TC2,
TC3 and so on) are set out from T using the pole-mounted reflector. The tangential
angles were calculated in the same way in Worked example using theodolite and tape

P.I = 2745.72 m

T = R tan ∆/2 = 600 tan 13°16'00" = 69.78 m

𝜋𝜋R∆ 𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 600 𝑥𝑥 13.2667

L= = =138.93 m
180 180

P.C = P.I – T = 2745.72 – 69.78 = 2675.94 m

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

To fix the first point on the curve at chainage 2700 m (the next multiple of 25 m) an initial
sub-chord is required where

The length of the initial sub_ chord = 2700 – 2675.94 = 24.06 m

P.T = P.C + L = 2675.94 + 138.93 = 2814.87 m

Hence a final sub-chord is also required since 25 m chords can only be used up to chainage
2800 m. Therefore

The length of the final sub_ chord = 2814.87 – 2800 = 14.87 m

138.93−(24.06+14.87) 100
No. of general chords = = =4
25 25

Hence three chords are necessary:

initial sub-chord of 24.06 m

general chord of 25.00 m

final sub-chord of 14.87 m

The tangential angles for these chords are: -

𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 90
𝛼𝛼 = � �� �
𝑅𝑅 𝜋𝜋
24.06 𝑥𝑥 90
For initial sub-chord. =( ) = 01°08'56"
𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 600

25 𝑥𝑥 90
For general chord =( ) = 01°11’37"
𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 600

14.87 𝑥𝑥 90
For final sub-chord. =( )= 00°42'36"
𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 600

1. Using the tangential angles above together with R = 600 m enables the long chord
lengths to be calculated as follows using equations explained in the tangential angles
method using a total station and a pole mounted reflector above: -

TC1 = 2R sin (𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶 )=1200 sin 01°08'56"=24.06m

TC2 = 2R sin (𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶 + 𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶)=1200 sin 02°20'33"=49.05m

TC3 = 2R sin (𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶 + 𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶 + 𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶)=1200 sin 03°32'10"=74.01m

and so on………
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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Point being Cumulative tangential angle Long chord (m) to be

to set out set out from T

P.C (T) 00000'00'' 0

C1 01008'56'' 24.06

C2 02020'33'' 49.05

C3 03032'10'' 74.01

C4 04043'47'' 98.95

C5 05055'24'' 123.84

P.T (U) 06038'00'' 138.62

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

2. Setting out using offsets from the tangent lengths

This traditional method of setting out requires two tapes. It is suitable for short curves or
curves of small radius such as kerbs. It can also be used to set out additional points between
those previously established by the tangential angles method or by coordinate methods.

A – P.C = X

In triangle OAB

OA = √𝑂𝑂𝐵𝐵2 − 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵2

∴ (R – X) = √𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑌𝑌 2

∴ X = R - √𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑌𝑌 2

3. Setting out using offsets from the long chord

This traditional method also requires two tapes. It is suitable for curves of small radius such
as boundary walls and kerb lines at road intersections. Also, it is a very useful method when
the tangent lengths are inaccessible
and offsets from them cannot be
used.

Major offsets X = R – K

In triangle O – P.C – C

K = √𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑌𝑌 2

∴ X = R - √𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑌𝑌 2 (Major
offset)

Any other offset Xn = (AB – K)

In triangle A-B-O

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

AB =�𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑌𝑌𝑛𝑛2

∴ Xn = �𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑌𝑌𝑛𝑛2 – K

Example

A kerb line is to be set out between two straights, which deflect through an angle of
75°00'00", such that it forms a circular curve of radius 20 m.

⇒ Tabulate the data required to set out the centre line of the curve by offsets taken at exact
5 m intervals along the tangent lengths. The mid-point of the curve must also be fixed.
⇒ Tabulate the data required to set out the centre line of the curve by offsets taken at exact
5 m intervals from the mid-point of the long chord. The mid-point of the curve must
also be fixed.

Solution

⇒ Offset from the tangent length

T = R tan 𝜃𝜃/2 20 tan(37°30'00") = 15.35 m

𝜃𝜃
External distance (E)=PI=𝑅𝑅 �𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 1� = 20[𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(37°30′00") – 1]= 5.21 m
2

𝜃𝜃
Angle ZIP=180-(90+ )= 180-(90+37°30′00")=52°30′00"
2

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

But from triangle IPZ in the figure above

IZ = PI cos 52°30′00" = 5.21 cos (52°30′00") = 3.17 m

Hence the length along the tangent for the offset to the mid-point P is given by

TZ = T – IZ = 15.35 – 3.17 = 12.18 m

Therefore, offsets are required at 5 m, 10 m and 12.18 m along the tangent length from point
T.

Length along tangent R �𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑌𝑌 2 Offset from the tangent

from T or U (Y values) lengths (X values)

0.00 m (T or U) 20.00 20.00 0.00 m(T or U)

5.00 m 20.00 19.36 0.64 m

10.00 m 20.00 17.32 2.68 m

12.18 m 20.00 15.86 4.14 m

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

⇒ Offset from the long chord

Chord length (C)= 2 R sin 𝜃𝜃/2= 40 sin

37°30′00"= 24.35 m

Y = C/2 = 24.35/2 = 12.18 m

Xn = �𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑌𝑌𝑛𝑛2 – K

Length along the long �𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌2 𝐾𝐾 = �𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑌𝑌 2 Offset from the long
chord from M (Yn chord (Xn values)
values)

0.00 m (M) 20.00m 15.87m 4.13 m (P)

5.00 m 19.36m 15.87m 3.49 m

10.00 m 17.32m 15.87m 1.45 m

12.18 m 15.87m 15.87m 0.00 m

E.C.2024
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Al Mustansiriyah University

Faculty Of Engineering

Civil Engineering Department

Engineering Surveying II

Lecture 16

By

Dr. Lubna Salih Al-shammari

Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Vertical curves

Vertical curves are used in highway and street vertical alignment to provide a gradual change
between two adjacent grade lines. Some highway and municipal agencies introduce vertical
curves at every change in grade line slope, whereas other agencies introduce vertical curves
into the alignment only when the net change in slope direction exceeds a specific value (e.g.,
1.5 percent or 2 percent).

In figure below, vertical curve terminology is introduced: g1 is the slope (percent) of the
lower station grade line. g2 is the slope of the higher station grade line. BVC is the beginning
of the vertical curve. EVC is the end of the vertical curve. PVI is the point of intersection of
the two adjacent grade lines. The length of vertical curve (L) is the projection of the curve
onto a horizontal surface and as such corresponds to plan distance.

Vertical curve terminology

The algebraic change in slope direction is A, where

A = g2 - g1
Example.

if g1 = + 1. 5 percent and g2 = -3.2 percent,

A would be equal to (- 3.2 - 1.5) = -4.7.
Note a vertical curve is required if A -is greater than 2.0 or less than -2.0

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

The geometric curve used in vertical alignment design is the vertical axis parabola. The
parabola has the desirable characteristics of
1. A constant rate of change of slope, which contributes to smooth alignment transition
2. Ease of computation of vertical offsets, which permits easily computed curve elevations.

The general equation of the parabola is

y = ax2 + bx + c

Placed the origin of the axis at BVC as in the figures below, so x=0

y = c=Elv. BVC

The slope of this curve at any point is given by the first derivative,

dy/dx = 2ax + b

when x=0, dy/dx = b = g1

The rate of change of slope is given by the second derivative,

d2y/dx2 = 2a
2a is a constant.
The rate of change of slope (2a) can also be written as A/L (L in station).

Sag Curve Crest Curve

The general equation is finally be written:

y = ax2 + g1x + Elv. Of BVC

𝐴𝐴/𝐿𝐿 2
y= x + g1x + Elv. Of BVC
2

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Properties of a Vertical Curve

1. The difference in elevation between the BVC and a point on the g1 grade line at a distance
X units (feet or meters) is g1X (g1 is expressed as a decimal).

2. The tangent offset between the grade line and the curve is given by ax2, where x is the
horizontal distance from the BVC; (that is, tangent offsets are proportional to the squares
of the horizontal distances).

3. The elevation of the curve at distance X from the BVC is given (on a crest curve) by:

BVC + g1x - ax2

(the signs would be reversed in a sag curve).

4. The grade lines (g1 and g2) intersect midway between the BVC and the EVC. That is, BVC
to V = 1/2L = V to EVC.

5. Offsets from the two grade lines are symmetrical with respect to the PVI.

6. The curve lies midway between the PVI and the midpoint of the chord; that is, Cm = mV.

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Computation of Low or High Point on Curve

The locations of curve high and low points are important for drainage and bridge
considerations. For example, on curbed streets catch basins must be installed precisely at the
drainage low point.

It was noted earlier that the slope was given by the expression

Slope = 2ax + g1

The figure above shows a sag vertical curve with a tangent drawn through the low point; it is
obvious that the tangent line is horizontal with a slope of zero; that is,

2ax + g1 = 0

Since 2a = A/L

x = -g1L/A

where x is the distance from the BVC to the high or low point.

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Procedure for Computing a Vertical Curve

1. Compute the algebraic difference in grades: A

A = g2 - g1

2. Compute the chainage of the BVC and EVC. If the chainage of the PVI is known,

1/2L is simply subtracted and added to the PVI chainage.

Stat. PVI=Stat. BVC+L/2

Stat. EVC=Stat. PVI +L/2

3. Compute the distance from the BVC to the high or low point (if applicable):

x = -g1L/A

and determine the station of the high/low point.

4. Compute the tangent grade line elevation of the BVC and the EVC.

Elv. PVI= Elv. BVC ± g1*L/2

Elv. EVC= Elv. PVI ± g2*L/2

5. Compute the tangent grade line elevation for each required station.

y= Elv. BVC ± g1x

6. Compute the tangent offset for each individual station.

𝐴𝐴/𝐿𝐿 2
Tangent offset = x (x in stat.)
2

where x is the distance from the BVC or

EVC(whichever is closer) to the required
station.
7. Compute the elevation on the curve at each required station by combining the tangent
offsets with the appropriate tangent grade line elevations. Add for sag curves and
subtract for crest curves.

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Curves. Dr. Lubna Al-shammari

Example

Given that L = 300 m, g1= -3.2%, g2= +1. 8%, PVI at 30 + 30, and elevation = 465.92. Determine
the location of the low point and elevations on the curve at even stations, as well as at the low
point.

Solution

A = g2 - g1 = 1.8 - (-3.2) = 5.0

𝐴𝐴/𝐿𝐿
= 0.834
2

Stat. BVC =Stat. PVI -L/2 = 30+30 - 150 = 28+80.00

Stat. EVC=Stat. PVI +L/2 = 30+30 + 150 = 31+80.00

EVC - BVC = L 31+80 - 28+86 = 300….Check

Elv. PVI= Elv. BVC − g1*L/2 Elv. BVC= Elv. PVI+ g1*L/2 = 465.92 + 4.80 = 470.72

Elv. EVC= Elv. PVI + g2*L/2 Elv. EVC= 465.92 + 2.70 = 468.62

Location of low point (x) = -g1L/A = (3.2 x 300)/5 = 192.00 m

Stat. of low point from BVC=28+80 +192 = 3072 = 30+72

Curve
Stat. X (Stat.) g1x 0.834*x2
Point [Link]. X 2
Elv.

28+80 0 0 470.72 0 0 470.72

BVC

29+00 0.2 -0.64 470.08 0.04 0.034 470.113

30+00 1.2 -3.84 466.88 1.44 1.2 468.08

30+30 1.5 -4.8 465.92 2.25 1.876 467.796

PVI

30+72 1.92 -6.14 464.58 3.686 3.074 467.65

Low point

31+00 2.2 -7.04 463.68 4.84 4.036 467.71

31+80 3 -9.6 461.12 9 7.506 468.62

EVC

E.C.2024
6