(INTRODUCTORY PHARMACEUTICS I)

DISPENSING EQUIPMENT AND FUNDAMENTAL

OPERATIONS

OLUTAYO ADELEYE
DISPENSING EQUIPMENT AND FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS
Learning Objective
 To identify some commonly used equipment used in dispensing
 To describe the function of the equipment used for the weighing and measuring of liquid
 To calculate errors in using dispensing balances and measuring devices
 To explain the proper techniques and operations for weighing and measuring liquid
 To identify household measures
Course content
 Most commonly used equipment and their functions (the balance, measures, mortar and
pestle).
 Calculating % errors in using dispensing balances
 Weighing techniques
 Minimum weighable amounts
 Categories of devices for measuring liquids
 Errors in measurements
 Measuring technique
 Household measures

Introduction
In dispensing/compounding of pharmaceutical products, some equipment will be used. The types
of equipment used will depend on the kind of products to be dispensed. The types of products that
would be considered at the moment are the extemporaneous preparations. With this type of
preparation, a prescription to be prepared/compounded and dispensed will be issued. Many of these
preparations are documented in some official books and these compendia would be consulted in
the course of pharmacy training.

EQUIPMENT USED IN DISPENSING

There are different types of equipment used in dispensing but most commonly used equipment in
dispensing of medicines are the balances, devices for measuring liquids (glass wares, pipettes etc.)
and mortar and pestle. The choice of the type of equipment depends on the type (e.g. liquid such
as mixtures, solutions etc. or solid such as powders) and quantity of the product to be produced
and dispensed. Other types of equipment used are spatulas, stirring rods etc.

DISPENSING BALANCES
There are two types
a. Torsion balances - prescription balances (Class A and Class B), double beam and triple beam
balance
b. Electronic balances e.g. analytical balance, top-loading balance

TORSION BALANCES
Torsion balances are mechanical balance and are less sensitive than electronic balances.
1. PRESCRIPTION BALANCES
Prescription balances are equal arm balance used in dispensing to weigh materials to be dispensed.
This type of balance has two pans on opposite sides of a lever. Standard weight is placed on one
side while the object to be weighed is placed to the other pan until the pans are balanced.
The prescription balances are classified as CLASS A or CLASS B. The class A balance has a
maximum capacity of 120g and a sensitivity of about 6mg with no load, or with a load of 10g on
each pan. This means that when 6mg weigh is put on one pan, it cause the indicator or the rest
point to shift to not less than one division on the index plate. The minimum capacity is 120mg.
The class B prescription balance has a maximum capacity of 50g and is sensitive to 10mg weight
under maximum load.

WEIGHING PROCEDURE ON A PRESCRIPTION BALANCE

1. Make sure the balance is clean. Dust it before use.
2. Determine the rest point of the indicator with no weights on the pans. Ensure that the pointer
moves freely by touching each pan gently with a pair of forceps.
3. Use weighing boats or papers to weigh powdered drugs.
4. Arrest the balance before adding or removing chemicals and weights.
5. With the aid of a pair of forceps, place standard weighs on the left-hand pan.
6. Remove the medicament from the shelf and check the label. Hold the container with the label
facing you. Transfer the correct quantity of chemical to the right pan.
7. Check the weights on the pan. Poisons are to be kept in what is known as poison cupboards.
After weighting the required quantity, return the container to the poison cupboard. If the weighed
material is a poison, invite a supervisor to check the quantity.
8. Return the stock bottle to the shelf from which it was taken.
Once you are satisfied that you have made an accurate measurement, double check to make sure
that you have weighed the correct substance (check the label) and that you have used the correct
weights.

2. DOUBLE BEAM BALANCE

A double beam balance has two beams and it is fitted with two pans. Standard weights are required

3. TRIPLE BEAM BALANCE

A triple beam balance has three beams each carrying weights that reads 100-gram increments, 10-
gram increments and zero to 10 grams. It used to find the exact weight of an object. The triple
beam is fitted with one pan. Standard weights are not required.
ELECTRONIC BALANCE
1. TOP-LOADING BALANCE
Top-Loading Balance This is another balance used primarily in a laboratory setting. They usually
can measure objects weighing around 150–5000 g. They offer less readability than an analytical
balance, but allow measurements to be made quickly thus making it a more convenient choice
when exact measurements are not needed. Top-loaders are also more economical than analytical
balances. Modern top-loading balances are electric and give a digital readout in seconds.

2. ANALYTICAL BALANCE
These are most often found in a laboratory or places where extreme sensitivity is needed for the
weighing of items. An analytical balance is a highly sensitive weighing equipment which can
accurately measure mass in the sub-milligram range to a high degree of precision. They are so
sensitive that even air currents can affect the measurement. Generally, the capacity of an analytical
balance ranges from 1 g to a few 500mg and a readability of 0.1 mg – 0.001 mg.
Analytical balance errors can arise when the instrument records an inaccurate weight of samples
owing to internal and external influences unknown to the operator or because of poor weighing
practices. While errors that are induced externally may be a result of numerous factors, they can
be eliminated or reduced easily.
DETERMINATION OF SENSITIVITY REQUIREMENT (S.R.) FOR PRESCRIPTION
BALANCE
It is important to test the sensitivity of a prescription balance before using it. (Refer to 200L
Dispensing Practical Manual).

LIMITS OF THE ACCURACY OF THE PRESCRIPTION BALANCE

The error permissible in compounding a prescription should not exceed or less 5 %. For formulas
that require greater accuracy (such as very potent drugs with greater toxicity potential e.g.
morphine), less than 5% error is required.

CALCULATING % ERRORS IN USING PRESCRIPTION BALANCE

If a 50 mg of a medicament is to be weighed on a prescription balance having a Sensitivity
Requirement (S.R.) of 6mg, the percentage error incurred can be determined with this formula:
% Error = S.R./weight x 100 %
% Error = 6 mg/50mg x 100 % = 12 %

MINIMUM WEIGHABLE QUANTITY ON PRESCRIPTION BALANCE

Similarly, the minimum weighable quantity (M.W.Q) on a balance of a known sensitivity, to
maintain a desired level of accuracy (i.e. an error of not more or less than 5 %) in such a balance
can be calculated as follows:
M. W.Q. = S.R. / % error x 100 %
Therefore, the minimum weighable quantity on a class A balance with S.R. of 6mg that will result
in an error of not more or less than 5 % (±5%) can be calculated as follows;
M.W.Q = 6 mg/5% x 100 % = 120 mg

DEVICES FOR MEASURING LIQUIDS

The most common liquid measuring devices in dispensing are glass beaker, graduated measuring
cylinder, conical measures, volumetric flasks and pipettes.
BEAKER
A Glass beaker is a simple glassware piece that resembles a coffee mug without the handle, with
a wide cylindrical shape with a flat bottom and a small outward turned-out lip used for pouring
liquids with ease. On its side are markings that denote approximately how much liquid is inside.
They are commonly used for stirring, mixing and heating liquids in the laboratory. The capacity
of a glass beaker ranges from 10ml to 1L.
Advantages:
 The most commonly available lab glassware equipment
Available in a wide range of volume capacity and sizes
 It is used when strict accuracy is not necessary
 Easier to use in the stirring or heating process
 The spout helps in pouring
Disadvantages:
 Not suitable for precise measurements
 The wide mouth can lead to faster evaporation/vaporization
GRADUATED MEASURING CYLINDER
A measuring cylinder is also called a Graduated Glass Cylinder. It measures the volume of a liquid
in milliliters (ml). They are primarily used to measure the volume of an object or amount of liquid;
as the name indicates, it's a glass cylinder with marks along the side similar to those on a measuring
cup. The volume is accurately read by looking at the top of the fluid from the side angle and reading
the glass's mark from the lowest portion meniscus (liquid lens) of the liquid. For accurate
volumetric measurements, measuring cylinders are designed explicitly with graduated markers
classified in (ml). Taking a reading before inserting an object in the graduated cylinder and then
after inserting it, one can tell the object's volume from the difference between the two readings and
subsequently calculate its density.
Advantages
 Wide range of volumes
 Accurate measurement of smallest of liquid volumes
 Can minimize error by choosing the appropriate size
 It also has a spout to aid in the pouring process.

Disadvantages:
 Error is still marginally too high for some analytical level applications
 Not good for storing of solutions because of its shape

CONICAL MEASURES
A conical flask, also called an Erlenmeyer flask, flat bottom flask or titration flask, is a type of
laboratory flask which features a flat bottom, a conical body, and a cylindrical neck. It is named
after the German chemist Carl Emil Erlenmeyer who introduced it in 1860.
Advantages
 They can be used for several purposes such mixing, heating, and storing of solutions
 They are heat resistant
 They reduce evaporation during heating due to its small neck
 They allow liquids to poured easily without spilling
 They allow easy stirring or rotating of liquid without spillage
 They are easy to clean and drain.
Disadvantages
 They not good when accurate measurement is required
 They can easily crack or damaged when not properly handled

PIPETTES
Pipettes are required for small volumes usually under 1 mL. For such volumes, graduated pipettes
calibrated in units of 0.1 or 0.01 ml should be used. They should not be used by mouth in
dispensing for hygienic reasons and also should not be used for corrosive liquids (e.g. liquefied
phenol) and other poisons safety reasons. In both cases, a dropper (teat) should be used.
Pipettes should be carefully checked for cleanliness, and both ends must be free from chips. Only
a small length should be immersed in the medicament because liquid on the outside may cause
inaccuracy in the volume delivered.
Measuring Technique
1. Choose the smallest measure that will hold the required volume. If possible, do not split the
volume between two measurements because this increases errors. Confirm that the measure is
clean and dry.
2. Check the label on the stock bottle.
3. Hold the measure at eye level with a finger positioned to display the true meniscus.
4. Hold the bottle in the right hand and remove the stopper
5. Carefully pour the liquid into the center of the measure by keeping the labelled side of the bottle
uppermost, so that the liquid will not run down on to the label; any liquid that falls on the sides
above the relevant graduation mark has to be allowed to drain down before the volume is finally
adjusted; this means that measurement takes longer with viscous liquids.
6. Close the stock bottle and recheck the label.
7. Have the volume checked if necessary.
8. Return the bottle to the shelf
10. Pour the liquid into the container in which the preparation is being made and thoroughly rinse
the measure into the same vessel. Before transferring viscous liquids, add a small volume of
vehicle to the measure and mix with a glass rod.
Note: Volume of less than 1ml must be measured using a 1ml pipette and for rather larger volumes
the 10ml measure should be used. For still larger volumes 50ml 100ml, 250ml and 500ml measures
are available.

Errors in measurement of liquid

A. Error due to the measure
B. Personal error

Error due to the measure

Measures are calibrated with water and therefore the volume of a liquid with different surface
tension from water will not correspond to the calibrated volume because of the altered shape of
the meniscus. Surface tension is a factor which alters the shape of the meniscus and wettability of
a liquid e.g. a greasy measure is poorly wetted, and therefore, the meniscus is flattened and the
measured volume is correspondingly reduced. For small volumes, the resultant error may exceed
the prescribed tolerance limits.

Personal error
Personal error results from failure to align bottom of meniscus with graduation line. When the
bottom of the meniscus is not aligned properly with the graduation line or when the measure is not
held correctly then it is difficult to read the true meniscus (i.e. the lowest part of the liquid surface).
Measurement errors are minimized if the measure is steadied by resting it on a bench or a shelf
and the measure should be held at eye level and the line corresponding to the required volume is
aligned with the appropriate graduation.
It is also difficult to determine the true meniscus for dark coloured liquids such as opium tincture
or liquorice liquid extract because the bottom of the meniscus is invisible. Such liquids should be
measured using graduated pipettes for small volumes and measuring cylinders for large volumes
or should be weighed.
Another possible error that can occur is during transfer of the measured liquid. This can be
minimized by rinsing out the residue with some of the vehicle.

VOLUMETRIC DEVICES
Volumetric devices and are divided into categories:
1. Devices intended to contain a specified volume of liquid (designated as TC) e.g. graduated
cylinders and volumetric flasks. This type of device will take a specific volume of a liquid but a
small amount of the liquid will remain in the glassware when poured into a container. Volumetric
flasks are round, flat-bottomed with a long-neck possessing a single graduation mark round the
neck.
2. Devices intended to deliver a specified volume of liquid (designated as TD) e.g. pipettes and
burettes. This type of device will deliver the specific volume of liquid measured.

HOUSEHOLD MEASURES
The Household measures used in dispensing consist of teaspoons (5 mL), dessertspoons (10 mL)
and tablespoons (15 mL). They are non-volumetric devices.