Indian J Dairy Sci 76(2): 133-139

[Link]

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Determination of engineering properties of selected animal feed and fodder

materials
Ankit Deep, Hima John, Priyanka, Pradyuman Barnwal, Madan Lal Kamboj and Surender Singh Lathwal

Received: 06 October 2022 / Accepted: 07 December 2022 / Published online: 20 April 2023
© Indian Dairy Association (India) 2023

Abstract: The traditional ways of handling feed and fodder in in milk production, although animal productivity is low (1538 kg/
a commercial dairy farm are labour intensive, tiresome and also year) compared to global average (2238 kg/year), which can be
leads to huge expenses as labour charges. Therefore, there is a linked to malnutrition due to the huge deficit of animal feed (Vijay
need of mechanised feed and fodder distribution unit in order to et al. 2018). There is no way to sustain cattle husbandry without
reduce the human drudgery and other expenses. Thus, an attempt addressing the challenges of fodder and feed resource
was made to determine the engineering properties (moisture development in the country. Due to rising competition between
content, bulk density, angle of repose and coefficient of internal other land uses for cultivable land, further increase in the acreage
friction) of feed which would be affecting the design of a of fodder crops is not viable (Kumar et al. 2012).
mechanised feed and fodder unit. Three feed materials viz., oat
green, wheat straw and concentrate mixture were selected for Fodder production in India varies greatly across the country,
study. The angle of repose varied from 24.78±0.34 to 37.79±0.76°, and its use is determined by cropping pattern, climate,
the coefficient of friction from 0.187±0.024 to 2.628±1.612 socioeconomic conditions, and the type of cattle. Cattle and
depending on the moisture content and the bulk density of the buffaloes are often fed fodder from cultivated regions, with
selected materials. The coefficient of external friction was collected grasses and top feeds supplementing it to a small extent
determined for different fabrication materials including wooden/ (Shashikala et al. 2017). Fodder crops are cultivated or harvested
ply board, galvanized iron, aluminium, mild steel and stainless for feeding the animals in the form of forage (cut green and fed
steel and the maximum coefficient of external friction was offered fresh), silage (preserved under anaerobic conditions) and hay
to the feed materials by ply board followed by mild steel. (dehydrated/dried green). Sorghum (2.6 M ha) and Egyptian clover
(1.9 M ha) account for approximately 54% of the total cultivated
Keywords: Animal feed and fodder, Engineering properties, fodder area in the kharif and rabi seasons, respectively (Dagar,
Angle of repose, Coefficient of friction 2017). But due to regional and seasonal variation various other
crops are cultivated for animal feed purposes. At ICAR-NDRI,
Introduction Karnal during research trials period oats and wheat were in
cropping season and were available to be used as animal feed,
According to the 20th Livestock Census – 2019, India’s total hence they were selected for measurement of their engineering
livestock population was 535.78 million, up by 4.6% from the properties instead.
previous Census in 2012 (DAHD, 2019). India is the world leader
Healthy and nutritious feed is important for animal health and
productivity. Nowadays, small and marginal dairy farms are no
more self-sustaining and/or commercially viable due the huge
expenses in terms of labour charges and other maintenance
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana
activities. Hence, there is a trend to shift towards large commercial
dairy farming practices. In commercial dairy farming, a huge
Ankit Deep () amount of feed is required to be handled. Handling huge
Dairy Engineering Division quantities of feed manually is tiresome and labour intensive
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana
operation in addition to large amounts of feed likely to be wasted
Email: [Link]@[Link] during handling. So, it is beneficial to handle the feed materials
mechanically instead of opting manual handling. Design and
development of feed and fodder handling machines would require
a basic knowledge of engineering properties of feed material
intended to be handled. Physical and engineering properties are
important to understand the behaviour of materials while

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handling, transportation and storage (Puchalski and Brusewitz Determination of Angle of Repose
(1996); Makavana et al. (2018)). The properties like angle of
repose, coefficient of internal and external fiction, bulk density Angle of repose of selected feed and fodder material was
and moisture content are some of the important properties which determined using the developed setup in Research and
affect conveying characteristics. Seville et al. (1997) explained Development Workshop according to method suggested by
that the frictional behaviour of biomass grinds in all engineering Chukwu & Akande (2007) with slight modifications.
applications is described by two independent parameters: the
coefficient of internal friction, and the coefficient of wall friction. A stainless steel 304 sheet of 2 mm thickness was cut in circular
They explained that the coefficient of internal friction determines geometry with diameter 30 cm to be used as platform for keeping
the stress distribution within particles undergoing strain, and feed material to be evaluated. Steel plate was fixed at the centre
the coefficient of external friction describes the magnitude of the of a hopper shaped galvanised iron container of 60 cm external
stresses between the particle and the walls of its container. diameter by welding support rods as shown in figure 1. A MS flat
Material properties such as moisture content and particle size with slots at centre and sides was fixed with help of nut and bolt
affect the frictional properties and densification performance of for inserting steel ruler for measurement of height during
an individual feedstock (Larsson, 2010).The angle of repose is experiments. Distance between top face of steel plate and top
used in the design of equipment for the processing of particulate surface of MS flat was measured as 30.7 cm to be used as a
solids mainly in the design of an appropriate hopper or silo to constant value for initial height.
store the material, or to size a conveyor belt for transporting the
The developed setup with outlet duct closure was placed on a
material. The angle of repose is also crucial in correctly calculating
levelled platform and proper horizontal level of steel plate was
the stability of vessels (Bhople et al. 2017).
ensured by keeping spirit level on the steel plate. For measuring
Engineering properties of feed and fodder materials are key design angle of repose of material, a heap of material was made by slowly
parameters of storage and handling equipment. Properly designed pouring the material on the steel plate of the setup. As the heap
feed distribution and feeding units help to reduce the losses. As grew in size, more material was added very carefully on the top of
feed material is required to be conveyed while handling, a basic the growing heap till the heap of base diameter covered the full
knowledge of how a feed material would behave in certain given area of the steel plate and the feed material started to slide and
conditions could be modelled. Hence, determination of basic fall off from the base plate edge into the outer container. Height
engineering properties before design of a successful feed of the heap (Hf) was measured by putting MS flat on its place
handling system is required. Therefore, an attempt was made to and inserting steel ruler through the centre slot to read value in
evaluate moisture content, bulk density, angle of repose, centimetres. A short video indicating procedure for measurement
coefficient of internal friction and coefficient of external friction of angle of repose has been uploaded to YouTube (https://
for three selected animal feed and fodder materials viz., oat green, [Link]/_55t6Fd9mnc). Owing to the non-uniformity of feed
wheat straw and concentrate mixture. The research outcome of material, measurements were done in seven replications for better
such studies may be utilised to design and develop feed and accuracy. Equation (Eq. 1) as suggested by Sahay and Singh
fodder handling machines/devices and storage vessels/bins. (1996)was used to calculate angle of repose.

Materials and Methods

(1)
Raw materials

Green and dry animal feed materials (oat green, wheat straw and Where,
concentrate mixture) were selected for the study. Oat (Avena
Dp: Plate Diameter = 30 cm
sativa) green, wheat (Triticum) straw and concentrate mixture
Hi: Initial Height = 30.7 cm
(maize grass: 35%; deoiled rice bran: 13%; wheat bran: 12%;
groundnut cake: 18%; soy de oiled cake: 19%; mineral mixture:
Determination of Bulk density
2% and common salt: 1%) were procured from fodder preparation
unit, Livestock Research Centre, ICAR-National Dairy Research For measurement of bulk density a 250 mL beaker was filled with
Institute, Karnal. Freshly cut oat green & wheat straw and dry water up to the brim to check full volumetric capacity of selected
powder of concentrate were procured for the study. Oats green beaker. It was found to be 300 mL, which was used for calculation
and wheat straw harvesting were planned so as to maintain of bulk density by ASTM D6683 method (ASTM 2014).
maximum nutrient content in fodder rather than in grains i.e.
dough stage to beginning of flowering stage. Oat green and Selected beaker was tared on a precision electronic weighing
wheat straw were chopped into pieces (average length of 2.5 cm) balance (Model: KERRO BL3003; least count: 1 mg; capacity:
using a chaff cutter before determining the properties. 300 g). Feeding material for measurement of bulk density was

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Fig 1. CAD drawing of angle of repose

measurement setup

filled in the selected beaker till it overflowed. A spatula was used of equal height. On one of the shorter side of plank a pulley was
to gently remove extra material from top to create a flat surface at provided so that a string could be passed over it. A string of
top of beaker. Weight of the filled beaker was noted. A short nylon fibre was selected to be used as it offers negligible frictional
video indicating procedure for measurement of bulk density has resistance. A small plastic pan of negligible weight was attached
been uploaded to YouTube ([Link] Bulk to one side of string using a small aluminium hook of negligible
density was calculated by using the following equation (Eq. 2) weight. Three cylindrical shaped metal containers without ends
(ASTM 2014) of different diameters and heights were chosen and a small slot
was made on curved surface so as to pass string through it. Slots
on metal containers were meant to adjust string in horizontal
(2) position when passing it through pulley hanging over to the pan
as shown in figure 2. Five plates of different construction material
Where, were chosen and were cut so as to cover central hole in the
wooden plank. Five plates were of Stainless Steel (AISI: SS-304),
W: Weight of the material, kg Mild Steel, Aluminium, Galvanised Iron and Ply Board. Selected
V: Volume of beaker, m3 (fixed at 300 mL = 0.0003 m3) plates had roughness average value 0.4, 1.5, 1.5, 1.0 µm for SS-
304, Mild Steel, Aluminium and Galvanised Iron respectively
Determination of coefficient of external friction within range of ± 0.1 µm. Locally available commercial ply board
of 6mm thickness was used. Four clamps were made out of
Coefficient of external friction of selected feed and fodder stainless steel to hold plates in place during measurements.
materials were determined by the method suggested by Sahay
and Singh (1996) with slight modifications using the fabricated For the measurement of coefficient of external friction, the
set-up in the Research and Development Workshop, ICAR – cylindrical shaped metal sample holder was placed on different
National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal. plate surfaces (mild steel, aluminium, galvanised iron and ply
board), which was connected to the weight pan by a nylon string.
A wooden plank was machined on lathe machine to make a hole The weights were gently and carefully put in the pan so that no
to fit a container in the hole so that top edge of container would jerk was observed till the cylinder just started moving from the
become coplanar with top surface of plank. Container/Pan to be marked place and total weight in pan was noted as tare reading.
inserted in the hole was cut out from a plastic jar. Wooden plank Then the sample holder was filled with feeding material so that it
was cut in shape of rectangle. Plank was provided with four legs

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set-up in the Research and Development Workshop, ICAR –

National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal.

The apparatus (as already described in previous section)

consisted of one stationary container and one moving cylindrical
sample holder. The container inserted in wooden plank was fiilied
in with the sample without compactation and levelled off using a
scale. The empty sample holder was gently put on the levelled
surface of stationery sample container. Then weights were gently
and carefully put in the pan so that no jerk was observed till the
sample holder just started moving from its place. Total weight
was noted as a tare reading. Then the sample holder was filled
with the feeding material without compaction and the weights
were put in the pan and total weight that caused the movement
was noted as measured reading. The filled in sample holder was
made to slide on the stationery container with the help of a pulley-
nylon string arrangement. Pulling force was calculated by
subtracting tare reading from measured reading. A short video
indicating procedure for measurement of coefficient of internal
friction has been uploaded to YouTube ([Link]
Fig. 2 CAD drawing of angle of repose measurement setup _55t6Fd9mnc). Coefficient of friction was calculated using the
following equation (Eq.4). Subramanian and Viswanathan (2007)
just overflowed from the top surface. A spatula was used to
gently remove extra material from top to create a flat surface at
top of container. Extra feed material was removed from the plate (4)
surface. Again weights were put in the pan and total weight that
caused movement was noted as measured reading. Pulling force Where,
was calculated by subtracting tare reading from measured
reading. A short video indicating procedure for measurement of Fi : weight in pan or pulling force
coefficient of external friction has been uploaded to YouTube Ni: weight in pipe or normal reaction
([Link] Coefficient of friction was Moisture content
calculated using the following formula (Eq.3). Subramanian and
Viswanathan (2007) Moisture content was determined gravimetrically using AOAC
(1975) method with some modifications. 2-3 g of sample was taken
and moisture was removed till the sample obtained a constant
(3) weight using a hot air oven kept at 102±2°C.

Where,
(5)
Fp : weight in pan or pulling force
Np: weight in pipe or normal reaction Where,
Determination of coefficient of internal friction
W : weight of sample
Coefficient of internal friction of selected feed and fodder materials W1 : weight of pan with sample
were determined by the method suggested by Subramanian and W2 : weight of pan with sample after constant weight
Viswanathan (2007) with slight modifications using the fabricated

Table 1 Different properties of feed material

Feed material Moisture content Bulk density Angle of repose Coefficient of
(% wb)* (kg/m3) (°) internal friction
Oat green 64.27±11.45 455.03±11.52 37.79±0.76 0.187±0.024
Wheat Straw 12.07±0.88 40.42±1.76 36.51±1.11 2.628±1.612
Concentrate Mixture 11.74±0.71 504.25±1.82 24.78±0.34 0.357±0.048
*wb: wet basis

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Fig. 1 Coefficient of external friction for oat green

Indian J Dairy Sci 76(2): 133-139

Fig. 3 Coefficient of external friction for oat green Fig. 4 Coefficient of external friction for wheat straw

Statistical analysis

Moisture content, bulk density and angle of repose trials were

replicated seven times and coefficients of internal and external
friction values were taken in seven replicates at four different
positions with two sample holders (56 effective replicates).
Statistical analysis was performed using WASP- Web Agri Stat
Package 2.0 of ICAR-Central Coastal Agricultural Research
Institute, Goa.

Results and Discussion

Physical and engineering properties including moisture content

(%wb), bulk density, angle of repose, coefficient of internal and Fig. 5 Coefficient of external friction for concentrate mixture
external friction of various animal feed materials were determined.
kg/m3, which was in accordance with the observations of Guo et
Angle of repose al. (2013). Lam et al. (2007) carried out a study to analyse the bulk
and specific density of wet and dry wheat straw and they inferred
Angle of repose of the selected feed materials was estimated that the bulk density increased with moisture content of particles.
using the developed angle of repose set up. Highest angle of Highest bulk density among the tested samples was observed
repose value was observed for oat green (37.79±0.76°) and lowest for concentrate mixture (504.25±1.82 kg/m3). Bahnasawy and
angle of repose was observed for concentrate mixture Mostafa (2011) had conducted studies on feed pellets and they
(24.78±0.34°). Even though wheat straw was in dry form, it showed reported the bulk density value of pellets as 640 kg/m3. Thus, the
an almost similar angle of repose value (36.51±1.11°) of oat green. values obtained in the current study were in corroboration with
Makavana et al. (2018) had conducted studies on wheat straw literature reported data. Tang et al. (2014) established a relation
and found similar values of angle of repose (38.23°). Bhople et al. between moisture content and bulk density of biomass materials.
(2017) carried out a study to understand the effect of moisture According to them, the volume of the biomass will be larger if it
content on angle of repose for different cereals and pulses and has more moisture in it and therefore, the bulk density of biomass
they conclude that the angle of repose increased as moisture will be lower.
content of the grains increased. This reported finding is at par
with the present study. Coefficient of external friction
Bulk Density Coefficient of external friction between the fodder materials and
surfaces of different fabrication material viz., stainless steel, mild
The bulk density of oat green was 455.03±11.52 kg/m3. McNulty steel, aluminium, galvanized iron and wooden/ply board were
and Kennedy (1982) reported the bulk density value of oat green determined. Friction between stainless steel and all the three
to be 439 kg/m3 and the current observation was at par with their fodder materials were least whereas wooden/plywood offered
finding. Bulk density of wheat straw was found to be 40.42±1.76 highest resistance or friction to the fodder materials oat green

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(Fig. 3) and wheat straw (Fig. 4). Friction between mild steel and observed moisture content of oat green was in concordance with
concentre mixture were highest while analysing the coefficient the earlier findings. The average moisture content of wheat straw
external friction of concentrate mixture (Fig. 5). Askari et al. (2017) was 12.07±0.88 (%wb). Guo et al. (2013) conducted a study on
observed and reported that the coefficient of external friction the physio-chemical properties of wheat straw and reported the
was influenced by product variety, grain moisture content, the moisture content value of wheat straw as 12.8 (%wb). Hence the
material of contact surface, sliding velocity etc. observed moisture content value was at par with the literature
value. The concentrated mixture had an average moisture content
Coefficient of external friction between the selected feed materials of 11.74±0.71(%wb). Alengadan et al. (2013) studied the moisture
with different surfaces including stainless steel, mild steel, content control during cattle feed production and they reported
aluminium, galvanized iron and wooden/ply board were that the moisture content of cattle feed should not be more than
determined. It was observed that the coefficient of external friction 11.5% and the excess moisture content in cattle feed results in
between oat green with mild steel and ply board were statistically serious quality problems. In another study conducted by
similar and these surfaces offered highest friction. Whereas, Bahnasawy and Mostafa (2011), the reported moisture content
stainless steel and galvanized iron surfaces offered least friction values for feed pellets was 16-17 (%wb).
to oat green and those were statistically similar.
Conclusion
Coefficient of external friction between wheat straw with different
surfaces were observed to be statistically significant. Wooden/ Engineering properties of cattle feed materials play a key role in
ply board offered highest friction to wheat straw (25.88) whereas the design of a mechanised feed and fodder handling and
stainless steel offered the least friction (1.585). Frictional distribution system. Therefore, important feed properties like
resistance between wheat straw with aluminium and galvanized moisture content, bulk density, angle of repose, coefficient of
iron were statistically similar. Aluminum and mild steel also internal and external friction were determined for the selected
showed statistically similar values of coefficient of external friction feed materials viz. oat green, wheat straw and concentrate mixture.
to wheat straw. Laboratory scale equipments were developed for determining
angle of repose and coefficient of friction. Moisture content and
Wooden/plywood and mild steel offered the highest values of bulk density of the selected materials ranged from 11-65% and
coefficient of external friction to concentrate mixture and stainless 40-500 kg/m3, respectively. Angle of repose and coefficient of
steel offered the least. internal friction; which play the key role in storage and distribution
equipment design, ranged between 24-37° and 0.18 - 2.6,
Coefficient of internal friction
respectively. These insights into the feed properties will help to
Coefficient of internal friction is an important design parameter choose the appropriate material for fabrication as well as for the
for storage and distribution of cattle feed materials. The values overall design and development of mechanised feed handling
of coefficient of internal friction for oat green, wheat straw and and distribution units. These data could be helpful in selection
concentrate mixture were 0.187±0.024, 2.628±1.612 and of material for fabrication of equipment.
0.357±0.048, respectively. The reported range of coefficient of
Acknowledgement
internal friction of wheat straw was 0.765-1.586 by Chevanan et
al. (2008). There was observed a significant increase in the Authors are thankful to the director ICAR-National Dairy
estimated coefficient of internal friction value of wheat straw. Research Institute, Karnal for kind support in this research work.
Also, there observed no correlation between moisture content
and coefficient of internal friction of the selected materials. Mani References
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