PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
2024-2025
“ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES”
Submitted by,
R.SANJEEVI KUMAR
Grade 12
Under the guidance of,
Ms. P. PAVITHRA
PGT, Physics
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE:
Certificate Bonafide Record OF project work done by Master/Miss
……………………………………………………………………………………
Submitted for the All India Senior Secondary School Certificate Practical
Examination held on ……………………………………………………………...
At Mount Litera Zee Senior Secondary School – CBSC, Paramakudi.
EXAMREGISTRATIONO:
……………………………. ……………………………….
Internal Examiner External Examiner
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
This is to acknowledge that this investigatory project would not
have been successful without the kind support and help of many
individuals.
I would like thank my principal,
Mrs. Barani sree venkatesh M.A,M.Ed. and school for providing
me with facilities to do my project.
I am highly indebted to my physics teacher,
Ms. Pavithra M.sc,B.Ed. for her invaluable guidance which have
sustained my efforts in all the stages of this project work.
I would also like to thank my parents for their continues support and
encouragement.
My thanks and appreciation also goes to my friends and my fellow
classmates who have willingly helped me out with their abilities in
developing the project.
INDEX:
Acknowledgement
Why I choose this project
Theory
• Introduction to Potentiometer
• Primary cell
• Secondary cell
• Leclanche cell
Components required
Formula Used
Procedure
Calculation
Result
Precautions
Bibliography
WHY I CHOSE THIS PROJECT:
I chose this project as it helped me gain an understanding of how a
potentiometer works. I also got to work with a Leclanche cell, and
also learn how to construct one. It helped appreciate the
potentiometer, which, despite being a simple device, has various
applications.
Introduction to potentiometer:
A potentiometer is an instrument for measuring the potential or
voltage across a portion of a circuit. Before the introduction of
moving coil and digital voltmeters, voltage was measured using
potentiometers. This method was described by Johann Christian
Poggendorff around 1841 and has since then become a standard
laboratory technique.
The potentiometer works on the principle that when a constant
current flows through a wire of uniform cross section material, the
potential difference between any two points on it is directly
proportional to the length of the wire between the points.
V∞ I
⇒ V=Ki
where (k) is a constant of proportionality called the potential gradient
of the potentiometer wire.
In this arrangement, a fraction of a known voltage from a resistive
slide wire is compared with an unknown voltage by means of a
galvanometer. The sliding contact or wiper of the potentiometer is
adjusted and the galvanometer briefly connected between the sliding
contact and the unknown voltage. The deflection of the
galvanometer is observed and the sliding tap adjusted until the
galvanometer no longer deflects from zero. At that point the
galvanometer draws no current from the unknown source, and the
magnitude of voltage can be calculated from the position of the
sliding contact.
Primary And Secondary Cells:
Primary Cell:
A primary cell, also known as a primary battery, is a battery that is
intended to be used only once before being discarded, not to be
electrically recharged and then used again. In general, the
electrochemical reaction occurring in the cell is not reversible,
rendering the cell non rechargeable. Chemical reactions in the
battery consume the power-generating chemicals when a primary
cell is used; if they are depleted, the battery stops producing
electricity.
A variety of standard sizes of primary cells
Secondary Cell:
In contrast to a disposable or primary battery, which is supplied
fully charged and is thrown away after use, a rechargeable battery,
storage battery, or secondary cell (formally a type of energy
accumulator) is an electrical battery that can be charged, discharged
into a load, and recharged numerous times. One or more
electrochemical cells make up its structure. It stores andaccumulates
energy by a reversible electrochemical reaction, hence the term
"accumulator".
A rechargeable lithium polymer mobile phone battery
Leclanche Cell:
In 1866, Georges Leclanché invented a battery that consisted of a
zinc anode and a manganese dioxide cathode wrapped in a porous
material, dipped in a jar of ammonium chloride solution. The
manganese dioxide cathode had a little carbon mixed into it as well,
which improved conductivity and absorption. It provided a voltage
of 1.4 volts. This cell achieved very quick success in telegraphy,
signalling and electric bell work.
The dry cell form was used to power early telephones—usually from
an adjacent wooden box affixed to the wall—before telephones
could draw power from the telephone line itself. The Leclanché cell
could not provide a sustained current for very long; in lengthy
conversations, the battery would run down, rendering the
conversation inaudible. This is because certain chemical reactions in
the cell increase its internal resistance and, thus, lower its voltage.
These reactions reverse themselves when the battery is left idle,
making it good for many short periods of use with idle time between
them, but not long periods of use.
Determination Of Internal Resistance Of
Primary Cell Using Potentiometer
Aim:
To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell using
potentiometer.
Apparatus:
• Potentiometer,
• Battery Eliminator,
• Keys,
• Rheostat,
• Galvanometer,
• Resistance Boxes,
• Leclanche Cell,
• Jockey,
• Connecting Wires.
Theory:
Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a tool for measuring a cell's internal resistance,
comparing the e.m.f. of two cells, and determining the potential
difference across a resistor. It consists of a long, 10 m-long wire
with a consistent cross sectional area. Wire material ought to have a
low temperature coefficient and strong resistance. On a wooden
board, the wires are spread out parallel to one another. Thick copper
strips are used to connect the wires in series. On the wooden board,
there is also a metre scale affixed.It operates on the tenet that the
potential difference between two points of a wire with uniform cross
section is precisely proportional to the distance of the wire between
the two points.
Formula Used:
If a cell of emf E and internal resistance r, connected to an external
resistance R, then the circuit has the total resistance (R+r). The
current I in the circuit is given by,
Hence,
From the above equation,
Using a potentiometer, we can adjust the rheostat to obtain the
balancing lengths l1 and l2 of the potentiometer for open and closed
circuits respectively.
Now we can modify the equation for getting the internal resistance
of the given cell as:
Procedure:
● Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
● Rheostat is adjusted to set the desired amount of current.
● With k2 open jockey is made to touch the extreme ends of
potentiometer wire and is checked for opposite deflection.
● Jockey is mover over the entire wire to find the balancing
length(where the galvanometer shows 0 deflection).
● The corresponding length is noted down in l1.
● With the same current a known resistance R is included while
k2 is kept closed.
● Once again balancing length is determined and noted down as
l2.
● Internal resistance is calculated using the appropriate formula.
● Experiment is repeated for different values of current by
adjusting rheostat.
● Mean value of r is determined.
S. no. l1 (cm) l2 (cm) R (Ω) r = (l1-l2)R/l2 (Ω)
1 246.6 18 1 12.7
2 226 31 2 12.58
3 213.5 40.6 3 12.78
4 247.5 58.5 4 12.92
5 238.6 67.5 5 12.67
Calculation:
r = (l1-l2)R/l2
1. l1=246.6 cm, l2=18 cm, R=1 Ω;
r=(246.6-18)(1)/18
r=228.6/18
r=12.7 Ω
2. l1=226 cm, l2=31 cm, R=2 Ω;
r=(226-31)(2)/31
r=195(2)/31
r=12.58 Ω
3. l1=213.5 cm, l2=40.6 cm, R=3 Ω;
r=(213.5-40.6)(3)/40.6
r=172.9(3)/40.6
r=12.78 Ω
4. l1=247.5 cm, l2=58.5 cm, R=4 Ω;
r=(247.5-58.5)(4)/58.5
r=189(4)/58.5
r=12.92 Ω
5. l1=238.6 cm, l2=67.5 cm, R=5 Ω;
r=(238.6-67.5)(5)/67.5
r=171.1(5)/67.5
r=12.67 Ω
Mean r = (12.7+12.58+12.78+12.92+12.67)/5
Mean r = 12.73 Ω
Result:
The internal resistance of the given cell was determined to be 12.73
Ω.
Sources of Error:
● 1.Potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross - section.
● 2. Brass strips at the ends may have a finite resistance.
● 3. Emf of the auxiliary battery producing the drop of potential
along the wire may not be constant throughout the course of the
experiment.
● 4. Heating of the potentiometer wire by current may introduce
some error.
Precautions:
● 1.The primary cell whose internal resistance is to be
determined should not be disturbed during the experiment or
else its internal resistance may change.
● 2. Always measure length from point A i.e. the point at which
positive terminals of the battery are connected and measure this
length up to the balance point.
● 3. Insert K1 and K2 only when readings are taken otherwise the
wires may get heated up due to continuous flow of current and
may also affect the internal resistance of the cell.
● 4.The length measurement may have error if the potentiometer
wire is not taut and along the scale on the board.
Bibliography:
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Potentiometer_(measuring_instrument)
https://amrita.olabs.edu.in/?sub=1&brch=6&sim=147&cnt=1
https://ncert.nic.in/science-laboratory-manual.php
