Public

Swimming

CEU 202
Pools

Continuing Education from the

American Society of Plumbing Engineers

August 2013

[Link]/ReadLearnEarn
 READ, LEARN, EARN

Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education
article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.

This chapter discusses public indoor and outdoor swim- aspects of public swimming pools will referred to as the au-
ming pool design and the selection of pool plumbing, piping thority having jurisdiction.
components, and the equipment required for operation in Virginia Graeme Baker Pool
conformance with the codes of the authority having juris- and Spa Safety Act
diction (AHJ). The goal of any quality pool design should In December 2007, a new federal law was enacted called the
be to maximize the safety of the patrons while providing an Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa Safety Act (VGB). This
enjoyable water-based environment. The design approach federal act set more stringent requirements on main drain
should be to develop a system that provides maximum water sizes, velocities, and piping configurations and requires test-
quality, from both a clarity and bacterial safety standpoint. ing protocols to be regulated according to ASME A112.19.8
Potential hazards such as suction or limb entrapment, hair (2007): Suction Fittings for Use in Swimming Pools, Wading
entanglement, or tripping concerns must be examined. Lo- Pools, Spas, and Hot Tubs. At a minimum, all existing main
cal health department codes are designed to ensure that this drain cover/grates must be replaced with a compliant cover/
criterion is met, but these codes merely provide minimum grate bearing the VGB stamp provided by the manufacturer
standards. A quality design should go well beyond minimum or be field-certified by a licensed professional engineer attest-
requirements. ing to its compliance with ASME A112.19.8. In cases where a
The chapter is organized to assist a designer, possibly single main drain is direct-connected to pump suction, some
unfamiliar with swimming pool design, in undertaking form of automatic vacuum release or some form of piping
such a project. The first three sections can be used for the that provides an air break to prevent suction entrapment is
preparation of an initial scope outline of the project’s size, required. (Refer to ASME A112.19.8 for specific details on
type, and location. The “Pool Operating Systems” section sumps, piping, and cover/grate requirements.)
discusses the key elements that are required for a complete The intent of the VGB is twofold: prevent suction entrap-
circulation, filtration, water-heating, chemical-control sys- ment and prevent entrapment due to hair entanglement. The
tem. It can be used to make initial decisions on the basic second issue (hair entanglement) is the reason why velocity
type of system to consider. The section titled “Component through main drain grates is an issue. Hair entanglement, con-
Evaluation and Selection” provides guidelines for making sistently the No. 1 cause of entrapment in pools, is caused by
specific equipment selections. It will assist the designer in high velocities through main drain grates. When a swimmer’s
collecting pertinent data on the various products to assist in hair is drawn through the grate, high velocity can cause it to
the writing of specifications. swirl and become tied in a knot on the other side of the grate.
Suction entrapment has nothing to do with velocity
CODES AND STANDARDS
through the grate. Suction entrapment is addressed in VGB
In addition to the plumbing codes, swimming pool construc-
by requiring all pools to have multiple main drains spaced at
tion and operation are usually governed by state health
least 3 feet (0.91 m) apart, which makes them “unblockable”
department regulations and the requirements of local au-
in the verbiage of VGB. In instances where there is only one
thorities. Publications of the Association of Pool and Spa
main drain, it must flow by gravity back to a surge tank (i.e.,
Professionals (APSP) and the National Swimming Pool
not be direct-connected to pump suction), be of an “unblock-
Foundation (NSPF) are often-referenced standards. The
able” size (i.e., larger than 18 x 23 inches [0.46 x 0.58 m]
codes usually govern recirculation rates, filtration rates for
or with a diagonal dimension greater than 29 inches [0.74
various types of filters, and the spacing of main drains, as well
m]), or have another means of preventing suction entrap-
as maximum velocities (feet per second {meters per second])
ment. The most common means of accomplishing this is the
through main drain grate-free areas. Also of importance
addition of some type of automatic vacuum safety release.
are the locations and types of inlets, spacing and capacity of
Several products are on the market, but all manufacturers
gutter drains, and requirements for the use of surge tanks
insist that installation of their device be done by an installer
or skimmers. Heating requirements and feed capacities of
certified on the proper installation of their product. However,
disinfection systems are other areas requiring review. In addi-
all manufacturers of these products add the disclaimer “will
tion to the standards noted above, if the pool is to be used for
not prevent disembowelment” to their product literature.
competitions, the rules and regulations of the International
ASME A112.19.8 also details tests for finger entrapment,
Amateur Swimming Federation (FINA) must be reviewed to
measuring the force needed to pull the cover/grate out of the
ensure that the pool meets international standards. In the
frame, and resistance to UV degradation, which could make
remainder of this chapter, any entity governing the various

Reprinted from Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 3. © 2011, American Society of Plumbing Engineers.

2 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013

the cover/grate brittle and cause attachment failure. These The final important requirement of VGB is the ASME
are an important part of the ASME testing because many A112.19.8 protocol regarding main drain sump dimensions.
of the entrapment accidents that occur are due to detached Many field-fabricated sumps, as well as most previously in-
cover/grates. However, the primary issue that the designer stalled fiberglass sumps, do not meet ASME requirements
needs to be concerned with is the maximum flow rating in (see Figure 6-1) and are considered noncompliant. The
gallons per minute (gpm) (L/sec). reason for these required sump dimensions is somewhat
VGB also requires main drain cover/grates to be sized for complicated, but basically it is to ensure even flow across the
the maximum flow of the system. The combined maximum cover/grate, which is the only way to ensure that velocities
possible flow that the system pumps can produce (which is calculated for flow through the free area of the grate are
usually greater than the design flow) must not exceed the uniformly less than 1.5 feet per second (fps) (0.46 m/s) at all
maximum flow rating for the cover/grate intended for instal- points on the face of the cover/grate. Attachment of a new,
lation. In fact, VGB goes one step further. In the instance compliant cover/grate to a noncompliant pre-fabricated sump
where one cover/grate is blocked or partially blocked, the re- may not create a secure attachment that will meet ASME
maining main drain cover/grates on the system must be sized pull test requirements. The Consumer Product Safety Com-
to handle the full flow of the system. In other words, where mission (CPSC) has expressed concern that VGB doesn’t
there are two main drains, each cover/grate must be sized address this attachment issue thoroughly enough since
for the full flow of the system. With three main drains, each most entrapment occurrences have been due to a missing
cover/grate must be sized for 50 percent of the system flow. or displaced cover/grate.
It is important to note the use of the term “system.” That A misconception that raises additional concern is the belief
is because many pools have water feature pumps that pull of some owners that their system is fully compliant once the
from the same surge tank as the circulation pumps. The state approves changes to the cover/grates. That is not the
total possible flows of all of those pumps must be added to case. Most state codes do not address sump dimensions, and
determine the full flow of the swimming pool system. The fact they also don’t all require multiple cover/grates to be able to
that the cover/grates flow by gravity back to the surge tank handle full system flow or some percentage of full flow based
might eliminate the first concern of VGB—entrapment—but on the number of main drain sumps. Thus, in addition to
it has no bearing on the second concern, hair entanglement. the state public health code, the design must adhere to the
The velocity through the cover/grates is the same when water requirements of VGB.
flows to the surge tank by gravity as the velocity when the
main drains are direct-connected to pump suction.

Field Built Sump

D Min. D Min.
1.5 D min. 1.5 D min.

D D

D min. D min.

D min. D min. D min.

1.5 D min.
1.5 D min.

D
D

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) D = inside diameter of pipe.
(b) All dimensions shown are minimums.
(c) A broken line ( ) indicates suggested sump configuration.

Figure 6-1 Field-fabricated Sump Dimensions

AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 3
 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
State Swimming Pool Health Code This method of determining the maximum number of
Requirements swimmers cannot be applied to all swimming pools. The so-
State health code requirements become an issue when cial and economic conditions of a particular local community
changes are made to main drains. Any changes in a pool’s must be taken into account when designing a public swim-
circulation piping or main drains are considered alterations, ming pool facility. Swimming pool occupancy, or capacity,
and in most states alterations to a pool design require submis- restrictions are subject to local regulations and vary from
sion by a Professional Engineer licensed by that state. Many one jurisdiction to another. Supervision capability also may
owners are unwilling to adhere to this requirement because it limit pool capacity.
adds costs to their attempts to become compliant with VGB. The desirability of accommodating competitive swimming
One of the primary areas of conflict between VGB and state should be considered when designing a swimming pool. The
health codes is a result of the approach taken by manufactur- requirements for such events are 25- and 50-yard lengths
ers to design compliant grates. Most of the designs for grates for U.S. competitive meets and 25- and 50-meter lengths for
that will prevent suction entrapment result in cover/grates international events. Normal competition pools are divided
that are raised anywhere from ½ inch to 2 inches, which into a minimum of six swimming lanes, with each lane having
results in protrusions from the floor of the pool when these a minimum width of 7 feet (2 m). An additional 3 feet (0.9
new “compliant” cover/grates are installed. This is not allowed m) should be divided equally between the two outside lanes
by most state codes because it can present a tripping hazard. to aid in wave quelling. The shallow-end depth should be a
However, many states have made, or are making, changes to minimum of 4.5 feet (1.35 m) for competitive pools and 3.5
their codes to allow main drain protrusions no greater than 2 feet (1.1 m) for recreational pools, depending on local codes.
inches above the pool surface. The deep-end minimum depth of pools with springboards
is between 9 and 12 feet (2.7 and 3.7 m) for a 3-foot (1-m)
Important Considerations
board and 11.5 and 13 feet (3.5 and 4 m) for a 10-foot (3-m)
When investigating what steps to take to comply with the
board, depending on local codes. Platform diving is performed
regulations in the Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa
in specially designed pools, which are outside the scope of
Safety Act, the designer must keep in mind that anything
this chapter.
done to meet the requirements of the federal act must not
be in conflict with the state code. This does not mean that Location of the Facility
the state code takes precedence; it is merely meant to draw There are no generally accepted rules for choosing the
attention to the fact that there are two AHJs and that satis- location of a public swimming pool facility. Only careful
fying one set of requirements does not automatically mean investigation of the available sites and the use of common
full compliance. Pool compliance inspections will be done by sense will result in a suitable location.
both the local code authority for adherence to the local code First, consideration must be given to the accessibility of
and by the CPSC for adherence to the requirements of VGB. the location. A public swimming pool will be used in direct
proportion to the local population’s convenience in reaching
pRELIMINARY DESIGN PARAMETERS the facility. Distance is a barrier, and so are stop lights and
Before the plumbing for a swimming pool project can be railroad tracks. The engineer also must consider the traffic
designed, the following information should be obtained: oc- flow in the area and the relative safety for pedestrians and
cupant capacity, size of the facility (including pool volume), bicycle riders of the routes normally taken to and from the
facility location and configuration, style of pool, times of use, public swimming pool facility.
availability to infants and children (which may necessitate a Equally important at this stage are the physical properties
separate pool), tournament and racing requirements, toilet of the proposed swimming pool site, including its soil quality,
requirements, concession and vending requirements, and groundwater locations, and subsurface obstructions such
bathhouse requirements. as rocks. Attention also must be given to the availability of
Occupant Capacity and Size of the Facility water, gas, sewers, and electricity. If all utilities are not avail-
able or extensive clearing, grading, or difficult excavation is
Assuming that the swimming pool is part of a complex that
required at or near the proposed site, significant additional
includes other outdoor facilities (such as ball fields, tennis
expenses may be incurred.
courts, and basketball courts), following are the generally
The availability of an adequate water supply is essential.
accepted criteria for estimating the number of swimmers:
The water supply system provides the means to fill the pool
• The total membership of the facility can be estimated to
initially with water and to make up water lost through
be 10 percent of the total population of the community
wastewater discharge and evaporation. The preferred supply
it serves.
source for filling the pool and maintaining adequate volume is
• The maximum attendance on the peak day can be esti-
potable water. In areas with a limited water supply or where
mated to be 68 percent of the total membership.
the system capabilities are in doubt, consideration should
• Maximum attendance at the public swimming pool facility
be given to filtration equipment, which requires minimum
can be estimated to be 40 percent of the projected maxi-
backwash water, or an off-peak filling and servicing schedule.
mum attendance on the peak day.
Well water is often of good quality and may be used directly;
• The maximum number of swimmers is approximately
however, the mineral content may be sufficiently high to
33 percent of maximum attendance.
require treatment. All water should be given a detailed
chemical analysis in the early planning stages to determine
4 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013
whether treatment (e.g., softening or pH control) should be Competition pools have very specific regulations that gov-
considered. In general, using softened water for filling and ern the water quality, clarity, turnover rates, temperature,
makeup water is not recommended for swimming pools. size, depth, and markings that are permitted within the pool.
Protection of the potable water supply system through These requirements may be more stringent than the local
air gaps or backflow prevention equipment is mandatory. health department requirements and may require more or
The type required must be determined by checking with larger components to be located within the mechanical room.
the local AHJ. Some codes may not allow direct connec- Many alternatives of shape and/or dimension are available
tion, even with reduced pressure zone backflow preventers to the designer. However, public pool configurations most
installed on the freshwater supply. commonly use straight lines and right angles. Pools of this
The rate of water evaporation from the pool should be nature are much more adaptable to the use of automatic
estimated to determine the average makeup water required. pool-cleaning equipment. Often, there are good reasons for
Direct discharge of swimming pool water into the local storm unconventional designs and shapes in private swimming
sewer system or a watercourse without proper treatment pools and, perhaps, in hotel swimming pools where architec-
may not be allowed, since chlorinated water is harmful to the tural interest (or uniqueness) may be of prime consideration.
environment. The chemistry of the proposed effluent should The question of indoor versus outdoor swimming pool design
be approved by the AHJ. is considered during the preliminary planning of the facility. It
General Physical Character is well established that, although about 10 percent of the public
likes to swim outdoors in the summer, less than 1 percent is
Deciding on the general physical character of a proposed
interested in swimming in the winter, even if indoor facilities
public swimming pool facility involves determining such
are provided.
things as the type of swimming pool, its style, the intended
Therefore, the need for outdoor swimming is addressed
use of the pool, its shape and dimensions, indoor versus
first. Then, if the budget permits, indoor facilities can be
outdoor design, bathhouse planning, and the location and
added. An indoor swimming pool facility costs approximately
type of equipment. A swimming pool complex with separate
three to four times more than a comparable outdoor swim-
recreation pool, diving well, and wading areas accommodates
ming pool facility. If the total cost is of little consideration,
all possible uses, including recreation, training, diving, water
the same swimming pool facility can be used for both indoor
sports, exercise, therapy, and competitive swimming. There
and outdoor swimming.
is a definite aesthetic trend toward luxury in contemporary
A possible solution to the problem of providing indoor
swimming pool design. The use of color, walks, deck areas,
swimming is the cooperative funding, planning, and construc-
and plantings creates a pleasant and interesting personality,
tion of a swimming pool facility adjacent (or connected) to
but also substantially increases costs.
a school. This requires the cooperative effort of the school
Before commencing the design, it is important to deter-
board, park district, recreation department, and any other
mine the style of pools the facility requires and the impact
taxing body. The engineer should plan such a swimming pool
this will have on the space available for mechanical systems.
facility to have the following:
Many facilities are now being designed with multiple pools
• An indoor swimming pool of sufficient size to meet the
or a multiuse pool. Pool styles can range from leisure pools
needs of the school and the local community
to swimming pools with a wave pool component to 25- and
• An outdoor swimming pool complex planned and con-
50-meter competition pools with diving facilities.
structed to meet the needs of the local community
Many leisure pools that allow younger children to play
• A central shower and toilet area
with interactive water toys and water slides are being de-
• Mechanical equipment for water treatment designed to
signed in conjunction with other pool facilities. These pools
serve both the indoor and the outdoor swimming pools
usually have water depths that range from 1 to 4 feet (0.3
During winter, the indoor swimming pool can be used
to 1.22 m) and may have an uneven bottom, depending on
for the school’s and community’s training and recreational
the location of the interactive play toys. The number of toys
needs. During summer, both indoor and outdoor swimming
and the size of the pool will impact the space requirements
pools can be scheduled and used. This arrangement allows
for pumps and filters.
one pool to be out of service for maintenance while the
Wave pools and zero-depth pools have become common
other remains operational. A facility of this type saves a
components of public swimming facilities in the last few
considerable amount of money and provides a swimming
years. These designs allow swimmers to experience the
pool facility for year-round comprehensive scheduling, with
sensation of swimming in ocean-like conditions. Many wave
revenue sufficient to cover the operational and maintenance
pools are designed so that the wave generator can be set to
costs.
come on at certain times of the day and/or night or when
Many technical problems are involved in the design of
requested by patrons. Both zero-depth and wave pools usu-
an indoor swimming pool facility. First, there is the obvious
ally have a beach component at one end of the pool, which
problem of maintaining the proper relationship between air
requires special consideration to be given to the gutter sys-
and water temperatures to control condensation and fogging.
tems and water pickup at the beachhead, or zero-depth end.
To be properly balanced, the water temperature should be
The wave-generation equipment requires additional space
in the range of 75 to 80°F (23.8 to 26.7°C), and the air tem-
within the mechanical room, and this needs to be taken into
perature in the building should be maintained 3 to 5°F (1.6
consideration when planning a facility with this component.
to 2.6°C) above the water temperature. If this relationship

AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 5

 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
is inverted, the swimmers will become uncomfortable when In areas where freezing temperatures are possible and
they exit the pool, and both fogging and condensation are if the pool is not used year-round, provision must be made
likely to occur. for draining the water lines, exposed drains, and plumbing
Secondly, there are the additional considerations of acous- fixtures to prevent damage by freezing. Alternatively, all
tics, ventilation, and air movement. Maintaining maximum areas must be provided with minimum heating equipment.
air quality in an indoor pool facility is essential. Evaporation Bathhouses, Toilets, and Showers
of the pool water and the gassing off of disinfection by-
Adequate dressing and toilet facilities must be provided. Each
products such as trihalomethanes and chloramines require
swimming pool complex must have separate facilities for male
careful consideration of relative humidity, the introduction of
and female bathers, with no interconnections between them.
large quantities of fresh, outside air, and proper air movement
The rooms must be well lighted, drained, and ventilated.
in the space. Refrigeration-loop dehumidification systems,
They must be constructed of impervious materials, finished
as well as physical heat-transfer systems to allow some pre-
in light colors, and developed and planned so that good sanita-
heating of incoming outside air, are frequently employed.
tion can be maintained throughout the building at all times.
The rules for the bathhouse design generally are specified
The partitions used in dressing rooms, showers, and toi-
in great detail by the local governing public health authority.
lets must be made of durable materials and not subject to
The preliminary planning of the bathhouse facility must be
water damage. They should be designed with spaces under
carried out within the limits of established regulations. Apart
the partitions to permit a thorough cleaning of the walls and
from these rules, however, the designer may exercise imagi-
floors. If these partitions are subject to vandalism, block walls
nation with considerable latitude in several areas: achieving
and vandal-proof devices should be considered.
a pleasing and aesthetic architectural balance, providing an
The showers and dressing booths for females should have
adequate floor area for traffic, and providing adequate stor-
curtains or some other means of providing privacy. This rule
age and management facilities.
may not apply for schools and other institutional facilities
Equipment locations should be established during the
where a swimming pool may only be open to one sex at a time
preliminary design phase. It must be decided, for example,
or where supervision is necessary.
whether equipment is to be located in the bathhouse or
Facilities for the physically challenged that meet all
in a separate enclosure (keeping in mind that it is usually
federal, state, and local regulations for private and public
desirable to combine all of these facilities under a single en-
facilities also must be provided.
closure). The filter assembly should be housed in an area with
The floors of a bathhouse must be free of joints or open-
heat for the off-season and with ample storage space. The
ings, be continuous throughout the area, have a slight texture
filter equipment also should be located in the filter room for
to minimize slipping (but also be relatively smooth to ensure
easy and efficient operation and maintenance. Consideration
positive drainage of all parts of the building), and have an ad-
needs to be given to the location of the pumps in relation to
equate slope toward the drains. An adequate number of floor
the water levels in the pools. Wherever possible, the pool
drains shall be provided. Floor drains should be positioned
pumps should be located below the water level determined
based on the requirements of the plumbing and building
by the gutter system or surge tank so the pumps will have
codes, but in no case should the floor slopes be designed for
positive suction. Self-priming pumps are used for a number of
less than 0.25 inch per foot (6.35 mm/m) to ensure proper
pool applications, but the use of this style of pump is subject
drainage of all floor areas.
to greater startup problems and maintenance issues.
An adequate number of 0.75-inch (20-mm) hose bibbs
The construction of a major swimming pool facility with
must be provided for the washing of the dressing rooms and
the filter equipment located outdoors or under drop lids to
the bathhouse interior. At least one drinking fountain should
save costs is false economy and is not allowed by some codes.
be provided for bathers of each sex in the bathhouse, with
This type of installation will cause rapid deterioration of
additional drinking fountains provided at the pool.
the pumps, hoses, motors, and other specialized equipment
The minimum sanitary plumbing facilities, as mandated
during the off-season, as well as make operation during the
by the local plumbing code, should be provided. (A sample of
season difficult and costly.
a representative code is offered in Table 6-1 as a reference.)
Finally, the designer must select the type of filtration and
These minimum criteria for bathhouse plumbing facilities
purification equipment to be used. The most obvious consid-
must be based on the anticipated maximum attendance.
erations are pool size; available space; the type, location, and
If the local code does not address swimming pool facilities,
availability of sewer facilities; soil, rock, and groundwater
the following minimum facilities should be provided:
conditions; and the location, availability, chemistry, and cost
• Three showerheads for the first 150 male users and one
of the fill water. If the water is plentiful and inexpensive and
showerhead for each additional 50 male bathers
space is not a problem, sand filtration may be considered.
• Two showerheads for the first 100 female users and one
Scarce or costly water and limited equipment room floor
showerhead for each 50 additional female bathers
space, plus a desire for maximum water clarity during heavy
Tempered water at a temperature of approximately 90–
use, might dictate the use of diatomite filtration. The size of
100°F (32.2–37.8°C) should be provided to all showerheads.
the swimming pool facility, as well as the chemistry of the fill
Water heaters and thermostatic mixing valves should be
water, will usually determine the type of disinfection equip-
inaccessible to the bathers.
ment to be used.
Soap dispensers, providing either liquid or powdered soap,
must be furnished at each lavatory and between each pair of
6 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013
 Minimum Number of Sanitary Fixtures Required at
Public
Table 6-1 Minimum Number PoolsFixtures
of Sanitary and Water Attractions
Required at Public Pools and Water Attractions

Number of
Cumulative Area
of Surface Water Public
Facility (in square feet) Public
Toilets
Public
Urinals
Public
Lavatories
Public
Showers
Drinking
(example of location and Fountains
type) F M M F M F M

1. Swimming pools, wading

One unisex 0 One unisex 0 0
pools and whirlpools in < 2000 1
conjunction with sleeping or
dwelling units having
plumbing, except for items 2 - 2000 - 7500 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
5, No open swim lessons
permitted. (i.e. apartments,
hotels, motels, condos and >7500
a
See note below for requirements
mobile home parks)

2. Swimming pools, wading <2000 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1

pools and whirlpools without
2000 - 3999 3 1 2 1 1 2 2 1
living units, except for items 3.
to 5. Swimming pools,wading 4000 - 5999 4 2 2 2 2 4 4 1
pools, and whirlpools with
sleeping or dwelling units 6000 - 7499 4 2 2 2 2 5 5 1
where open swim or lessons
are permitted and water 7500 -8999 84 2 2 3 2 5 5 1
attractions where lessons are
conducted (i.e. municipal 9000 - 9999 10 2 3 4 3 6 6 1
pools and campgrounds)
10000 - 12999 12 3 3 4 3 6 6 1

13000 - 15000
14 2 4 5 4 7 7 1
a
>15000 See note below for requirements

<7500 1 0 1
3. Water attractions and water 1 1 1 1 1
attraction complexes with
sleeping or dwelling units. No 7500 - 9999 4 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
open swim or lessons
permitted. Use 300 sq. ft. for 10000 - 14999 8 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
slides without basins (i.e.
15000 -22499 12 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
activity pools, waterslide
plunge pools, leisure river or
22500 - 29999 12 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
tubing pools and wave pools)
16 41 4 4 4 4 4 4
30000 - 37500
a
>37500 See note below for requirements

4. Water attraction and water <7500 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

attraction complexes without
sleeping or dwelling units. No 7500 - 9999 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
lessons permitted. Use 300
sq. ft. for slides without basins 10000 - 14999 8 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(i.e. activity pools, waterslide
plunge pools, leisure river or 15000 - 22499 12 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
tubing pools and wave pools)
22500 - 29999
16 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

30000 - 37500 20 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

a
>37500 See note below for requirements

5. Slash pad (independent of any One rinse-off

other pool or attraction) One unisex 0 One unisex Shower 1

Patron Load

Up to 10 One uisex

11 to 20 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

21 to 30 2 1 1 2 2 3 3 1

>30 Per departmental approval

a
For water attractions in excess of 37,500 sq. ft., use the following additions:
* For each 7,500 sq. ft. or fraction thereof add one sanitary unit - 0.7 male water closets, 1.0 male urinal, 0.85 male lavatories, 1.0 male showers, 0.6 drinking
fountains, 4.0 female water closets, 1.0 female lavatory, and 1.0 female shower

For pools in excess of 7,500 sq. ft. and Type 1. above, and for pools in excess of 15,000 sq. ft. and Type 2. above, use the following additions:
* For each 4,000 sq. ft. or fraction thereof, add one sanitary unit - 1.0 male water closet, 1.0 male urinal, 1.0 male lavatory, 4.0 male showers, 1.0 drinking fountain,
4.0 female water closets, 1.0 female lavatory and 4.0 female showers

For the requirements listed for additional sanitary facilities, each fraction represents an additional fixture

AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 7

 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
showerheads. The dispensers should be constructed of metal One additional point to consider in deciding on a turnover
or plastic; no glass is permitted. Mirrors must be provided over rate for pools projected to experience heavy usage is the fact
each lavatory. Toilet paper holders must be furnished at each that one turnover refers to a volume of water equal to the
water closet combination. As previously stated, vandal-proof total gallons (liters) in the pool system. It has been calculated
devices should be considered, if applicable. that it takes more than three turnovers for 95 percent of the
actual molecules of water in the system to pass through the
POOL OPERATING SYSTEMS filter. This is due to the physical characteristics of the pool.
Most provincial and state regulations now require pool sys- The only way to remove the dirt load being introduced into
tem components to be certified by an independent testing the pool by the users and the environment is through filtra-
agency, such as NSF International. This certification en- tion or oxidation. No matter how efficient the filter, it can’t
sures that all piping and other components meet a national remove what isn’t put through it.
standard for quality of materials and that public health and Filter Media Rate
safety issues are addressed. This standard also ensures that The filter media rate is the rate, measured in gallons per
the equipment meets consistent quality controls and builds minute (gpm) per square foot (L/min per m2) of filter surface
a level of confidence in the product. area that water is allowed to pass through various types of
When considering the broad spectrum of approaches used filters. These maximum rates are established by NSF/ANSI
for pool design, the designer should attempt to evaluate the 50: Equipment for Swimming Pools, Spas, Hot Tubs, and
major cost and performance differences between lower-quali- Other Recreational Water Facilities, as well as local health
ty residential or hotel, motel, and health club-type equipment department codes. This rate becomes the determining factor
and higher-end products used on major commercial pool in the sizing of the filter area needed for a given minimum
installations. If the owners have not already made some of turnover rate and the resultant minimum flow rate.
these assessments on their own, the designer should be pre-
pared to appraise them on the pros and cons of the available Flow Rate
choices so they can make an informed decision on the value The flow rate is the rate at which water moves through the
they wish to place on the quality of the end product. filtration system. It is calculated based on the minimum
If designing a commercial installation for a high school, turnovers per day. The flow rate has a major bearing on pipe
university, park district, or YMCA, the designer must follow sizing in the distribution system.
certain basic board of health requirements beyond the scope Many codes limit velocities in suction piping and return
of the plumbing codes that must be met. piping. In swimming pool parlance, return piping is the piping
carrying filtered water returning to the pool. Some common
Design Parameters maximums are 5–8 feet per second (fps) (1.52–2.44 m/s) in
Turnover Rate suction piping and 8–10 fps (2.44–3.05 m/s) in return piping.
The turnover rate (turnovers per day) refers to the time it Required Surge Capacity
takes to move a quantity of water, equal to the total gallons The term “surge” describes all water that comes off the top
(liters) in the pool and surge vessel, through the filtration of the pool, either displaced by the bodies of the swimmers
system. or splashed into the gutters through wind or heavy activity.
Minimum turnover rates for various types of pools are It must flow to a surge vessel attached to the swimming pool
determined by code. Typically, they fall within the following circulation system. Continuous skimming is required even
ranges: during times of no activity. The skimming that takes place
• Swimming pool: Six hours (four turnovers per day) during these quiescent periods is intended to draw mate-
• Wading pool: Two hours (12 turnovers per day) rial near the water surface into the gutters and back to the
• Therapy pool: Four hours (six turnovers per day) filtration equipment.
• Hot tub and whirlpool: 30 minutes (48 turnovers per day) The skimming action is essentially accomplished by main-
Keep in mind that these are minimums. In heavily used taining the level of the water in the pool no more than ¼ inch
pools, quicker turnovers will help maintain water clarity by (6.35 mm) above the rim of the gutter As the water just barely
means of increased filtration and better chemical distribu- breaks over the lip of the gutter, the velocity of the skimmed
tion. Also, pool designs that combine shallow areas, such water increases and creates a pull on the water surface. If
as zero-depth pools, with deeper swimming areas require the water level is too high, little skimming action occurs.
a turnover rate that combines the characteristics of both Many years ago, this skimmed water went to waste. Water
types of pool. conservation, as well as the cost of reheating replacement
A calculation of the flow rate required to move a quantity water, has resulted in code requirements for the capture of
of water equal to the gallons (liters) in the shallow area this water. It now must be filtered, chemically treated, and
(usually up to 18 inches [0.46 m] in water depth) within two returned to the pool. Most codes mandate a minimum volume
hours is combined with the flow rate required to achieve requirement for the vessels that receive and hold this water
the minimum turnover requirements for the deep area of until it can pass through the filter. The volumes are based
the pool (six hours). This combined flow requirement will on the estimated water displaced by swimmers plus wave
result in a greater number of turnovers per day, usually in action caused by their activities. A common requirement
the range of six per day (or one turnover every four hours). is for 0.6–1 gallon (2.27–3.79 L) of surge capacity for each
square foot (m2) of pool surface area. The various means of

8 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013

achieving this are covered under the “Surge Vessel or Surge draining the pool via gravity to a remote sump for pumping
Trench Selection” section of this chapter. to waste.
Some smaller pools are allowed to use skimmers to re- In some cases, a reverse flow design is allowed. In this type
turn water from the top of the pool. There are restrictions of design, all filtered water is returned to the pool through
to their use, usually based on the size of the pool. Skimmers inlets in the bottom of the pool. All dirty water is skimmed
are covered in more detail in the “Component Evaluation off the top of the pool. In such a design, a main drain is sim-
and Selection” section of this chapter. ply used to drain the pool. Not all codes allow such a design.
Main Drain and Grate Due to entrapment concerns, multiple main drain sumps,
piped hydraulically equal, are usually required. Velocities
VGB states that where one cover/grate is blocked or partially
through the gratings covering these sumps are usually
blocked, the remaining main drain cover/grates must be sized
mandated to not exceed 1–1.5 fps (0.3–0.46 m/s) to reduce
to handle the full flow of the system. In other words, with
the chance of hair entanglement.
two main drains, each cover/grate must be sized for the full
The free area of the covering grate typically must be at
flow of the system. With three main drains, each cover/grate
least four times the area of the connected main drain pipe.
must be sized for 50 percent of the full flow of the system.
Codes also require minimum distances between main drain
ASME A112.19.8 also details tests for finger entrapment,
sumps, as well as distance requirements from the pool wall.
measuring the force needed to pull the cover/grate out of the
frame, and resistance to UV degradation, which could make Hydrostatic Relief Valve
the cover/grates brittle and cause attachment failure. These In areas where hydrostatic forces are a concern, such as in
are an important part of the ASME testing because many areas with high water tables, protection of the pool struc-
of the entrapment accidents that occur are due to detached ture must be provided. This typically necessitates sufficient
cover/grates. However, the primary issue that the designer underdrain piping below and around the pool structure. A
must be concerned with is the maximum flow rating. VGB pumped drainage scheme also may be employed.
also requires main drain cover/grates to be sized for the maxi- However, even with proper groundwater removal systems
mum flow of the system. The combined maximum possible in place, a hydrostatic relief valve should be installed in the
flow (which is usually greater than the design flow) that the main drain sump. This device serves as a spring-loaded water
system pumps can produce must not exceed the maximum stop and relief valve. If the main drain sump is poured con-
flow rating for the cover/grate intended to be installed. crete, a 2-inch (50.8-mm) pipe, along with a no-leak flange,
To address hair entanglement, VBG requires all existing is situated in the bottom of the pour. The HRV is threaded
main drain grates to be replaced with new cover/grates that into the pipe on the pool side of the sump, and a pebble stop
have been tested to ASME 112.19.8. They must bear a stamp is threaded onto the backfill side of the concrete. If the pool
indicating the maximum flow allowed through the cover/grate is drained, the HRV may be the only way to prevent the pool
as determined by that ASME testing. from being lifted out of the ground (floated like a boat) by re-
Most of the designs for grates that will prevent suction en- leasing hydrostatic forces into the pool. There have been cases
trapment result in cover/grates that are raised, which results where large (up to 200,000-gallon [757,082-L]) outdoor pools
in protrusions from the floor of the pool. This is not allowed have popped as much as 24 inches (0.61 m) out of the ground.
by most state codes because it can present a tripping hazard. If the pool is internal to a large building with a large base-
However, many states have made, or are making changes to ment area and a substantial drainage system in place, the
their codes to allow main drain protrusions no greater than use of an HRV may not be a concern. For a diagrammatic
2 inches (50.8 mm) above the pool surface. representation of this, see Figure 6-2.
In instances where the grates are installed in a wall, the Filtered Water Return Piping
installation of the anti-suction entrapment cover/grates results In swimming pool system terminology, return piping refers
in a protrusion from the wall, which is a separate hazard ad- to piping returning filtered, chemically treated water back to
dressed by most state codes. the swimming pool inlets. The quantity, location, and spacing
No manufacturer is allowed to manufacture or distribute of these inlets is covered by the plumbing code. If the volume
a cover/grate that has not met VGB requirements. All cover/ of these inlets cannot be adjusted, care must be taken in the
grates or cover/grate and sump systems must bear the VGB- pipe layout and sizing to ensure equal distribution of chemi-
required stamp on the face of the cover/grate. The CPSC is cal treatment throughout the pool volume.
tasked with inspecting all commercial facilities, and they
Basic Piping Schemes
have the authority to shut down and fine facilities that are
found noncompliant. Numerous acceptable piping schemes are available. The
major factors determining which approach to take are deci-
Main Drain Piping and Location sions on the following:
The typical pool has main drain connections at the deepest • Where the mechanical equipment room will be located
point of the pool structure. These main drain pipes are con- (above or below the pool level)
nected to a formed concrete sump, stainless steel sump, or • The type of surge-holding vessel to be used
prefabricated fiberglass sump covered by a grating. • Whether to use skimmers instead of a surge vessel (if
These connections provide a means of drawing water off the pool is small enough)
the bottom of the pool for filtration purposes. They also usu- Some typical piping layouts are given in Figures 6-3 and
ally provide a means of pumping the pool water to waste or 6-4. For simplicity’s sake, chemical feed systems and heating

AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 9

 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
systems are not shown on these drawings. Those items will circulation pump suction, they should be piped to an equal-
be added to these diagrams in the specific section covering izer fitting that is located well below the pool’s operating
those components. level (see Figure 6-6). VGB considers this equalizer fitting a
Filtration, Circulation, and Water Chemistry suction outlet and requires it to be covered by a compliant
Control Components cover/grate or to be removed or disabled.
Skimmers are not as effective as a continuous gutter at
Surge Vessels skimming debris off the entire surface. That is why they are
Surge vessels are basically large holding tanks. They accept limited to use on pools with a small surface area. They also
water flowing by gravity from the top of the pool and hold are used when budget concerns dictate.
it until the circulation pump can move it through the filter.
Filters
To reduce the potential for suction entrapment, the main
drain piping should, ideally, flow by gravity to the surge tank. The filter component of a pool system mechanically removes
debris from the pool water. Measurable removal efficiency dif-
Gutters ferences exist between the various types. In selecting a filter
The water from the top of the pool is usually collected by type, consideration should be given to the following items:
a gutter. In the past, these were simply formed out of con- • Equipment room floor space and ceiling height
crete with drain connections spaced evenly around the pool. • Availability of backwash replacement water
Though this is still done on occasion, the following types of • Filtration efficacy (turbidity of water leaving the filter)
gutters are much more the norm. • Water and sewer costs for replacement water
Stainless Steel Gutter This is a dual-function system. • Ability to handle a possibly large volume of backwash
It not only collects the skimmed water from the top of the water
pool, but it also provides the distribution inlets for returning • Cost of heating replacement water
filtered water. The skimmed water flows into one chamber • Ease of operation
of the gutter. Through another chamber, separated from the • Equipment longevity
gutter water by a stainless steel wall or plate welded in place • Budget requirements
internally in the unit, the filtered water is pumped back to Two basic media types are used in filters: sand and
the pool. This pressurized chamber has holes, spaced around diatomaceous earth. Cartridge filters are sometimes used
the entire perimeter of the pool, that serve as filtered return on smaller pools and spas, but they merely use replaceable
water inlets. cartridges, not loose media.
One disadvantage of this system is the fact that the inlets Sand is a granular media (usually #20 or #30 grade
are placed very close to the surface of the pool, and distri- filter sand), and a uniformity coefficient is associated with
bution throughout the entire pool volume can be affected. each grade. The filter manufacturer will indicate the recom-
Short-circuiting of filtered water back into the gutter is also mended grade of sand, as filtration efficiency is affected by
possible. Of additional concern is the potential for internal the grade used, with #30 sand having particulate removal
breaches between the two flows (gutter water and filtered efficiencies that are more efficient than #20 sand. However,
water). These may develop over time due to corrosion and/ more restrictive sand beds result in higher friction losses
or expansion and contraction. These breaches are difficult to through the filter.
detect, and they will result in less-than-minimum turnovers Diatomaceous earth, known as DE, is considered a dis-
due to short-circuiting of filtered water right back to the posable media. It is a fine white powder material made up of
filtration system through the gutter system. To address this skeleton-like fossilized diatoms. This powder is mixed with
concern, some stainless steel gutter manufacturers weld a the water in the filter vessel and deposited in a layer on the
rectangular stainless steel tube to the face of the rear gutter filter element or septum. DE also comes in various grades.
portion of the assembly, which provides a completely indepen- Typically, for swimming pool use, the product used should
dent chamber for the flow of filtered water back to the pool. have permeability in the 3–5 Darcy range. Particulate re-
Surge Gutter Trench This is a formed concrete trench of suf- moval capabilities basically track the permeability range, so
ficient width and depth to hold the required surge volume. It the 3-Darcy media would be expected to achieve 99 percent
extends around the entire perimeter of the pool and is usually reduction of 3-micron particles.
covered by a grating, which can be as simple as fiberglass bars The filter area required depends on the media selected
sitting on a formed lip or as substantial as polymer concrete and the minimum flow rate requirement for the facility be-
coping stones. The concrete coping stone is even considered ing designed. The various filter configurations for each of
part of the deck, which can be useful when minimum deck the two primary media types are covered in the “Component
widths might otherwise be hard to accomplish. See Figure 6-5 Evaluation and Selection” section of this chapter.
for details of this approach.
Circulation Pump
Skimmers Circulation pump selection must be based on the ability of
On smaller pools, codes allow the use of skimmers. These the pump to move the required amount of water through the
are devices made of various types of plastics that have a circulation and filtration system under worst-case conditions.
floating weir (flapper door) that creates a skimming action As the filter becomes dirty (loaded), it restricts the flow. As
at the water surface. They are set in the concrete when it is piping ages and becomes calcified, it also can substantially
poured at one or more locations spaced around the perimeter restrict flow.
of the pool or hot tub. Since they are directly connected to
10 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013
 For these reasons, many codes mandate that a pump be Pool Water Heating Systems
selected with a design performance point of the minimum The basic types of heating systems are gas-fired water heat-
flow required, with an available total dynamic head (TDH) ers, steam/hot water heat exchangers, and, infrequently,
capability of 70–80 feet. In the absence of such a code require- electric heaters. One possible disadvantage of using heat
ment, the designer must assume the expected pressure drop exchangers is that they require year-round operation of a
through a dirty filter, usually 15–20 pounds per square inch boiler (if the pool is a 12-month operation). The rest of the
(psi) (103.4–137.9 kPa). facility may not require the use of the boiler, which may
In addition to the dirty (loaded) filter, all pipe and fitting make the case for the use of a supplemental electric heater.
losses on both the suction and discharge sides of the pump, Venting capabilities, corrosive ambient air, and equipment
friction losses through a dirty hair strainer, and losses space requirements are the primary issues to be given consid-
through a pool heater or heat exchanger must be calculated. eration. Many facilities are designed with dehumidification
The resultant estimated system head requirement dictates systems that use the heat of condensation to heat the pool
the proper pump selection. water or pool space. The various choices are listed in the
Hair and Lint Strainer “Pool Water Heating Systems” section under “Component
These are devices with removable strainer baskets. They are Evaluation and Selection.”
installed upstream of the pump and are required by code. Chemical Control and Feed Systems
Their primary purpose is pump protection. Most codes re- Commercial pools must have systems in place that are ca-
quire two strainer baskets, which decreases shutdown times pable of maintaining the pH and oxidizer/sanitizer levels in
when cleaning and changing a basket. the pool water within a code-mandated range. These systems
Flow Sensor and Display can be as simple as adjustable-rate feed pumps for acid and
All systems must include a device to indicate that the chlorine solutions. Some codes require the use of an auto-
minimum flow rate and resultant turnover rate are being matic water chemistry controller to constantly measure pH
achieved. Numerous types are available, and their costs and sanitizer levels in the pool. These controllers will turn
versus accuracy and life expectancies vary considerably. on the associated chemical feed pump or system as needed.
Many codes require gauges to be located properly on the Level Control Systems (Surge Tank)
suction and discharge sides of the circulation pump. These Level control systems can vary from a simple float-operated
gauges, together with a pump curve for that particular pump, main drain valve installed on the main drain pipe after it en-
provide the ability to accurately check the performance of the ters the surge tank to a complex bubbler system (differential
pump and to verify the accuracy of the flow-measuring device. pressure controller) controlling an air-operated modulating
Flow Control Devices valve. The decision typically is based on cost versus accuracy.
Consideration must be given to the means that will be used Diagrams and specific operational characteristics of these
to control the rate and direction of flow to and from the pool. systems are covered in detail later in this chapter.
The circulation pump is selected for a worst-case scenario, so Fresh Water Makeup
if it is allowed to run wide open when the filter, hair strainer, Fresh water makeup can be accomplished by an operator
and piping are free and unobstructed, then over-pumping of regularly checking the pool water level and turning on the
the filter and heater will result. manual freshwater fill valve until the pool is filled properly.
Manual butterfly valves also are needed as isolation valves Most codes require a skimming action to take place con-
to enable the servicing of system components Formed Concrete Main Drain Sump
with Hydrostatic Relief Valve
without draining the system. Valves must be
provided to isolate the hair strainer to allow
the replacement of a dirty hair strainer basket.
Codes also require control of flow from the
pool. Usually, 80 percent of the circulated water
is taken off the top of the pool, and the remain-
ing 20 percent is drawn from the bottom of
the pool through the main drain. Some type of
float-operated butterfly valve or manual valve
usually is used to control this.
For more accurate control, diaphragm-type
air-operated butterfly valves or piston-operated
butterfly valves with pilot positioners are used.
The various types are covered in the section
titled “Component Evaluation and Selection.”
Even if variable-frequency drives (VFDs) are
used to control the rate of flow to the pool, some
type of manual valve should be in place in case
the VFD fails. Manual operation must be able
to be controlled while the VFD is out of service.
Figure 6-2 Formed Concrete Main Drain Sump with Hydrostatic Relief Valve
AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 11
 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
stantly, and a good way to ensure this is to provide some nections for the gutter piping, pump suction, and possibly the
form of automatic fresh water makeup system. main drain piping, is vented through piping extending above
From an operational standpoint, since most contaminants the water level of the pool. Venting is essential, as it allows
in the pool water are introduced at the top portion of the incoming water from the gutter and/or main drain to displace
pool, the top layer of water should pass through the filter the air in the tank. It also prevents a possibly damaging vacuum
quickest. Such a water makeup scheme is closely associated situation from occurring if isolation valves are inadvertently
with the water level control scheme employed. (Informational closed while the circulation pump is in operation or are left
diagrams are provided later in this chapter.) closed when starting the pump. The vent, if of sufficient size,
Specialty Systems also provides a means of adding fresh water with the required
The complexity of pool designs has increased dramatically from air gap. Figure 6-4 shows such a piping scheme.
the days of the simple rectangular lap pool with basic filtration Surge Gutter Trench
and chemical feed systems. An seemingly endless variety of The surge gutter trench is a continuous concrete trench
water play features are now available, as well as supplemental formed on the exterior of the pool walls around the entire
sanitation systems designed to offset the increased demand perimeter of the pool. The trench is sloped to an area clos-
created by heavy bather loads. est to the pool equipment room. At that low point, a single
This places an increased responsibility on the shoulders pipe connection is made to allow the water collected in the
of the pool designer. The designer must investigate and trench to be combined with main drain water at the circula-
understand the capabilities and special considerations re- tion pump suction.
quired of the design when using these products. Some basic The trench is sized to meet or exceed the minimum surge-
information can be found in the “Component Evaluation and holding capacity requirement of 1 gallon per square foot (3.79
Selection” section that follows. L/m2) of pool surface area. The trench typically is covered by
a fiberglass or Cycolac (a type of ABS plastic commonly used
COMPONENT EVALUATION AND for pool components) grating. A slightly raised handhold must
SELECTION be provided at the water’s edge of the covering scheme used
Surge Vessels (Surge Tanks) for this trench to provide swimmers with a place to securely
One method used to create a surge-holding capacity is a grip, if needed.
buried concrete tank. This type of surge tank is buried some- Another design employs precast polymer concrete coping
where between the pool and the equipment room, usually stones. This type of pool operates with the pool water es-
under the deck, which extends around the perimeter of the sentially at deck level, and the coping stone is considered an
pool. It is also frequently located under the equipment room extension of the deck. Return piping often is run in this trench
floor slab. Water from the perimeter gutter, and ideally the around the perimeter of the pool, which facilitates pipe repairs,
main drain, is piped to this holding tank. when needed, without breaking up the concrete deck. Figure
Although the buried tank saves floor space, it complicates 6-5 gives a diagrammatic representation of this approach.
accessibility to key components. Access must be provided for Skimmers
cleaning or adjustments. Pump strainers and/or level control Skimmers can be used only on small pools, usually pools less
devices are often difficult to access. Frequently, draining of than 20 feet (6.1 m) in width or less than a certain amount
the surge tank is necessary. of water.
This type of buried concrete structure is considered a They don’t effectively skim a very large surface area, and
confined space, so the operator will be required to follow they are directly connected to pump suction. If the pool’s
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) operating level isn’t properly maintained and the water
guidelines before working in this area, which should be taken level drops below the opening of the skimmer, the circulation
into consideration before deciding on this approach. Figures pump may possibly suck air and be damaged by cavitation
6-3 and 6-4 show how a buried surge tank would be piped conditions.
into the circulation system. To prevent air from reaching pump suction when using
A freestanding vessel is another type of surge tank that skimmers, it is important to require the installation of an
is located in the equipment room. It can be an open or a equalizer fitting, located in the wall of the pool a few feet
closed vessel. Open-tank vessels are still very common in below the skimmer. An equalizer valve and float are then
installations where the equipment room is in a basement or installed inside the body of the skimmer. In this way, if the
where the location prevents venting of a closed tank. The pool level drops, water still will be drawn through the equal-
obvious concern is how to provide protection from flooding izer fitting. These items are offered as options with most
if the system shuts down unexpectedly. Properly functioning commercial skimmers. (See the diagram in Figure 6-6.) A
check valves on the piping downstream of the filter, as well VGB-compliant fitting is required for this equalizer connec-
as between the main drain piping and the surge tank (if the tion to the pool since it is considered a suction outlet. Some
main drain isn’t connected to the surge tank), are an absolute codes may even require the removal or disabling of these
necessity. The open-tank design provides a convenient way equalizer connections to comply with VGB requirements.
to add fresh water with the required air gap. High-rate Sand Filters
The closed and vented tank is a much better option for a
The high-rate sand filter is currently the most common type
basement equipment room. A closed vessel, with flanged con-
of filter employed on swimming pool systems. High-rate sand

12 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013

filters have acceptable particulate removal capa-
bilities, and they are simple to operate.
These filters are pressure type, meaning the
filter is installed downstream of the circulation
pump, and the pump creates pressure to force
the dirt-laden pool water through the filter. The
water enters the filter at the top of the media
bed and is forced through the sand to a set of
slotted laterals, which are connected to a col-
lection manifold.
The most common media used in high-rate
sand filters is #20 or #30 filter sand, with a
specific uniformity coefficient. The #20 sand
has a particle size of 0.018 inches (0.35 mm)
to 0.022 inches (0.56 mm) or an effective size
of 0.45 mm and a uniformity coefficient of 1.5
maximum. The #30 grade of sand is not as com-
Figure 6-3 Typical Above-grade Piping Scheme
mon as #20. It is finer sand and is sometimes
used when higher filtration efficiency is desired.
Not all filters are designed to allow the use
of #30 sand, as the underdrain laterals must
be manufactured with very close tolerances
regarding opening size to disallow the passage
of the smaller sand particles back to the pool.
Check the filter manufacturer’s specifications
to ensure that #30 sand can be used.
In general, the flow rate of the water being
filtered through this type of filter is in the range
of 15–20 gpm per square foot (56.8–75.7 L/min/
m2) of filter surface area. All pool filters must
be tested by NSF International, given an NSF/
ANSI 50 listing, and bear that label on their
exterior. This listing prescribes the maximum
allowable flow for each listed filter, and many
codes use this listing as their design require-
ment criteria. Figure 6-4 Typical Below-grade Piping Scheme
The backwash rate for any sand filter is based
on research done by the Hydraulic Institute.
It has been determined through testing that a for each individual tank. Multiple tank arrangements may be
minimum of 15 gpm per square foot (56.8 L/min) of filter area used to alleviate concerns about the ability of waste piping
is required to “fluidize” the sand bed. At less than 15 gpm or transfer pumps to handle large backwash flow rates. A
per square foot (56.8 L/min), the filter bed doesn’t lift up and three-tank horizontal system is shown in Figure 6-7.
allow debris that is deeply embedded in the sand bed to be Vertical High-rate Sand Filters
released. If this lower-than-required backwash rate continues, Depending on the required filter area and the shape of the
“mud balls” eventually will develop and effectively decrease equipment room, vertical high-rate sand filters sometimes
the usable filter area. can be a more space-conscious option. An 8-foot (2.44-m)
Properly designed high-rate sand filters, using the most diameter vertical filter would have more filter area than two
common #20 grade media, can effectively capture particles as 3-foot-diameter by 6-foot-long (0.91-m-diameter by 1.83-m-
small as 15–20 microns when the filter is clean. As the filter long) horizontal filters with a 6.25-foot by 6-foot (1.91-m
becomes dirty (“loaded” is a better description), the filtration by 1.83-m) footprint. Three horizontal filters, each with a
efficiency of a sand filter actually increases. The interstitial footprint of 9.5 feet by 6 feet (2.9 m by 1.83 m), would be
spaces between the grains of sand media become smaller and required to provide a filter area equivalent to that of the
can possibly capture particles as small as 10 microns. 8-foot (2.44-m) diameter vertical filter.
Horizontal High-rate Sand Filters The equipment room floorplan will probably dictate which
Horizontal high-rate sand filters may require more equip- type of filter is best suited for the application. However, the
ment room floor space than vertical sand filters, but they lend designer also must consider the backwash water removal
themselves to more accurate design possibilities regarding capabilities. Since the vertical system is forced to backwash
flow during filtration and backwash. Backwash functions are the entire filter area at one time, the backwash flow rate for
also more easily automated and are at a lower backwash flow the vertical filter will be three times that of each individual

AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 13

 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
component of the horizontal system where each tank is (DE) products with varying properties. A coating of DE on
backwashed individually. a filter element or septum is used to trap and remove debris
Multi-cell Vertical Sand Filters from the pool water passing through the filter. DE with a
Multi-call vertical sand filters offer even more floor space permeability of 3–5 Darcy units is common for commercial
savings. That same 8-foot (2.44-m) diameter footprint can filtration.
accommodate two or three filter cells stacked one above the In many locales, spent DE must be captured when drain-
other. If even distribution across the sand bed is a concern, ing or backwashing the filter to prevent the DE from settling
the method of distribution through each cell should be in the sewer system in areas of low flow velocity. Since DE
examined. Lower filtration efficiencies can result if flow dis- is a light, fine, white powder, proper breathing protection
tribution is not uniform. Non-uniform flow results in higher should be worn if the DE could potentially become airborne.
velocities in certain areas of the sand bed, and these higher Vacuum DE filters require the broadcasting of the DE powder
velocities can drive contaminants through the sand bed. over the water surface of the filled filter vessel, so making
Automated backwash of each cell, individually, is difficult if the DE airborne in that case is unavoidable.
not impossible. Respirable (airborne) DE is considered a Class I car-
cinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer
Vacuum Sand Filters (IARC), but skin contact or ingestion is not considered
A vacuum filter system is one in which the circulation pump dangerous. In fact, due to the prevalent use of DE for food
is located downstream of an open filter vessel. As the filter preparation, such as soda and beer manufacturing processes,
media restricts pump suction, a vacuum is created that allows DE is classified as an incidental food additive. For purposes
atmospheric pressure to force the dirt-laden water through of comparison, beach sand, filter sand, sawdust, and drywall
the media. The contaminants are left embedded in the media. dust also are listed as Class I carcinogens.
The media used in these filters is usually one or two
Vacuum Diatomaceous Earth Filters
grades of gravel covered by several inches of #20 filter sand.
Vacuum DE filters are one of the oldest and most efficient
Media requirements vary by manufacturer. The gravel layer
(regarding particulate removal) forms of pool filtration. As
is intended to enhance backwash capabilities.
with any vacuum system, the pump is located downstream
The NSF/ANSI 50 listing for these filters indicates the
of the filter.
maximum allowable flow rate for each listed filter size. These
The filter itself consists of an open-top vessel, filled with
are listed as high as 15–20 gpm per square foot (56.8–75.7
multiple filter elements or septums. The number and shape
L/min/m2) of filter surface area. Individual manufacturers
depend on the filter area needed and the design preference of
may recommend an even lower filter media rates than al-
a specific manufacturer. The septums are covered by a cloth
lowed by NSF International. The lower flow, frequently in
bag or cover (usually polyethylene) that is coated with DE
the 5-gpm per square foot (18.9-L/min) range, is intended to
during a pre-coating process. The DE media performs the
allow smaller particles to be captured by the media. However,
actual filtration, not the bag or the filter element.
this requires a larger footprint.
A vacuum safety switch is required between the filter and
As for any sand filter, the backwash rate needs to be at
the suction connection to the circulation pump. This safety
least 15 gpm per square foot (56.8 L/min/m2) of filter surface
switch is connected to the auto-control circuit of the circula-
area. This is the minimum flow needed to fluidize the sand
tion pump. Whenever a vacuum of 10–13 inches (254–330.2
bed and release trapped particles. Due to the large surface
mm) mercury (Hg) occurs, the pump is automatically shut
area of these filters, this rate can translate into excessive
down. Otherwise, this high vacuum condition could possibly
amounts of wasted water.
collapse and destroy the filter elements.
Some manufacturers have introduced an air-scouring
The septums can remain coated with DE only through
system in which bubbles of air rise through the sand bed
continuous sufficient flow through the media, as the flow
during backwash. The air bubbles are intended to lift the
of water through the media holds the DE in place. If pump
sand bed and allow lower backwash flow (e.g., 10 gpm per
operation is inadvertently interrupted, the DE will drop off
square foot [37.9 L/min/m2]), while still achieving an accept-
the elements. If the pump is then restarted without going
able removal of the dirt load. This is somewhat questionable
through a pre-coat process, some of the DE initially will be
and may not be allowed by some codes, but manufacturers
pumped out to the pool.
of these systems claim better filtration efficiencies at lower
The pre-coat process is a manual operation in which the
filter media rates than those achieved with high-rate sand
filter vessel is filled with water and valves are adjusted to
filters. This might seem a logical conclusion, but no defini-
direct water pulled through the filter straight back to the
tive independent testing of the turbidity of the water leaving
stilling chamber of the filter tank. The pump is then started,
these filters supports that claim. At higher rates, near 15
and the required amount of DE (approximately 1 pound per
gpm per square foot (56.8 L/min) of filter surface area, they
10 square feet [0.5 kg per 0.93 m2] of filter area) is broadcast
are at least as good as high-rate sand filters.
over the surface of the water in the filter tank. Pre-coating
Diatomaceous Earth (DE) Filters is continued until the cloudy water (DE slurry) in the vessel
Fossilized skeletons, primarily of sea plankton, are called clears sufficiently. Without stopping the pump, the pool re-
diatoms. Large deposits of this fine powder are mined and turn valve is slowly opened to allow filtered water to flow out
graded according to particle size. The mined white powder to the pool. The pre-coat recycle valve is then slowly closed,
is then heated and milled, resulting in diatomaceous earth

14 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013

 Slurry Feed Systems
When DE is mixed with water it forms a DE/
water slurry. To extend the time between DE
changes in the filter, additional DE often is
added on a continuous basis. For filter media
rates above 1.5 gpm per square foot (5.68 L/
min/m2), continuous DE slurry feed (some-
times called body feed) may be required by
code. The rate of addition is prescribed by
the same code.
A dry slurry feeder uses a rotating auger
mounted below a DE holding funnel. As the
auger rotates, it carries DE from the fun-
nel out to the end of a trough. The dry DE
then drops off the end of the trough into the
water-filled filter tank and adds an additional
thickness to the coating of DE on the filter
Figure 6-5 Deck-level Surge Gutter Trench elements. These units have digital controls
and adjustments for setting the rate of feed
and the filter is considered online, or in filtering mode. Fig- in pounds per day.
ure 6-8 shows the piping configuration for the pre-coat loop. Wet slurry feeders employ a holding tank filled with wa-
Contingent on the quality of the media selected, these fil- ter in which a predetermined amount of DE is mixed. An
ters can achieve a 99 percent reduction of water impurities in agitator pump is required to keep the DE from settling out
the 3-micron range. The configuration of these filters can also on the bottom of the holding tank. A feed pump, usually a
play a major role in their particulate-retention capabilities. diaphragm-type feed pump with a timed auto-flush solenoid
The procedure for cleaning a vacuum DE filter is simply keeping the check valves clear, is used to draw the slurry
draining the filter completely, hosing off the filter elements, out of the holding tank and to inject it into the water stream
and flushing the old, or spent, DE completely out of the filter entering the filter from the pool. Peristaltic pumps also may
tank. This can be a laborious, time-consuming task. If the be used, and since they don’t require check valves, they may
filter vessel is poorly designed, with a floor that doesn’t have not require the auto-flush feature.
sufficient slope to the drain, the old DE will be difficult to
Pressure Diatomaceous Earth Filters
wash over to the drain opening.
Pressure DE filters are the most economical regarding equip-
Once the filter and elements are sufficiently cleaned,
ment room floor space. They are of a vertical configuration,
the filter is filled with water. DE is then added by either
with internal elements that provide a large surface area for
broadcasting it over the surface of the water or mixing the
filters having such small footprints. Like vacuum DE filters,
required amount of DE in buckets of water and dumping it
they provide a high level of filtration efficacy.
into the filter vessel. The pre-coating process is then initiated,
Again, in a pressure system, the pump is located upstream
and after approximately three to five minutes, the filter can
of the filter and forces the water requiring cleaning through
be put back online. Typical piping for a vacuum DE filter is
the filter elements. The actual configuration of the elements
shown in Figure 6-8.
varies by manufacturer, but their purpose is to provide a sur-
face for the DE to coat and to act as a filtering media.
Static Cake Diatomaceous Earth Filters
Static cake DE filters receive an initial charge of DE
and then are pre-coated in a manner similar to the
process described for vacuum DE filters. They filter
continuously until the DE becomes plugged to a point
where the flow through the filter is dramatically re-
duced below design operating parameters. Some form
of wet slurry feed usually is employed to extend filter
cycles. Due to the required frequency of cleaning,
these filters are not usually found on large commer-
cial systems.
Regenerative Diatomaceous Earth Filters
Regenerative DE filters are similar to static cake
filters in their basic design, but they are far different
in their performance characteristics. They typically
have a higher initial cost than any other type of filter
Figure 6-6 Skimmer Detail
AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 15
 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
system, so care must be taken to ensure that the initial cost Again, this should be closely investigated to justify the use
is commensurate with improved performance. of these systems.
To eliminate the need for slurry feed and to greatly re- As stated, static cake filters require more frequent clean-
duce the frequency of changing DE, regenerative DE filters ing. They also require a pumped backwash to force the DE
employ an automatic regenerative process in which the and dirt out of the weave of the multi-filament fabric of the
original DE pre-coat is periodically forced (bumped) off the filter elements. The filter elements themselves require re-
filter elements. The circulation pump is automatically turned moval and more thorough cleaning, usually on a yearly basis.
off; the filter is automatically bumped; and then the circula- That is not the case with regenerative DE filters.
tion pump is automatically restarted, and a pre-coat cycle is The cleaning requirements of a regenerative DE filter vary
automatically reinstituted. This procedure essentially clears greatly depending on the load and filter size. In a heavy-use
free paths through the DE that is coating the elements and indoor facility, a regenerative DE filter should be recharged
reduces the pressure drop through the media. It allows for every three to four months. For a heavily used outdoor pool,
complete use of all the surfaces of the initial DE charge. A if long filter runs are desired, the filter is sized for a filter
regenerative DE filter, of sufficient size to handle flows up to media rate of approximately 1 gpm per square foot (3.79 L/
2,300 gpm (8,706 L/min), is shown in Figure 6-9. min/m2) of filter area, which usually results in four- to five-
Both static cake and regenerative DE filters are subject week filter runs. When filters are selected for operation near
to NSF/ANSI 50 testing requirements. They are NSF listed their maximum allowable filter media rate, they will probably
by model number regarding the maximum allowable flow. require a DE change approximately every two to three weeks.
Typically, these flows range between 1.3–1.6 gpm per square The procedure for replacing the DE is quite simple. The
foot (4.92–6.06 L/min/m2) of effective filter surface area. For filter is bumped and then drained. No pumped backwash is
particle retention test results, refer to Figure 6-10. required. After one or two additional fills with pool water
Filtration efficacy is very dependent on the design and for rinsing, the filter is refilled with DE, usually through a
construction of each specific filter. Flow characteristics re- specially designed vacuuming system, which eliminates the
garding velocity uniformity and uniform turbulence have a concern about airborne DE. The infrequent need for DE
measurable effect on the DE-retention capabilities of each changes, along with the fact that these filters don’t require
filter design. If the equipment choice is based on quality of a pumped backwash, can be a major factor in reducing the
filtration, investigation of previously installed operating water replacement and reheating requirements inherent in
systems of this type should be undertaken. other systems.
In general, particulate removal efficacies in a well- Regenerative Alternative Media Filters
designed filter can be expected to track directly with the In recent years, some filters listed as regenerative DE filters
permeability of the DE media used. With the most common under NSF/ANSI 50 have been tested using alternative me-
grade of DE used in commercial filters having a permeability dia, and perlite and cellulose have been approved under NSF/
of 3 Darcy units, at least a 99 percent removal of 3-micron ANSI 50 as DE substitutes. However, the challenge particu-
particles can be expected. Some filters of this type have late material (U.S. Silica SCS 106) used in NSF test protocol
proven performance in the 1.5-micron range. In this range, is largely incapable of evaluating the particulate reduction
a 2-log removal of bacteriological contaminants is possible. characteristics of any filter aid, including DE products of
That is well worth consideration with the current interest in varying permeability at or below the 12-micron level. Other
removing Cryptosporidium bacteria from pool environments. independent test results indicate that cellulose has filtration
efficacies only slightly better than sand media filters.
A paper presented at the National Swimming Pool Foun-
dation (NSPF) World Aquatic Health Conference in October
2009 offered findings resulting from careful testing of the
filtration efficacy of perlite compared with DE. When the
two media were tested at the same permeability (1.5 Darcy),
same coating thickness (0.125 inch) on the filter elements
(tortuous path), and same filter media rate (1.5 gpm per
square foot), the DE gave a reasonable expectation of a 4-log
(99.99 percent) capture of cryptosporidium sized particles,
compared with a 2-log (99 percent) capture by perlite. That
is a sizeable difference when a single diarrheal accident can
contain millions of crypto oocysts. If a million oocysts are
filtered by a DE filter, less than 100 will make it through.
The same million oocysts encountering a perlite-coated filter
have a much better chance of making it through and out to
the pool. At a 2-log removal capability, perlite would allow
almost 10,000 oocysts to pass through. Since it only takes 10
Figure 6-7 Horizontal High-rate Sand Filtration oocysts to infect a susceptible swimmer, the media choice is
System, Multi-tank an important consideration.

16 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013

 Since swimming pool water has a constant
residual of chlorine, swimming pool pumps
should be fabricated of materials that offer de-
cent life expectancy. These pumps are, according
to most codes, required to operate 24 hours per
day. Pumps with cast iron volutes and impel-
lers can be expected to provide many years of
service. Maintaining proper water balance, as
discussed later under “Chemical Control and
Feed Systems,” plays a major role in ensuring
this longevity. Proper piping schemes, designed
to prevent conditions that might lead to cavita-
tion, will extend the life of the impeller.
For situations in which the pump operates
intermittently, such as when its function is to
provide flow to a water feature or as a spa jet
pump, all wetted components of the pump must
Figure 6-8 Vacuum DE Filter in Pre-coat Mode be made of noncorrosive materials. If a cast iron
pump were used, rust would form during the
If the choice of a regenerative DE filter is predicated on quiescent period (primarily overnight). Then,
crypto-removal capability, some type of performance speci- when the cast iron pump is restarted in the morning, the
fication should be established. The above test results were operator and patrons will be treated to an initial flow of
arrived at through the use of a “perfect” filter for testing. brown, rusty water.
Actual results in the field will be affected by the design of Stainless steel pumps are available. These are not truly
the filter selected, as well as the piping layout in the equip- noncorrosive; stainless merely means that the material stains
ment room. less frequently than other materials. However, stainless steel
Circulation Pump Selection pumps will not discharge rusty water after an overnight
Centrifugal pumps are the type of pump used on swimming shutdown period.
pool circulation systems. They can be of an end-suction Also, many plastic pumps with plastic impellers are used
form or a vertical turbine configuration. The most common in the pool industry. Most of these are self-priming pumps,
end-suction centrifugal pump is the horizontal, either base so they can be used whether the equipment room is above
mounted or motor mounted. In some instances, an owner or below grade. The stainless steel pumps are a little more
may opt for a horizontal or vertical mounted, inline, split- heavy duty and seem to hold up better in conditions where
case design, but the instances of this are rare. the equipment room is in a basement below the hot tub or
Horizontal End-suction Centrifugal Pumps water feature. They are not self-priming pumps, so this
below-grade location is ideal.
A flooded suction centrifugal pump should be used only when
Many swimming pool codes for filtration and circulation
it can be installed below the pool’s operating water level. In
pumps contain a minimum performance capability require-
some installations, they are placed on grade, and a check
ment based on the mandated flow rate needed to attain the
valve or foot valve is used, supposedly, to maintain a filled
minimum turnovers per day. The pump must be able to move
suction pipe. This configuration is not recommended, as these
the resultant minimum required flow at some code-estimated
installations always are operationally problematic. Flooded
total dynamic head (TDH). This might be a TDH of 70 feet
suction pumps are not designed to effectively evacuate air.
for a sand filter system or as high as 75–80 feet for a pres-
Once the check or foot valve gets jammed by a foreign object,
sure DE filter system.
re-priming the pump is almost impossible. Most flooded suc-
Basically, the pump must be selected to guarantee that it
tion pumps have a tapped hole in the top of the pump volute
can move the required flow through the filter in a worst-case
to release air if the pump become air-locked.
scenario, or when the filter is the dirtiest. Therefore, even
Self-priming pumps are designed for installations where
if the code mandates a minimum pump TDH capability, the
the equipment room is above the pool’s water level. Selection
designer should perform a system head calculation. All pipe
should take into account the lift required for the application
and fitting losses on the suction and discharge sides of the
when operating at the duty point, as it relates to net positive
pump must be included. The additional losses through system
suction head required (NPSHR). Self-priming pumps are
components—hair strainer, valves, dirty filter, heater—and
effective at passing air during the priming process, but care
discharge and friction losses through the inlet fittings must
must be taken to never operate them dry. A check valve in the
be added to the pipe and fitting losses to come to a total
suction piping on the vertical run of pipe as it drops to the
system head requirement. This will verify that the code-
surge tank is helpful during the priming process. If some form
mandated performance requirement is sufficient.
of backflow prevention is in place on the freshwater system,
a hose bibb connection on the suction side of the pump also Vertical Turbine
might be considered to assist in the priming process (if this Vertical turbine pumps can save up to 75 percent of floor
is allowed by the local code). space as compared to horizontal end-suction centrifugal

AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 17

 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
pumps. They have smaller footprints mainly due to the loca- in less frequent cleaning requirements (possibly only at the
tion of the pump below the floor. However, accommodations end of an outdoor pool season).
should be made for pulling these pumps for service. If very Hair and Lint Strainers
long shaft lengths are necessary, high ceilings and possibly an Hair and lint strainers are required on the suction side of
overhead I beam may be necessary. These pumps are basically end-suction centrifugal pumps and are intended to provide
flooded suction pumps that can be installed above the pool’s pump protection. The baskets installed in the hair strainer
water level. The downside to their use is the necessity for a capture debris that could possibly plug the eye of the impel-
hair strainer screen or basket on the bottom of the pump. ler or damage the impeller. Opening sizes in the basket are
Cleaning during normal use is difficult, so to facilitate this usually prescribed by code. Typically, the operator is required
cleaning, some installations use a screen that slides through to have available two of the removable baskets for ease of
a slot in the floor and isolates the section of the surge pit changing and cleaning.
where the pump’s suction bell is located. The straight flow-through strainer is the most common
When a buried concrete surge tank is part of the design, type. The inlet and outlet flanges are matched to the pipe
a vertical turbine pump is an obvious choice. These pumps size on the suction side of the pump. The centerlines of both
require the operating level in the surge tank to be maintained the upstream and downstream openings in the strainer body
at or above the pump’s required minimum submergence. are equidistant from the bottom of the strainer.
The pressure available at the mouth of the suction bell of Offset connection strainers are a specialty type. They
the pump is essential to proper pump operation without are custom-fabricated to simplify alignment of the suction
cavitation. The NPSHR for a particular pump, at the design piping to the suction connection on the circulation pump.
operation point, controls the water depth above the suction The centerline of the influent side of the strainer can be at
bell entry point (minimum submergence), and the resultant a higher elevation than the leaving side (effluent) elevation.
depth-related water pressure at that point must be such that Change-fitting connection strainers are also a custom
the net positive suction head available (NPSHA) always ex- fabrication. This type of strainer provides a simplified way
ceeds NPSHR. This minimum submergence also guarantees to change from the suction pipe size to the actual size of
that the lowest impeller of the pump is always submerged the suction connection on the pump, as the flanged suction
and that it will start pumping when it begins to rotate. This, opening on most pumps is usually several pipe sizes smaller
in effect, provides the same priming certitude as any flooded than the suction piping. A combination of the offset and
suction pump. change-fitting types is also available.
These pumps can be used in a wet-pit installation or they Cast iron hair strainers are no longer used in new con-
can be closed suction (direct piped), possibly in a dry pit. In struction in the swimming pool industry. The most common
either configuration, some protection against large debris types of strainers are made of fiberglass reinforced plastic
entering the bowl assembly must be provided. The bowl as- (FRP) or stainless steel. Removable covers are usually clear
semblies can be either semi-open or closed. acrylic. The removable baskets are stainless steel, but the
Standard materials of construction for clear water ser- baskets may be made of plastic in smaller plastic pumps,
vice include cast iron bowls, bronze or cast iron impellers, which are often provided with integral hair strainers.
and stainless steel shafts. The column shaft connecting the
bowl assembly to the discharge head is usually steel, and the Flow Sensors
discharge head is cast iron. All components, however, are Codes require a device to be provided in the circulation
available in more corrosion- and abrasion-resistant materials. system to verify that the pump is moving enough water
Pumps can be custom-selected to allow variations in the to satisfy code turnover requirements. These sensors with
slope of the head curve to meet the head and capacity system displays take many forms.
requirements. A pump with a steeper curve will allow for Impact Type
better control when using a variable-frequency drive (VFD) The impact flow sensor usually has a small opening facing
for flow control. upstream and another opening facing downstream. The
Placement of the vertical turbine pump (or multiple downstream opening merely senses static pressure in the
turbine pumps) is critical to non-turbulent operating condi- pipe, while the upstream opening senses total pressure (ve-
tions. This topic includes too many variables to be effectively locity pressure plus static pressure). The resultant difference
covered in this chapter. As a starting point, the designer can in total pressure versus static pressure forces a movable
reference Hydraulic Institute Standards for Centrifugal, indicator up inside a vertical measuring tube that has mark-
Rotary, and Reciprocating Pumps, 14th Edition. ings for associated flow. This type becomes easily plugged
Manufacturers of vertical turbine pumps offer various and requires frequent cleaning. It is the least accurate type
strainer basket assemblies for mounting on the suction of flow sensor.
bell of the pump. On swimming pool applications where Pressure Differential Style
the pump is required to operate all day, these strainers will
The pressure differential sensor can consist of an orifice plate
become fouled quickly, which can present a maintenance
with tubing connections on each side of the plate, or it can
nightmare. Often, instead of the factory-provided strainers,
consist of a tube extending across the interior diameter of the
pool designs call for a fabricated, perforated, stainless steel
pipe. This tube has two chambers, one on the upstream and
wall or other perforated stainless steel enclosure. If properly
one on the downstream side of the tube, each with a single
designed, this can provide much more free area and result
opening or multiple openings spaced across the interior di-
18 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013
ameter of the pipe. The attached display measures the total
pressure on the upstream side of the sensor and subtracts
the static pressure on the downstream side to arrive at a
resultant velocity pressure, which is converted to flow based
on the interior diameter of the pipe.
Paddle Wheel Type
The paddle wheel sensor measures the spinning rate of a
paddle wheel inserted in the flow stream. This rate of rotation
is converted into velocity and, based on the pipe’s interior
diameter, gallons per minute. The rotational speed of the
paddle wheel can be measured by pulses or magnetically,
depending on the manufacturer. With the magnetic type,
metallic particles present in the pool water can build up on
the sensor and restrict rotation.
Magnetic Sensors
A magnetic sensor can be used in situations where the piping
configuration only contains sufficient uninterrupted straight
runs of pipe on the dirty side of the filter, or in a section of
pipe that is within the pre-coat loop for a DE filter. Since
the signal is magnetic and doesn’t require a paddle wheel or
orifice that could become plugged, these sensors work well
for such applications.
Installation Parameters
If at all possible, flow-measuring devices should be installed
in the relatively clean water downstream of the filter. In DE
systems, they should be outside of the pre-coat loop, unless
a magnetic type sensor (listed above) is used. Each manufac- Figure 6-9 Regenerative DE Filter
turer has specific requirements regarding placement on the

Figure 6-10 Particle Retention Test Results

AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 19
 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
pipe. They also recommend the number of pipe diameters Variable-frequency Drives
of straight, uninterrupted flow upstream and downstream Though not commonly found on past swimming pool ap-
of the sensor. This is intended to ensure that the sensor is plications, VFDs are slowly gaining popularity, as dramatic
measuring uniform turbulence and can achieve its maximum energy savings can be realized through their use. The pump
accuracy. Affinity Laws provide the engineering verification of this.
Most codes, regardless of the manufacturer’s recom- With a VFD, the rotational speed of the circulation pump can
mendations, have their own minimum requirements for be slowed when system head requirements are at their lowest
straight, uninterrupted flow upstream and downstream of (i.e., clean filter, clean hair strainer conditions). Rather than
the sensor. Since the local board of health most likely is the closing a valve to reduce the flow to the design flow, the speed
AHJ in these designs, its prescribed minimums are the ones of the pump can be slowed while still maintaining the mini-
that must be met. mum turnover rate to the pool. As the pump performance is
Pressure differential sensors are problematic when used always designed well above the required duty point, use of
on installations where the equipment room is above the pool a VFD offers the potential for substantial speed reduction.
level. They are designed to respond to a difference between The pump Affinity Laws show the cubed relationship
the total pressure and the static pressure. If water is siphon- between speed and power:
ing back to the pool, as usually the case in these installations, • BHP2 = BHP1 x (S2)3 ÷ (S1)3
a vacuum will be on the downstream side of the sensor instead • BHP2 = BHP1 x (0.80)3 ÷ (1.00)3
of a measurable static pressure. As such, accuracy under • BHP2 = 0.512 x BHP1
these conditions is totally compromised. As shown in the calculation above, a mere 20 percent
Flow Control Devices reduction in speed lowers the pump power requirements by
Since all commercial pools have a requirement for minimum almost 49 percent compared to the power the pump would
turnovers per day (flow rate) and since pumps must be select- require using a standard across-the-line motor starter. Also,
ed for the worst-case scenario of a dirty filter with maximum reduced demand charges are incurred when the pump is
pressure loss through the filter, some means must be provided started gradually (soft started) by the VFD. The demand
to control the flow output of the pump. If the filter is clean, spike created by the lock-rotor-amp draw inherent with a
thus placing little or no restriction on pump discharge, the standard motor starter is not experienced. The resultant
flow through the filter may exceed the acceptable filter media system performance when a VFD is employed is sometimes
rate, which will result in inefficient filtration. even more appealing than the expected energy savings. The
soft start and gradual ramp down during start and stop
Manual Butterfly Valves
operations reduce wear and tear on the system components.
Manual butterfly valves are disc-type valves with either a Care must be taken when implementing a VFD as a system
lever handle with 10 position stops or a gear-operated drive component. For instance, if the pump selection is marginal,
with either a chain (for valves positioned at high elevations) the pump may need to run at or near 100 percent. At this
or an extended operator (for valves in a pit or not easily ac- operating point, the use of a VFD will actually result in a
cessible). higher operating cost due to some minor power transmission
Figure 6-11B depicts a butterfly valve using PVC as the losses associated with the circuitry of the VFD. Other system
body and disc for better chemical resistance. Figure 6-11C pressure concerns also must be evaluated. Simple solutions to
shows a butterfly valve with a polyester-coated cast iron these potential operational problems are available, but they
body, nylon II-coated ductile iron disc, and a 416 SS stem. must be dealt with in the initial design stages of a project.
All of these materials are intended to make the assembly
impervious to chemicals present in the pool water. The use Pool Water Heating Systems
of the type of valve shown in Figure 6-11A will be described One component of virtually all swimming pools is a system
in the section covering level control systems. for heating the pool water. In rare cases, the owner may
Both the PVC and cast iron valves employ EPDM seats consider this an expensive, unnecessary luxury, but instances
for bubble-tight closure. Of the two, the cast iron will prob- of this are rare.
ably hold up better to frequent use and/or rough handling. Temperatures generally are maintained in the range of
78–84°F (25.6–28.9°C) and sometimes higher when the facil-
Diaphragm-actuated Valves
ity has an older clientele with many water aerobic classes.
A diaphragm-actuated valve is very accurate in controlling Most heater manufacturers provide a general selection crite-
flow. The large weir allows for minor flow adjustments with ria table, which can be used to estimate the British thermal
only a slight movement of the hand wheel, which controls unit (Btu) output desired, regardless of the type of heating
the movement of the diaphragm. The body and bonnet of system chosen.
the valve are solid thermoplastic, PVC, CPVC, PP, or PVDF. This method of selection is basically intended to offset
Diaphragms are made of EPDM or Teflon with EPDM back- an expected average heat loss and is more directed toward
ing. The valve design is excellent for throttling of corrosive maintaining temperature in the pool water. If the Btu out-
fluids, since only the body and diaphragm are wetted parts. put selection is based on how long it will take to heat a total
They also provide bubble-tight closure, even in slurry ap- volume of fresh water from the source water temperature
plications or flows with suspended particles. to the operating temperature (ΔT), the required Btus must
be calculated using the following equation.

20 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013

Equation 6-1 chemistry, the more expensive cupro-nickel tubes are worth
Btus required = Pool gallons × 8.33 × ΔT ÷ System the additional cost versus life performance characteristics.
efficiency (percent) Central Heating Boiler
This is usually the method used for hot tub heater sizing. The only difference in the central heating design choice is the
If the desire is to reheat a tub full of water within two hours, lack of a dedicated boiler or direct-fired heater for the pool
divide the calculated Btus required by two to arrive at the system. Water from a central boiler is used as the primary
Btu per hour (Btuh) output for the heating system. loop supplying a heat exchanger for the pool. This will require
Another area of consideration when designing the water the boiler system for the whole building to be in operation
heating system is providing for the ability to flow the cor- whenever the pool is in use.
rect amount of water through the heater’s tube bundle. If a central boiler is the main component of the pool water
Many heaters are provided with integral booster pumps; heating system and there are substantial periods when the
others are not. The goal, especially on outdoor pools at pool is the only system requiring operation of the boiler,
initial startup, is to produce an optimum temperature rise a supplemental system should be considered. An electric
across the tube bundle. On startup, if the pool water is cold heater, piped in parallel with the heat exchanger, is an op-
(50–55°F [10–12.8°C]) and the flow through the tubes is too tion. With an electric heater in place, the central boiler can
high, condensation on the tube bundle will occur, and sulfuric be shut down while the electric heater maintains the pool
acid will form. This will quickly shorten the life of the tube water temperature.
bundle and even the burners. Dehumidification and
Maintaining optimum inlet water temperatures is greatly Heat Recovery Systems
facilitated by the use of a VFD. With proper heater by-pass Maintaining air quality in an indoor pool facility can be quite
piping and the implementation of a heater booster pump, difficult, yet it is essential to the comfort of the patrons.
the heater manufacturer’s required inlet temperature can The HVAC engineer should try to bring in as much outside
be effectively maintained. Once the pool is at the desired air as possible. Humidity must be maintained at an acceptable
temperature, the pressure and water flow at the suction side level to reduce any impact high humidity might have on the
of the heater booster pump will remain constant. With the building structure and ceiling components. If there are large
heater firing, a one-time adjustment to the mix of heated window areas, excessive humidity will cause condensation
water and the pool water being heated can be made to attain a and possibly damage the window casings.
desired inlet temperature. That setting will never change and Using a refrigerant loop to capture the heat of condensa-
will ensure a noncondensing situation for the tube bundle. tion from exhausted air provides some supplemental heating
Direct-fired Gas Heaters possibilities. The captured heat can be used to preheat in-
If space is available in or near the pool equipment room, coming outside air if needed, or it may be used to assist in
a dedicated gas-fired pool water heater may be used. Two pool water heating.
choices are available. Using these systems with a dedicated gas-fired pool heater
The atmospheric gas-fired heater uses the ambient air or in conjunction with a heat exchanger can present some
from the area in which it is installed for its combustion air difficult control decisions. Which system will do the primary
needs. Manufacturers of these units have stringent require- heating? Will each system have a different temperature con-
ments regarding the sizing of air-admittance louvers or grilles trol point? Will the heat recovery unit merely be a backup, or
serving the operating space. If this type of heater is installed will it be used only when the central boiler isn’t in operation?
in the pool equipment room, the combustion air may contain Dehumidification and heat-recovery units are commonly
high levels of chemicals or corrosive fumes, which obviously used in current pool design. However, they may present high
will have a detrimental effect on the longevity of the heater. maintenance costs. The air passing through the heat-recovery
In a sealed combustion gas-fired heater, combustion air is or dehumidification coil can be quite corrosive. Special ma-
outside air, drawn into the heater by an integral fan. Exhaust terials should be used for these coils, or the coil should have
gases are evacuated outside of the building by the same fan a special corrosion-resistant coating applied.
or a supplemental fan. These units are often rated at high These are expensive systems with the potential for
efficiencies, since the exhaust fan can move cool exhaust air substantial repair costs, yet they offer some energy-saving
out through the vent pipe before any condensation occurs. benefits. It is recommended that the pool designer do a thor-
ough psychometric evaluation of the particular installation
Indirect Heating
and make an informed cost/benefit evaluation.
Often, a dedicated pool heater or boiler will heat a primary
water source and pass it through an enclosure that has a Chemical Control and Feed Systems
secondary coil or tube bundle immersed in the boiler water, The owner or operator of any commercial or public swimming
which carries pool water. The heat transfer between the two pool is expected to maintain a safe environment regarding
raises the pool water temperature. water quality. The water environment that is shared by the
These heat exchangers are required by code to be of patrons must be clear and free of debris and contain no bac-
double-wall construction. The intermediate space must be teriological contaminants. To ensure this safety factor, codes
drip-vented to atmosphere to prevent the intermingling of place minimum requirements regarding oxidizer/sanitizer
pool water and boiler water, which may contain unwanted levels in the pool water, as well as a proper range in which
boiler treatment chemicals. In consideration of the pool water the pH of the water must be maintained. In all but extreme

AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 21

 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
cases, these levels provide proper bacteria kill as well as help Choosing Proper Control Chemicals
maintain water clarity. The chemistry of the source water at a potential pool location
Proper pH and Sanitizer Levels should be examined to see if it could impact a decision on the
Typical sanitizer levels and pH ranges can be found in APSP type of control chemicals to use. If the fill and/or makeup wa-
publications as well as NSPF textbooks. These ranges are ter is essentially balanced, almost any of the various sanitizer/
as follows: oxidizer and pH-adjustment systems can be used. Balanced
• Pool sanitizer levels: 1–5 parts per million (ppm) when water would fall within the following ranges:
some form of chlorine is used as the sanitizer/oxidizer and • Total alkalinity: 80–120 ppm
4–5 ppm when bromine is used as the sanitizer/oxidizer • pH: 7.2–7.8
• Pool pH levels: 7.2–7.8 pH (acceptable), 7.4–7.6 pH (ideal) • Calcium hardness: 200–400 ppm
• Whirlpool and hot tub sanitizer levels: 2–3 ppm when • Total dissolved solids: <1,000 ppm
chlorine is used and 4–5 ppm when bromine is used Gas chlorine is seldom used in new designs. The accept-
Many people do not recognize the importance of maintain- able sanitizers/oxidizers are primarily chlorines (stabilized
ing pH in the proper range. In fact, the pH of the water is the or unstabilized) and bromine. Lithium hypochlorite is some-
primary factor in determining the killing power of the chlo- times suggested by various suppliers but is seldom used.
rine. When any type of chlorine is dissolved in water, it forms Its relatively low active strength (29 percent) and high cost
hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which is the most active form relegate its use primarily to backyard pools, where it is ideal
the dissolved chlorine can take. HOCl is a strong oxidizer/ for use on vinyl-liner pools.
sanitizer, but the pH of the water is the determining factor Acid is used to lower pH; soda ash (calcium carbonate)
for how much of the dissolved chlorine remains as HOCl. is used to raise pH. The available common acids used are
Hypochlorous acid easily disassociates into a hypochlorite ion muriatic acid (dilute hydrochloric acid) and sodium bisulfate.
(OCl-) and a hydrogen ion (H+), and this disassociation is Sometimes carbon dioxide is used. When carbon dioxide is
much greater at a higher pH. The hypochlorite ion is still an injected into the return water, it forms carbonic acid (a weak
oxidizer/sanitizer, but it is considerably weaker than HOCl. acid).
Thus, at a higher pH, less of the chlorine in the pool water Where high total alkalinity is present or when designing
is in the strong hypochlorous acid form. an indoor pool facility, care should be taken when considering
For example, at a pH of 8.0, it will take a residual of 3 ppm carbon dioxide for pH control. Since carbon dioxide raises
of free chlorine to have the equivalent killing power that 1 alkalinity when injected into the pool water, it would poten-
ppm of free chlorine has at a pH of 7.4. This merely empha- tially make an existing total alkalinity problem worse. High
sizes the fact that just as much attention must be paid to the total alkalinity encourages high pH levels, and more acid
output capabilities of the acid or pH adjustment systems as is (carbonic acid) is needed to offset this. The required feeding
paid to chlorine feed systems. If proper pH control cannot be of more carbon dioxide results in even greater increases in
maintained, the sanitizing characteristics in the pool water alkalinity levels.
cannot be effectively controlled. Source water with high calcium hardness levels, more
than 400 ppm, presents similar difficulties, and using calcium
Water Balance
hypochlorite as the sanitizer/oxidizer may compound the
Water balance is based on a combination of factors. It is a problem. It may be necessary to consider sodium hypochlorite
measurement of five primary chemical levels that determine as the sanitizing and oxidizing agent.
whether the pool water is scale forming (oversaturated) or Other factors to consider are the different effects the
corrosive (undersaturated). The Langelier Index is the most unstabilized chlorine products can have on water balance
common calculation used to determine this. and the need for pH adjustments. Calcium hypochlorite has
Water is the universal solvent. It will try to dissolve any- a pH of approximately 10 when dissolved in water; sodium
thing it comes into contact with until it becomes satisfied hypochlorite (a liquid) has a pH of approximately 13. This
(saturated). At this point, any additional solids introduced higher pH can require almost twice the amount of acid
into the solution cause it to become oversaturated. These used for pH control. Sodium hypochlorite also introduces
solids eventually will settle out or form layers of calcification approximately two times more total dissolved solids (TDS)
on the surfaces or components of the circulation system. This into the pool water. Most codes limit the amount of total dis-
calcification can degrade system performance, and oversatu- solved solids in pool water to a range of less than 2,500 ppm
rated water also affects water clarity. Undersaturation, or (sometimes as low as 1,500 ppm). Another common criteria
corrosive conditions, can also degrade performance as well is to maintain TDS no greater than 1,500 ppm over the TDS
as destroy the pool’s structure (i.e., tile, grout) and metallic of incoming source water.
system components. Stabilized chlorines are chlorine products that have been
All of these factors point out the importance of main- combined with a stabilizing chemical (cyanuric acid). The
taining proper water balance. The chemistry of the fill and available choices are trichlor (trichloro-s-triazinetrione)
makeup water of any facility should be examined. It can and dichlor (dichloro-s-triazinetrione), which are chlorine
be a major factor in determining the proper chemical feed products that have been chemically combined with cyanuric
system to use. acid. The addition of cyanuric acid (also called stabilizer or
conditioner) is used to reduce the amount of chlorine burned
off by the ultraviolet (UV) rays of the sun striking the pool

22 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013

water. Since indoor pools are seldom faced with a problem
of excessive sunlight conditions, these stabilized products
are normally recommended only for outdoor pools and are
sometimes not allowed by code for indoor applications.
The use of stabilized chlorine can, over time, result in
the buildup of high levels of cyanuric acid in the pool water,
and the cyanuric acid does not degrade. It remains in the
pool until it is backwashed away or splashed out. Most codes
limit the level of cyanuric acid to 100 ppm because levels
exceeding 30 ppm substantially limit the time it takes for
the chlorine residual in the pool to oxidize the contaminants
or kill bacteria, which can lead to unsafe conditions.
These concerns are frequently enough to relegate the
isocyanuric chemicals to private backyard pools because the
patron loading on these pools is substantially lower than any
commercial facility. Instead of using stabilized chlorines, cal-
cium hypochlorite or sodium hypochlorite with the manual
addition of a small amount of cyanuric acid to the pool will
have a reasonable resistance to UV degradation. This can
be done at a much lower chemical cost and without the un-
wanted buildup of cyanuric acid.
The final consideration regarding pH control is the effect
that the adjustment chemical used can have on the longev-
ity of the mechanical equipment. The strongest form of acid
used in the pool industry to lower pH is muriatic acid. If feed
equipment handling muriatic acid is not sealed properly, the
fumes emanating from the acid will rapidly destroy or corrode
all metal components in the equipment room.
Chemical Controllers
Automatic water chemistry controllers have become the norm Figure 6-11 Flow Control Valves
on almost every design of a new pool facility or the upgrade
or retrofit of an older system. Some codes only require con-
maintaining safe water conditions. High pH results in weak
trollers on pools; others require them on pools and hot tubs.
chlorine; low pH results in the controller underfeeding chlo-
Numerous choices are available. Low-cost controllers
rine on a ppm basis.
simply measure pH and oxidizer/sanitizer levels and then
Other controllers that are programmable actually control
send power to the associated feed equipment to bring either
to a ppm set point. This type of controller uses curve fitting
back into the proper range.
(high-end floating-point math) to calculate ppm based on
Most controllers measure these chemical levels through
standard ppm curves on a pH versus ORP axis provided by
the use of measuring probes immersed in a stream of filtered
the manufacturer of the probe.
pool water or in a larger sample cell with pool water flowing
The last type of automatic controller treats pool water
through it. These probes produce a millivolt signal, which is
samples on an intermittent schedule with test chemicals.
the feedback to the controller that allows that control device
It then compares the color of the sample to a standardized
to maintain proper pH and chlorine levels. The millivolt
series of colors and determines pH and chlorine levels directly.
output of the pH probe is directly related to the pH level of
This type of controller requires regular replenishment of the
the pool water. The chlorine or bromine level is not given
test chemicals.
directly by the probe.
In general, more complex controllers have a higher initial
The probe measuring the chlorine or bromine level is actu-
cost. Controllers with unnecessary bells and whistles may
ally measuring how active the sanitizer is, not the quantity of
require frequent service calls and related service costs. This
it in the pool water. This activity is defined as oxidation reduc-
should be considered when trying to design an operator-
tion potential (ORP). In other words, the probe is measuring
friendly system.
the potential of the sanitizer for oxidizing contaminants.
As was discussed earlier in this chapter, changes in pH pH Control Systems
levels affect the activity of chlorine. The controller can only There are two distinct systems for controlling pH. Chemical
control to an ORP set point, measured in millivolts. If pH feed pumps can be used to pump some form of acid to lower
rises, the ORP of the chlorine (i.e., the millivolt signal from pH. The same style of pump can also feed soda ash to raise
the ORP probe) decreases. As a result, the controller will turn pH, if that is what the pool requires.
on the chlorine feed system, often when the chlorine level Typically, if using sodium hypochlorite (a liquid sometimes
is actually in the desired range. This relationship reinforces incorrectly referred to as bleach) or calcium hypochlorite (a
the premise that pH is equal in importance to chlorine in dry chemical that is mixed with water) as the oxidizer/sani-

AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 23

 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
tizer, acid would need to be used as the pH control chemical. These pumps usually create pressures in excess of 100 psi
Sodium hypochlorite has a pH of approximately 13, and cal- (689.5 kPa). Caution must be taken to ensure that the check
cium hypochlorite has a pH of approximately 10. Obviously, valve, usually installed at the chemical injection point into the
using these products to maintain proper sanitizer residuals circulation piping, doesn’t become blocked. If the diaphragm
would increase the pH of the pool water. pump becomes dead-headed, the resultant high pressure in
The other system that is sometimes employed to lower the feed tubing can cause it to burst.
pH is a carbon dioxide feed system. The carbon dioxide gas Carbon Dioxide Feed Systems
is injected into the water returning to the pool, and it forms Carbon dioxide has become an alternate choice for lowering
carbonic acid when dissolved in the stream of water. Carbonic pH. When it is injected into the circulation system, it forms
acid is weak, but it will effectively lower pH. carbonic acid. It also has a tendency to increase total alkalin-
Acid Feed Pumps ity in the pool water. If the makeup water for the pool already
Two basic types of chemical feed pumps are used on pool has high total alkalinity characteristics, carbon dioxide may
systems. They each have advantages and disadvantages. not be a good choice for pH control.
Peristaltic pumps use a motor-driven series of rollers that Carbon dioxide comes in 50-pound (23-kg) or 150-pound
rotate in an enclosed pump head, and as the assembly rotates, (68-kg) high-pressure tanks. For large facilities or especially
it squeezes a feed tube. This creates a vacuum on one end of for outdoor pools, permanent installation of 750-pound (340-
the tube, which allows atmospheric pressure to push the acid kg) tanks can be employed. These are usually set up to be
solution into the evacuated area of the feed tube. The next refilled from outside the pool building.
roller then forces that solution toward the other end of the In general, a gas-control electric solenoid is used to regu-
tube and creates a new evacuated area of tube in its wake. late the flow of the carbon dioxide gas. The solenoid is most
In the past, there were concerns that the pressure de- commonly connected to an automatic water chemistry con-
veloped by peristaltic pumps (usually no more than 25 psi troller. Some system manufacturers use a side stream with
[172.4 kPa]) might be insufficient for injecting chemicals a venturi and possibly a booster pump to create a vacuum to
into the circulation system. However, this is seldom true. assist in drawing in the gas and dissolving it in the return
Chemicals must be injected downstream of all system water.
components, such as heaters, heat exchangers, and dehu- Carbon dioxide is heavier than air. It is best located in a
midification equipment. At that area of the return piping, separate, force-ventilated area. The vent fan pickup should
the only back-pressure or system head remaining is merely be positioned near the floor.
due to elevation head, small return pipe and fitting losses, Sanitizer/Oxidizer Feed Systems
and friction and discharge losses through the filtered water Feed pumps are used when the oxidizer/sanitizer chemical
inlets. It is seldom more than 7–10 psi (48.3–68.9 kPa). In is in a liquid form. This can be sodium hypochlorite (sold as
cases where pressures greater than 25 psi (172.4 kPa) are a liquid), a dry calcium hypochlorite, or granular dichloro-s-
expected, some peristaltic pumps can create output pressures triazinetrione (dichlor) dissolved in water. The pumps used
as high as 100 psi (689.5 kPa). for feeding chlorine solutions are the same as those indicated
These are relatively inexpensive pumps. The internal earlier for pH-adjusting acid feed systems. However, since
components don’t usually have a long life expectancy, but acid solutions do not generate calcium carbonate (calcifica-
they are not costly to replace. The only other concern is that tion) and do not contain insolubles or sediment, the working
peristaltic pumps must be placed close to the acid solution parts of the pump operate in a much cleaner environment.
holding tank. The weak vacuum that they create does not Chlorine solutions are much more prone to sediment and
allow for long suction tubing runs. calcification concerns. This should be considered when decid-
The other type, the diaphragm pump, uses a rotating ing on the type of pump to use.
cam to move a diaphragm in an enclosed housing. Check Erosion feeders are used where the control chemical is
valves are used on both the suction and discharge sides of manufactured in a tablet or briquette form. The briquettes
the diaphragm enclosure. or tablets are dissolved by either a flow of water across their
The rotating cam controls the inward and outward surface or contact with a water spray. The feeder can be either
movement of the diaphragm. When the diaphragm moves atmospheric or pressurized. NSF International requires that
outward, a vacuum is created in the enclosure. This vacuum only the chemical product prescribed by the manufacturer
closes the discharge check valve and opens the suction check be used in a given feeder. This mandate is directly related to
valve. Thus, the outward motion allows the chemicals to be concerns about mixing different chemicals, as well as main-
drawn from the solution tank. The inward movement of the taining NSF-verified feeder output capabilities (pounds per
diaphragm has the opposite effect: Pressure is created in the day of available chlorine).
housing. That pressure closes the suction check valve and Calcium hypochlorite is often manufactured in a tablet
opens the discharge side to allow chemicals to be pumped or briquette form and has to be dissolved in some manner.
into the piping system. Several types of these systems are available. The feeder
As many as four check valves can be used with this type can be installed in a side stream, with or without a booster
of pump. If the chemical being pumped is prone to calcifica- pump. The design can be as simple as a flow-through device
tion or particulate buildup, frequent cleaning is required. If or a more complex spray device with a venturi and booster
sediment impairs the operation of the check valves, pumping pump. Overflow protection is usually provided as part of the
will cease.

24 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013

feeder design. Most codes require a certain output capability, Automatic water chemistry controllers rely on the mil-
in pounds per day based on the gallons in the system being livolt signal from the ORP probe for feedback regarding
treated. This will be the determining factor for specifying chlorine levels in the pool water. High stabilizer levels cause
feeder sizing. inaccuracies in the output of the ORP probes.
The stabilized chlorine product trichloro-s-triazinetrione Elemental bromine is a heavy reddish-brown liquid. In its
(trichlor) is introduced into the pool using a pressurized elemental form, its use is no longer allowed by U.S. Environ-
feeder. The feeder is filled with the trichlor tablets and mental Protection Agency regulations. Thus, bromine, when
then sealed. When pool water flows through the feeder, the used as a spa disinfectant, must be provided in some other
tablets dissolve. Trichlor feeders are usually installed in a form. One form is sodium bromide activated by potassium
side stream with isolation valves. Feed of the chemical can monopersulfate (an oxidizer). This two-part system is not
be accomplished by manually opening the isolation valves used on commercial systems, so it is mentioned here for in-
or by using a normally closed solenoid on the influent side formational purposes only. The second means of introducing
of the feeder. Use of a solenoid requires an automatic water bromine into the pool water is by use of an erosion feeder. The
chemistry controller to be part of the system. The solenoid is pressurized feeder is filled with bromine tablets. The flow-
opened by the automatic chemical controller when it senses through feeder is installed in a side stream, with isolation
a drop in chlorine residual. If trichlor is selected as the oxi- valves and possibly a solenoid. The solenoid is only used if an
dizer/sanitizer, there are some concerns regarding buildup of automatic water chemistry controller is part of the system.
stabilizer in the pool water. As more and more trichlor is fed Pound for pound, bromine is a much weaker sanitizer/
to replace what is used for sanitation purposes, the stabilizer oxidizer than chlorine. It requires approximately 2.25 times
remains and builds to higher ppm
Differential levels.
Pressure Controller Detail more bromine to achieve the same oxidation and sanitation
Piston Actuated Butterfly Valve w/ Pilot Positioner
results available with chlorine use. Its main advantage
BUBBLER
PRESSURE REGULATOR
set for 20 psi
is that it is less prone to degradation due to high water
Pool Deck Level
temperatures. For that reason, bromine is often the
choice for hot tub and whirlpool applications where
3way Solenoid (1/4")
(Interlock with Pump or 104°F (40°C) temperatures are the norm. If heavy
Pool Return Valve))
Fresh Water
Pressure Regulator
user loads are expected, chlorine, due to its greater
set for 80 psi
oxidizing and sanitizing properties, may still be the
SIGNAL
INPUT OUTPUT

1/4" Ball Valve

proper choice.
(typ.)

Fresh Water Make-Up

Level Control Systems
Some method is needed to maintain a proper level in
Solenoid Air Connection to
pressure switch and
120 volt connection to

the surge tank, primarily for pump protection. If the

Pressure water make-up solenoid Signal Supply
Switchl

From Gutter
Surge Tank Check Valve
Butterfly Valve level in the surge tank drops too low, vortex conditions
will occur, and the resultant cavitation can damage
the pump.
Float-operated Main Drain Butterfly Valve
FROM MAIN DRAIN
Piston Type Modulating Valve

The float-operated main drain butterfly valve is the

2" OR 3" w/Pilot Positioner
TO PUMP SUCTION

simplest form of control (see Figure 6-11A). The main

Figure 6-12 Differential Pressure Controller Detail, Piston-actuated
ASPE-4
drain pipe is connected to the surge tank, and this
Butterfly Valve with Pilot Positioner
valve is installed on the end of that pipe between a
Differential Pressure Controller Detail set of flanges. As the level drops in the surge tank,
Diaphragm Actuated Butterfly Valve
BUBBLER
PRESSURE REGULATOR
the floats drop, allowing more water to flow from
Fresh Water
the main drain. As the level rises, the main drain is
restricted, which results in a higher percentage of
circulated water being taken from the top of the pool
Fresh Water Make-Up
Solenoid (not a very accurate means of level control). The surge
tank usually ends up at an operating level near the
(optional)
3way Solenoid (1/4")
(Interlock with Pump or
SIGNAL INPUT OUTPUT Pool Return Valve))
top, with little room for acceptance of actual surge.
This is due to the fact that this type of valve is only
1/4" Ball Valve
Gutter Water (typ.)

Optional Connection to
Air Operated
Diaphragm Type
capable of 80 percent closure.
pressure switch and
Pneumatically Operated Main Drain
Modulating Valve
120 volt connection to
Pressure water make-up solenoid
Switch
(optional) Modulating Valves
Butterfly Valve
Surge Tank
or
Check Valve Pneumatically operated main drain modulating
Gutter Trench
valves are butterfly valves with either a diaphragm-
driven actuator or an air-operated piston actuator.
FROM MAIN DRAIN They require some type of control device, which will
2" OR 3" TO PUMP SUCTION
constantly reposition the butterfly valve disc based
on level changes in the surge tank. They are primar-
Figure 6-13 Differential Pressure Controller Detail, Diaphragm-actuated
ASPE-4
ily installed on the main drain line. The use of these
Butterfly Valve
AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 25
 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
valves does not require the main drain to be piped into the connected to the controller, is positioned at the operating
surge tank. Remote devices measuring the level in the surge level desired. When the water drops and the sensor comes
tank provide the feedback needed for valve positioning. out of contact with the water, the controller sends voltage to
The diaphragm-driven type of modulating valve uses a a slow-closing electric solenoid that opens and allows fresh
large diaphragm, with pressure applied to one side. The other water to be added. A time delay is built in before solenoid
side of the diaphragm is connected to linkage that moves actuation to limit short-cycling.
the disc of the butterfly valve. The pressure source can be The stainless steel probe system is a set of three probes
either water or a pneumatic air system. If water is used, the used to measure water level. A reflecting line is also required
controller is a simple float assembly controlling city water for this system. The probe module is mounted on the top of
or pump discharge pressure. the reflecting line, with the probes extending into the water.
The piston type with pilot positioner has a piston in a When the level drops below the medium-length probe, the
chamber. When air pressure is introduced into one side of the freshwater solenoid is energized. When the level rises and
chamber, the piston strokes away from that increased pres- touches the shortest probe, freshwater fill is discontinued.
sure. Linkage attached to the piston changes the position of The difference in length between these two probes deter-
the disc of the butterfly valve. The actual stroke of the piston mines the sensitivity of this system. If the difference in length
is controlled by a pilot positioner that responds to a feedback is not enough, short-cycling will occur.
control signal from the level control device. These are two Pneumatic
separate air signals. One air connection merely provides the The action of this control system was described under
power to move the piston against system pressure. The other “Pressure Differential Control System.” The combination
lower-pressure signal is the control signal that tells the pilot of the air pressure signal to the modulating valve and an
positioner how far to move the piston. adjustable 120-volt pressure switch controls the freshwater
Differential-pressure Controller makeup solenoid.
Using pneumatic air, a differential-pressure controller is an When the flow from the pool gutter diminishes, the level
extremely accurate way to control the surge tank level. It is in the surge tank begins to drop. In response to this, the
sometimes referred to as a “bubbler” system. As the level pressure-differential controller increases its output pres-
rises in the surge tank (a mere quarter-inch), the controller sure to the main drain modulating valve. This allows flow
begins to close the main drain modulating valve. If the level to increase from the main drain piping to make up for the
continues to rise, the valve may close completely, allowing reduction in gutter flow. In this way, the desired surge tank
the flow of water from the top of the pool (where all of the operating level can be maintained.
contaminants are being introduced) to be the first through If skimming action continues to decrease and the control-
the filtration and chemical treatment systems. ler must continue to increase pressure to the main drain
When bathers leave the pool, the pool level will drop below valve, the set point of the adjustable pressure switch will
the lip of the gutter. This is because the swimmers displaced be reached, and it will send power to the electric solenoid to
water from the pool into the surge tank. Since the main drain begin freshwater makeup. This is the most accurate means
modulating valve restricts the main drain flow until the of controlling the total volume of water in the system (pool
predetermined surge operating level is achieved, the surge plus surge). For piping details, see Figures 6-12 and 6-13.
water will quickly be sent from the surge tank back to the
pool. In this way, skimming action will quickly resume. (See Specialty Systems
Figures 6-12 and 6-13.) Supplemental Sanitation and Oxidation
Fresh Water Makeup In general, the use of a proper oxidizer/sanitizer and pH-ad-
Commercial pools are required to maintain a level where justment chemicals should be all that is required to maintain
skimming action occurs continuously, which requires the a safe swimming environment. For a swimming pool chemi-
maintenance of sufficient water in the system to offset splash cal treatment strategy, less is better. While a preponderance
out, evaporation, or any other water losses (leaks). of unproven products are on the market, some technologies
If there is no means provided for automatic freshwater have possible merit.
makeup, the operator will be required to regularly monitor Ozone Systems
the water level. The simplest form of water level control is Ozone is a gas that is heavier than air. It is a very strong
for the operator to manually open a water fill valve. The oxidizer and bactericide. Since it is very unstable, it must
fresh water will usually be discharged from the fill pipe into be produced on site. Two methods are used for the produc-
a surge tank or balance tank with the required air gap. If fill tion of ozone: corona discharge and UV. Of the two, corona
water is directly connected to the circulation system, some discharge is more applicable to large commercial systems.
form of backflow prevention must be employed. The lower output of UV ozone units relegates them to small
Level-sensing System with Electric Solenoid systems or hot tubs.
A level-sensing system can be used when automatic water Ozone gas is usually drawn into the water and dissolved
makeup is desired. Numerous control systems are available. through the use of a side stream off the main circulation sys-
The electronic sensor type of controller requires a reflect- tem. Since ozone is quickly used up in the oxidation process
ing line from the body of water being measured and whose or converts back to oxygen due to its short half-life, it cannot
level is being maintained. An encapsulated electronic sensor, be used as the primary sanitizer/oxidizer. It must be used in

26 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013

conjunction with one of the other oxidizers/sanitizers that the amount and size of glass particles that might flow into
leave a residual in the pool water. the pool if the bulb shattered. The UV contact cell is piped,
Ozone is a supplemental system. Its use is not required full size, into the return piping. Thus, every gallon of water
on every pool design. However, on systems such as an indoor circulated passes through the UV rays on the way back to
facility with multiple pools and water features, it can be a the pool or water feature.
beneficial addition. The heavy bather load experienced at UV radiation alters the molecular structure of compounds
these venues overtaxes the usual water treatment resources. that experience sufficient exposure to the rays. The com-
The buildup of objectionable combinations of organic and ponents remain in the water, only in an altered form. The
inorganic materials locked up with the chlorine will rapidly DNA of most bacteria is changed, rendering most of them
result in unsatisfactory ambient air and water conditions. harmless. Despite the fact that written promotional material
The addition of a properly sized ozone-generating system claims that UV has oxidation capabilities, that statement
can totally eliminate this problem. is untrue. Oxidation is a chemical process that requires an
The corona discharge ozone system consists of several oxygen atom to be given up by the oxidizing agent to the
components. An oxygen concentrator preps the air entering material being oxidized.
the ozone generator. A side stream off the main return piping, The prime consideration here is contact time. For this
along with a booster pump and venturi, is used to create a exposure to UV to have the desired results, there must be
vacuum that draws the ozone from the ozone generator and sufficient contact time. At the velocities common in most
injects it into the side-stream flow. circulation systems (8–10 fps), there is little exposure time
The water is then piped into a contact chamber. The con- for the UV rays to do their job.
tact chamber is sized to allow approximately four minutes of On outdoor pools, the loss of chlorine from UV degrada-
contact time between the water and the dissolved ozone. By tion caused by exposure to sunlight can be substantial. The
the time this flow leaves the contact chamber, the ozone has same occurs with UV sanitizing systems. The UV will strip
been depleted either through the oxidation and sanitation most if not all of the chlorine residual from the pool water
processes or by reverting back to its basic form of oxygen. passing through. This chlorine must be replaced on the way
Any ozone gas that bubbles out of solution in the contact out to the pool; otherwise, the necessary residual won’t be
chamber is vented out the top of the chamber through an maintained in the pool. This chlorine destruction may cause
automatic air vent and flows to an ozone destruct unit. The the chlorine consumption of the facility to increase by 40–50
contact chamber and automatic air vent ensure that no ozone percent. Due to that fact and the cost to replace the UV con-
remains by the time the ozone side stream mixes back into tact cell bulbs every six to 12 months, these systems can be
the circulation system return flow. This protects pool patrons quite expensive to operate.
from any undue exposure to ozone. Another concern is that these systems place the UV dis-
The installation protocol is quite straightforward. Essen- infectant bulb in the stream of water returning to the pool.
tially, the side stream ties in right after the filter at the point Because of the potential for bulb breakage, a fine stainless
of highest remaining system pressure. The side-stream flow steel mesh screen is placed downstream of the UV bulb to
is then assisted by the booster pump through the venturi into limit the size of glass shards that might be pumped out to
the contact chamber and reconnected to the main circulation the pool. This UV disinfecting bulb contains mercury, and
flow after the pool water heater and before any other chemi- when replacement becomes necessary, it must be disposed of
cal injection. For details, see Figure 6-14. as a hazardous waste. With this potential for breakage, the
UV Systems designer should carefully consider if they are comfortable
In contrast to UV ozone systems that pass air over an ultra- with even a small amount of mercury being present in the
violet bulb, sanitizing UV systems immerse an ultraviolet water exiting a pool inlet with a patron in the nearby water.
bulb into the full flow of water returning to the pool. A fine Water Features
strainer screen is required downstream of the bulb to limit Many different types of playground features—spray features,
slides, flumes, vortexes, etc.—are available. See
Chapter 5 of this volume for detailed information
on their design. Following are some ideas on what
should be considered when incorporating these
into a pool design.
The primary concern is user safety. Will the
structures themselves create tripping hazards on
the pool deck or limit free movement around the
pool deck? Can the area near the bottom of a slide
or flume be kept free of bathers so patrons exiting
the play feature will not strike fellow swimmers?
Will separate pumps be used for each feature?
If so, from where will they draw their water? If it
will be from the dirty water in the surge tank, how
can the pump be protected against being plugged
Figure 6-14 Complete System Piping with debris? This same dirty water also has the
AUGUST 2013   Read, Learn, Earn 27
 READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools
potential to plug any play feature that incorporates small 0.065 inch or 0.109 inch. (0.145 inch is also available.) Re-
orifices for spray action. cently, ladders and rails for access ramps with an outside
If water will be drawn directly from the pool, the same diameter of the stainless steel tube of 1.5 inches have been
dirty water concerns exist. An additional concern is protect- introduced. This is purported to be more user friendly and
ing against possible hair, limb, or suction entrapment of the possibly is soon to be recommended by American with Dis-
patrons. Some codes require the use of a vacuum breaker abilities Act guidelines.
open to atmosphere through a sizeable pipe connection at Handicapped access can be accommodated on rehabs of
pump suction. Exercise caution in the use of these, as many older pools by the use of portable stairs or battery-powered
times they are adjusted improperly. If they are triggered movable lifts. For an idea of how these systems look, see
inadvertently and the operator is not aware of an open con- Figure 6-15.
nection at pump suction, cavitation over a long period may Underwater Pool Lights
destroy the circulation pump.
The majority of pool lights are wet niche-type lights, with
If these water features are part of the design of an indoor
the wet niche set into the concrete of the pool wall. The light
facility, consider some type of sanitation of the water being
has a long, sealed power cord that can be removed from the
atomized into the pool facility atmosphere. This can be a
niche and lifted to the pool deck for re-lamping.
good use for ozone or other non-chlorine means of oxidation.
These lights can be 120 volt or 12 volt with a 120–12-volt
Pool Site Components transformer. The 12-volt lights are usually available with
300-watt bulbs; the 120-volt lights are available with 400-
Ladders, Ramps, and Handicapped Access watt or 500-watt bulbs.
Selecting and specifying ladders and ramps may fall under the Pool Inlets
responsibilities of the architect designing the pool structure.
Inlets come in many forms. Adjustable floor inlets are shaped
However, if the design assumes that a pool contractor will do
like a cone, tapering from the surface of the pool floor to the
the installation, these items may end up being included in
pipe connections. A movable flat disc with an adjustment
the swimming pool section of the specification (usually Sec-
screw moves in or out to change the volume of flow through
tion 13150). Most ladders are made of stainless steel, with
the inlet. Wall inlets can be of an eyeball variety or merely a
an outside diameter of 1.9 inches and a wall thickness of
flat grate with the option of a flow-adjustment mechanism.
Some codes strictly restrict any wall inlets that stick out
beyond the surface of the wall. This is to prevent injuring a
patron who might slide down the wall. Other designs include
hydrotherapy inlets used in hot tubs. Good design for all
return inlets employs the use of some type of no-leak flange
for pipe penetrations through the pool structure.
Safety Equipment
Safety items typically required are as follows:
• U.S. Coast Guard-approved ring buoys with 60-foot
throw lines
• Approved first aid kit
• Life hook with pole
• Spineboard with head immobilizer, body straps, and wrist
and ankle straps
• Test kit

Acknowledgements
• DE/Perlite Performance Test Data, Ken Bergstrom,
President, Filtrex Inc.
• “Improving Bacteriological Safety: A Comparison of DE
and Perlite,” presented at The World Aquatic Health
Conference, October 2009.

References
• Hydraulic Institute Standards for Centrifugal, Rotary,
and Reciprocating Pumps, 14th Edition
• Wisconsin Administrative Code, Table 6-1
• ASME A112.19.8 (2007): Suction Fittings for Use in
Swimming Pools, Wading Pools, Spas, and Hot Tubs
• “Understanding the Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and
Spa Safety Act 2007,” Plumbing Systems & Design,
September 2009.
Figure 6-15 Handicapped Access
28 Read, Learn, Earn AUGUST 2013
ASPE Read, Learn, Earn Continuing Education
You may submit your answers to the following questions online at [Link]/readlearnearn. If you score 90 percent or higher on the test,
you will be notified that you have earned 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward CPD renewal or numerous regulatory-agency CE pro-
grams. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept
on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Notice for North Carolina Professional Engineers: State regulations for registered PEs in North Carolina now require you to complete ASPE’s
online CEU validation form to be eligible for continuing education credits. After successfully completing this quiz, just visit ASPE’s CEU Valida-
tion Center at [Link]/CEUValidationCenter.
Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through August 31, 2014.

CE Questions — “Public Swimming Pools” (CEU 202)

1. What is the intent of the Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa 7. Which of the following typically has a higher initial cost than
Safety Act? any other type of filter system?
a. prevent suction entrapment a. static cake diatomaceous earth filter
b. prevent bacterial contamination of the water b. vacuum sand filter
c. prevent entrapment due to hair entanglement c. regenerative diatomaceous earth filter
d. both a and c d. pressure diatomaceous earth filter
2. What is the deep-end minimum depth for pools with a 10-foot 8. The most common types of hair strainers are made of _______.
springboard? a. stainless steel
a. 4.5 feet b. fiberglass reinforced plastic
b. between 9 and 12 feet c. cast iron
c. 7 feet d. both a and b
d. between 11.5 and 13 feet
9. Which of the following is an advantage of the diaphragm-
3. How many public urinals would be required for an actuated valve?
8,000-square-foot water attraction without sleeping or a. excellent for throttling of corrosive fluids
dwelling units? b. provides bubble-tight closure
a. 1 c. allows for minor flow adjustments with only a slight
b. 2 movement of the hand wheel
c. 3 d. all of the above
d. 4
10. Pool water temperatures generally are maintained in the range
4. What is the typical minimum turnover rate for a wading pool? of _______.
a. 30 minutes a. 70–80°F
b. 2 hours b. 75–85°F
c. 4 hours c. 78–84°F
d. 6 hours d. 78–86°F
5. To reduce the chance of hair entanglement, velocities through 11. _______ can be used to lower the pH of pool water.
the gratings covering main drain sumps are usually mandated a. muriatic acid
to not exceed _______. b. sodium bisulfate
a. 0.5 foot per second c. carbon dioxide
b. 1–1.5 feet per second d. all of the above
c. 1.5–2 feet per second
12. Which of the following is the simplest form of level control in
d. 2.5 feet per second
a surge tank?
6. What is currently the most common type of filter employed on a. float-operated main drain butterfly valve
swimming pool systems? b. pneumatically operated main drain modulating valve
a. diatomaceous earth filter c. differential-pressure controller
b. vacuum sand filter d. electric solenoid
c. high-rate sand filter
d. vacuum diatomaceous earth filter

AUGUST 2013 Read, Learn, Earn 29