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1
General requirements on lab reports
Length: 1000 – 2000 words (depending on data)
Structure:
• Cover Page: Title, course, group members, date, instructor
• Abstract: Summary of objectives, key findings, and conclusions
• Introduction & Theory: Background, concepts, and purpose
• Procedures: Describe your actual steps (do not copy instructions)
• Results & Discussion: Present data, analyze findings, include required items from
the manual (Tables, scattered point for data & curves for fitting results in x-y plots)
• Error Analysis: Discuss errors (quantitative confidence interval)
• Conclusions: Summarize results, compare with theory, suggest improvements
• References: Cite sources consistently (need at least one reference)

Important Notes:
Work in groups for data analysis, but write reports individually
Ensure consistent formatting (headings, fonts, citations)
Submit on time to avoid penalties
2
4. Vibration

3
Mass-spring-dampener

A vibrating washing machine

Damp(en)er
Dampener

Mass

Mass

Spring
Spring
4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j-zczJXSxnw
Mass-spring-damper without external force

Equation of motion from Newton’s law:

Current Current
acceleration a(t) speed v(t) −𝑐𝑣 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎
Rewrite in the time differential form of the displacement
Damping force -cv
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 +𝑐 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
Elastic force -kx 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Which can be written as
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐 𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

• m is the mass
When we have nonzero damping c, energy is not conserved. The mass
• c is the damping coefficient oscillates, slowly losing amplitude as the energy is dissipated by the non-
• k is the spring constant conservative force
For preview, you can gain experience with this matlab code
example: The Physics of the Damped Harmonic Oscillator
5
Free vibration – No dampening

Equation of motion (EOM) from Newton’s law:

𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐 𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
Initial condition (IC):
𝑥 0 = 𝑥0 , 𝑥ሶ 0 = 0

If there is no damping, then 𝑐 = 0

We have 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

𝑘
Define 𝜔𝑛 = as the natural frequency we obtain
𝑚

𝑥 𝑥0
𝑥ሷ + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥 = 0,

The solution is
𝑥 = 𝑥0 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

𝜔𝑛 is an angular frequency, its relationship to linear For page 6-13, the derivation is not required
𝜔
natural frequency 𝑓 = 2𝜋 but you need to understand the solution
(plot), key parameters, and condition 6
Free vibration – Underdamped
Equation of motion:
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
If we have damping, 𝑐 ≠ 0 , the solution to the differential equation is
of the form (obtainable by plugging in a trial solution ert)
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑟1𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑟2 𝑡
where r2 and r2 are the roots of the characteristic equation
𝑐 𝑘
𝑟2 + 𝑟 + = 0
𝑚 𝑚
(and C1, C2 are constants determined by the initial conditions)

When c is not big such that c2 < 4mk (low friction/loss), the
solution of the equation is two complex numbers (quadratic formula)
𝑐 ± 𝑖 −𝑐 2 + 4𝑚𝑘 𝑐
𝑟1,2 = − =− ± 𝑖𝜔𝑑
2𝑚 2𝑚
where the oscillation frequency, i.e., damped frequency is
c2 < 4mk
−𝑐 2 +4𝑚𝑘
𝜔𝑑 =
2𝑚
7
Free vibration – Underdamped
𝑐
𝑟1,2 =− ± 𝑖𝜔𝑑
2𝑚
Plug the r values into the 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑟1 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑟2 𝑡 and use our IC,

𝑥 0 = 𝑥0 , 𝑥ሶ 0 = 0
The solution of this underdamped oscillator is
𝑐
−2𝑚𝑡 𝑐
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 𝑒 (cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡+ sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
2𝑚𝜔𝑑
𝑐 𝑐
We can define 𝜉 = 2 = 2𝑚𝜔 as the dampening ratio, then
𝑚𝑘 𝑛

𝜉𝜔𝑛
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡 (cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
𝜔𝑑
The damped frequency can then be rewritten as

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜉 2
c2 < 4mk
The condition for underdamped oscillator is c2 < 4mk, which is
equivalent to 𝜉 < 1
8
Free vibration – Overdamped

When the damping coefficient is large (e.g., large friction) Special case: critically damped
c2 > 4mk, i.e., 𝝃 > 𝟏 the oscillator is overdamped oscillation occurs when
𝒄
𝝃= =𝟏
𝟐 𝒎𝒌
𝑐 ± 𝑐 2 − 4𝑚𝑘 Behavior is similar to the
𝑟1,2 =−
2𝑚 overdamped but a slightly different
are real numbers and there is no oscillation! solution will occur (not required)

Plug the r values into the 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑟1 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑟2 𝑡 and use our IC,
𝑥 0 = 𝑥0 , 𝑥ሶ 0 = 0
𝒄
The solution of this overdamped oscillator with 𝝃 = > 𝟏 is
𝟐 𝒎𝒌

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑟1 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑟2 𝑡
where

𝑟1,2 = −𝜉𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝜉 2 − 1
𝑟 𝑥 𝑟 𝑥
𝐶1 = − 𝑟 2−𝑟0 , 𝐶2 = 𝑟 1−𝑟0 Form is not required but the condition is
1 2 1 2 9
Free vibration – Underdamped case for experiment
The solution of this underdamped oscillator is
−𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝜉𝜔𝑛
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 𝑒 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
𝜔𝑑
𝑐 𝑐
𝜉=2 = 2𝑚𝜔 is dampening ratio to be measured in our lab
𝑚𝑘 𝑛
experiment
The period of the oscillator is
2𝜋
𝑇𝑑 =
𝜔𝑑
which depends on both k and c.

We can define the envelope and the oscillation part as A(t) and G(t)
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴(𝑡)𝐺(𝑡)
The amplitude decay over time
𝐴 𝑡 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡
Note that the amplitude of G(t)
Combined with an oscillatory term are not changing over time.
c2 < 4mk
𝜉𝜔𝑛
𝐺 𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 = 𝐺0 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝜔𝑑
10
𝐺0 and 𝜃 can be obtained by trigonometry formula. Not required
Free vibration – Experiment on Underdamped Oscillators
How to experimentally determine the dampening ratio:
−𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝜉𝜔𝑛
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 𝑒 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝐺(𝑡)
𝜔𝑑
Record the displacement data and read the peak
positions and times.
Measure amplitudes of the adjacent peaks
𝑥𝑁 ≈ 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡1+ 𝑁−1 𝑇𝑑

Take the ratio of two adjacent

𝑥
peaks 𝑥𝑁−1 = 𝑒 𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑇𝑑
𝑁

Define the index as the logarithmic increment

𝑥
 = 𝜔𝑛 𝑇𝑑 = ln 𝑥𝑁−1 ,
𝑁 𝑥1
2𝜋 𝑥2
Note that 𝑇𝑑 = 𝜔 , 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜉 2
𝑑 t1
2𝜋𝜉 𝛿
𝛿 = 𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑇𝑑 = 𝜉= 2 2
1 − 𝜉2 4𝜋 +𝛿

Can you derive it? Is the unit for 𝜉 reasonable? 11

Forced vibration

Equation of motion now has an extra force term:

𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑓
At the beginning, the motion is determined by both the
spring-dampener and the external force.

Eventually (at a steady state), the spring-dampener’s

effect will die down.

If the force is sinusoidal,

𝑓 = 𝐹 sin 𝜔𝑡
Then we can use the trial solution
𝑥 = 𝑋 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 • 𝜑 is a phase to
be determined
by the IC
𝑥ሶ = 𝜔𝑋 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 • Amplitude X is
a positive real
𝑥ሷ = −𝜔2 𝑋 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 number
You can also solve this by Fourier transform (not required)
Fourier Transforms of Differential Equations - Physics LibreTexts 12
Forced vibration
Equation of motion:
(−𝑚2 + 𝑘)𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) + 𝑐𝑋 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
Since it works for all t, we can set t=0 and t = π/2
-(-m2 +k)X sin() + cX cos() =0
(-m2 +k)X cos() + cX sin() =F
Square the two equations and add them up
Much easier if you
Co-function identity
𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔2 𝑋 2 + 𝑐𝜔𝑋 2 = 𝐹2 in trigonometry
use the exp 𝑖𝑡
𝐹 as trial sollution
⇒𝑋=
𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 2 + 𝑐𝜔 2

Using 𝜉 = 2
𝑐 𝑐/𝑚
= 2𝜔 , 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑘
， Take the ratio of the two equations you can solve for
𝑚𝑘 𝑛 𝑚

𝐹 𝜔
2𝜉
𝑋= 𝜔𝑛
2 tan 𝜑 =
𝜔2 𝜔 2 𝜔2
𝑘 1− + 2𝜉 1− 2
𝜔𝑛2 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 13
Forced vibration

-
Small damping
-
𝑋𝑘 -
𝐹
-

𝜔/𝜔𝑛
Large damping Actual response of forced vibration

External force
𝜔/𝜔𝑛
𝜔
𝐹 2𝜉
𝑋= 𝜔𝑛
tan 𝜑 =
2 2 𝜔2
𝜔2 𝜔 1− 2 Spring-damper
𝑘 1− 2 + 2𝜉 𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

14
Forced vibration: amplitude
Low frequency, move in phase
𝜔 ≪ 𝜔𝑛 ,
𝐹
𝑋≈
𝑘
High frequency, out of phase
𝑋𝑘
𝐹 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔𝑛 ,
𝐹𝜔𝑛2 𝐹 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔𝑛 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔𝑛
𝑋≈ =
𝑘𝜔 2 𝑚𝜔 2

X describe the amplitude at long time after reaching quasi steady state

𝜔/𝜔𝑛
𝐹
𝑋=
2 2
𝜔2 𝜔
𝑘 1− + 2𝜉
𝜔𝑛2 𝜔𝑛
15
Forced vibration: amplitude
Mechanical resonance
at the resonance frequency 𝜔𝑛
𝜔 ≅ 𝜔𝑛
𝐹 1 𝐹
𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑋𝑘 𝑘 2𝜉 2 2𝜉 𝑘
𝐹 When 𝜉 → 0, i.e., there is no
damping force, 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 → ∞.

• In reality, when 𝜉 is small the

resonance amplitude will be large
and limited by the damping forces on
the system.
𝜔/𝜔𝑛 • If the damping forces are small, a
resonant system can build up to
𝐹
𝑋= amplitudes large enough to be
2 destructive to the system. Buildings
𝜔2 𝜔 2 with damper
𝑘 1− 2 + 2𝜉
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 • Such was the famous case of the
Tacoma Narrows Bridge, which was
blown down by the wind. 16
Forced vibration: phase

-
-
-
-

𝜔 ≪ 𝜔𝑛 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔𝑛
𝜔/𝜔𝑛

𝜔
2𝜉 𝜔
𝑛
tan 𝜑 =
𝜔2
1−
𝜔𝑛2

17
Forced vibration
max How to experimentally determine the dampening ratio:
0.707max
Record amplitude vs. force frequency.
Read the width of the peak at 1/ 2 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 =0.707* 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
𝜔2 𝜔1
𝑋𝑘 When 𝜉 << 1, − = 2𝜉
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝐹
2 2
𝜔2 𝜔1 ω1 + ω2 ω1 − ω2
1 𝐹 − =( )( ) = 4𝜉 1 + 𝜉 2
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 , 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
2𝜉 𝑘 2
𝜔1
= 1 − 2𝜉 2 − 2𝜉 1 + 𝜉 2
Mechanical resonance 𝜔𝑛
2
𝜔2
= 1 − 2𝜉 2 + 2𝜉 1 + 𝜉 2
1 𝐹 𝜔𝑛
@ 0.707*max， 𝑋 = 2 2𝜉 𝑘
𝐹
𝑋= 2 1 𝜔
4
𝜔
2
2 2 = − 2 1 − 2𝜉 2 + 1 − 8𝜉 2 = 0
𝜔2 𝜔 4𝜉 2 2 𝑤𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝑘 1− + 2𝜉 𝜔2 𝜔
𝜔𝑛2 𝜔𝑛 1− 2
𝜔𝑛
+ 2𝜉 𝑤
𝑛

Derivation not required 18

Vibration Lab

• Measure damping ratio and natural frequencies of mass blocks in an electrodynamic

shaker through an accelerometer connected to an oscilloscope.
• Use both free and forced vibration

19