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 Dissertations
and Theses
From Start
to Finish

[Link] 1 9/9/19 5:58 PM

 THIRD EDITION

Dissertations
and Theses
From Start
to Finish
Psychology and
Related Fields
Debora J. Bell, Sharon L. Foster, and John D. Cone

[Link] 2 9/9/19 5:58 PM

Copyright © 2020 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved. Except
as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, including, but not limited
to, the process of scanning and digitization, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

The opinions and statements published are the responsibility of the authors, and such
opinions and statements do not necessarily represent the policies of the American
Psychological Association.

Published by
American Psychological Association
750 First Street, NE
Washington, DC 20002
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Typeset in Meridien and Ortodoxa by Circle Graphics, Inc., Reisterstown, MD

Printer: Sheridan Books, Chelsea, MI

Cover Designer: Naylor Design, Washington, DC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bell, Debora, author. | Foster, Sharon L., author. | Cone, John D., 1942- author.
Title: Dissertations and theses from start to finish : psychology and related fields /
Debora J. Bell, Sharon L. Foster, and John D. Cone.
Description: Third edition. | Washington, DC : American Psychological
Association, [2020] | Previous editions entered under: John D. Cone. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019022625 (print) | LCCN 2019022626 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781433831607 (ebook) | ISBN 9781433830648 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology—Research—Methodology.
Classification: LCC BF76.5 (ebook) | LCC BF76.5 .C645 2020 (print) |
DDC 150.72—dc23
LC record available at [Link]

[Link]

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS

Foreword ix
Mitchell J. Prinstein

Preface xi
1. What Are Theses and Dissertations, and Why Write
a Book About Them? 3
How This Book Is Organized 5
Definitions, Distinctions, and Functions 6
What Theses and Dissertations Look Like 7
Why Do a Thesis or Dissertation in the First Place? 10
Find What Works for You 11

2. Starting Out: Assessing Your Preparation for the Task Ahead 13

Are You Ready? 14
Interpret Your Checklist Responses 16
Examine Your Cognitive Ecology 29
Get Ready for the Task Ahead 30
Supplemental Resources 31

3. Time and Trouble Management 33

Start With Goals 34
List Your Steps and Estimate Your Time Requirements 34
Schedule the Work 36
Plan Your Schedule to Free Yourself 38
Minimize Procrastination and Avoidance 40
Supplemental Resources 45

v
vi Contents

4. Finding Topics and Faculty Collaborators 47

Select a Research Area 48
Identify Your Chair 53
Develop Your Research Question 65
Develop Carefully Worded Hypotheses 72
Recruit Committee Members 78
Supplemental Resources 82

5. Formulating and Communicating Your Plans:

An Overview of the Proposal 83
Understand the Functions of the Thesis or Dissertation Proposal 84
Know the Elements of the Thesis or Dissertation Proposal 85
Investigate the General Proposal Process 93

6. Reviewing the Literature 97

Locate Sources of Relevant Literature 98
Conduct Your Search 101
Collect and Organize Relevant Information 105
Critically Read What You Found 106
Prepare to Write Your Literature Review 114
Start Writing 120
Synthesize and Critically Analyze the Literature 126
Supplemental Resources 132

7. Research Methodology and Ethics 133

Know the Elements of a Method Section 134
Be Prepared to Conduct Ethical Research 147
Supplemental Resources 156

8. Measuring Study Variables 159

Operationalize Your Variables 160
Know the Important Aspects of Potential Instruments 162
Look Broadly for Appropriate Measures 169
Know What to Do if Vital Psychometric Information Is Unavailable 171
Adapt Others’ Measures With Caution 177
Avoid Common Errors in Evaluating and Selecting Measures 178
Get Copies of Instruments 179
Supplemental Resources 182

9. Selecting the Appropriate Data Analysis Approaches 185

Beef Up Your Statistical Knowledge Early 187
Examine Your Research Questions and Create Your Analysis Plan 187
Consider Group Comparison Statistics 197
Consider Correlational Statistics 204
Consider Model-Testing Approaches 212
Set Your Alpha Levels 215
Be Careful With Nonindependent Data 216
Beware of Causal Terminology 218
Use Consultation Prudently 219
 Contents vii

Seek Additional Assistance if You Are Still Confused 221

Write Your Analysis Section 221
Supplemental Resources 225

10. Collecting, Managing, and Analyzing the Data 229

Pilot Test Your Procedures 230
Recruit and Train Assistants 232
Build in Ethical Safeguards 234
Schedule Settings and Arrange Materials 236
Plan for the Unexpected 238
Collect the Data 240
Score, Check, and Prepare to Analyze the Data 241
Complete Preliminary Analyses 248
Turn to Your Primary Analyses 249
Conduct Supplemental Exploratory Analyses 252
Supplemental Resources 254

11. Presenting the Results 257

First, Do Some Basic Housekeeping 259
Present Your Primary Analyses 260
Describe Supplemental Analyses 266
Prepare Appropriate Tables 266
Prepare Suitable Figures 271
Supplemental Resources 278

12. Discussing the Results 281

Update Your Literature Review and Method Section 282
Include Comments About Future Directions 292
Use These Tips to Organize and Write Your Discussion 293
Produce the Final Product 295
Supplemental Resource 299

13. Managing Committee Meetings: Proposal and Oral Defense 301

The Proposal Meeting 304
The Oral Defense 307
Finishing Touches 325
Supplemental Resources 327

14. Presenting Your Project to the World 329

Publish It Online First 331
Present It in Person 334
Publish Your Study 344
Consider Dividing Major Projects for Multiple Submissions 353
Weigh the Benefits of Dissemination in the Popular Press 354
Supplemental Resources 356

References 357
Index 375
About the Authors 393
FOREWORD

As one embarks on their journey toward the completion of a dissertation or

thesis, they might reflect on their participation in one of academia’s most
time-honored traditions. They might marvel at the opportunity to add their
own intellectual contribution to a centuries-old discourse among scholars or
rejoice in their impending membership to our society’s elite class of graduate-
trained citizens.
Yet, few students do so. Instead, many students quite understandably
think of their dissertation or thesis as an enormous chore (or perhaps more
accurately as a pain in the neck) that they must conquer as the final hurdle in
a lifetime of academic pursuits.
Fair enough. Dissertations and theses indeed are large undertakings that
are meant to reflect the culmination of years of training, and they can be
maddening in the level of detail, precision, exhaustive review, and thoroughness
that successful completion requires. Many are scared away from graduate
training simply by the thought of the dissertation or thesis. But the readers
of this book—you—were not. You have made it this far through years of
primary and secondary training, exemplary academic achievement as an
undergraduate student, through the gauntlet of competitive graduate school
admissions, and now have reached this final stage of your training because
you have a passion for psychology and a tenacity, discipline, and successful
record of accomplishments that few possess. You can do this! And with the
help of this fantastic volume, you may even get through quite painlessly.
The authors of this book are esteemed scholars and fantastic mentors who
have distilled years of wisdom and exceptional advice into a step-by-step road

ix
x Foreword

map to help get you through this final graduate task without breaking a
sweat. Step by step, point by point, this book offers a remarkable blend of
nurturing support and practical tips to help you with each step of the process,
from the formulation of your hypotheses all the way through your final
defense.
How do you select a topic? How do you manage your time? What is the
best way to approach each small step in this important undertaking? How
can you successfully finish while still having time for a personal life? It’s all
covered here in the outstanding pages that follow within this volume—a
constant source of support, advice, and instruction that will become your best
friend throughout the writing process.
Just imagine: One day, your thesis or dissertation will be complete. You
will defend your work in front of a group of scholars who will tell you that
you have passed, and your contributions will be bound and archived to con-
tribute to scientific discourse for decades to come. You might even continue to
contribute to the scientific literature with dozens or hundreds of subsequent
studies to report in the future. But most only have the chance to write one
thesis and/or one dissertation. Good luck making it the one that will make
you feel proud for years to come, and launch you into the world of science.
We are excited for you to join us!

—Mitchell J. Prinstein, PhD, ABPP

John Van Seters Distinguished Professor
of Psychology and Neuroscience
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
PREFACE

It was almost 30 years ago that the first edition of Dissertations and Theses
From Start to Finish hit the shelves. With that edition, we envisioned helping
students negotiate the often mysterious and daunting process of completing a
thesis or dissertation. Dissertation and thesis research has changed since that
time. We have gone from a world in which literature was archived on paper
and housed in brick and mortar libraries, data were collected in person, and
data analysis, even with the support of mainframe computers, was often a
slow process, to a world in which ready access to electronic data storage,
analysis, and transmission allows research to proceed with what seems like
lightning speed. Today, students have the opportunity, and the responsibility,
to master larger bodies of literature, conduct more extensive and sophisticated
research, and in essence, “do more” than in past generations. Likewise, the
resources supporting a student’s journey through the thesis and dissertation
have exploded. In contrast to past students’ reliance on their advisors, student
colleagues, and university handbooks for advice on negotiating the dissertation
or thesis process, current students need only do a quick internet search to
access dozens of articles, web pages, and videos, some good and some not,
designed to assist them.
Given the many changes, is a book such as this one still useful? On the
basis of feedback from countless students and faculty over the years, we
believe the answer is a resounding “Absolutely!” In the third edition of our
book, we cover issues that generations of graduate students have faced as
they tackled their theses and dissertations, as well as newer issues relevant
to students today. Many aspects of doing a thesis or dissertation remain
unchanged—students must still focus their research questions; manage their

xi
xii Preface

personal resources; design and conduct sound studies; and communicate

effectively with research participants, thesis and dissertation committees, and
broader scientific and lay audiences. They still have only 24 hours in a day,
competing tasks, and varying levels of preparation for their roles as principal
investigators for their project. In this book, we address these classic issues
with contemporary examples, advice, and resources. We also examine ways
in which dissertation and thesis research has evolved in recent years. For
example, students are more likely than ever before to begin graduate study
with prior research experience and assignment to a specific research mentor.
Technological innovations (e.g., smartphone and activity tracker collection
of real-time participant behavior and experiences, online studies that can
reach around the globe) allow students to collect a large variety and volume
of data, and powerful data analytic software facilitates nuanced examination
of these data. The open science movement creates an increasing expectation
that students’ thesis and dissertation projects will involve collaborative,
transparent, and reproducible research that is accessible to both the scientific
community and broader public. We discuss the opportunities and challenges
created by these changes, offer suggestions for handling them as part of the
dissertation or thesis process, and provide additional resources for students
to consider.
This revision continues our commitment to providing students with
a written guide that is affordable, accessible, and easy to read and digest,
while addressing both scholarly and pragmatic issues. We also continue
to recognize that students have diverse research backgrounds and career
goals, as well as identities, activities, and social networks that exist outside
of their thesis/dissertation project. We write this volume to help students
navigate the research process smoothly and develop research and profes-
sional skills that will serve them well throughout their careers and in their
lives more generally.
Much like dissertation and thesis research, this book was a team effort.
We have been fortunate to work with many graduate students over the
years who have entrusted us with their professional development, helped us
develop our repertoires as mentors, and provided many of the examples we
include. We are also indebted to students and colleagues who offered candid
and helpful feedback on what worked well and what was off-target or missing
from earlier versions of the book, including Madison Beedon, Jasmine Berry,
and Kelsey Irvin from the University of Missouri, and Kanjana Boes and the
library staff from Alliant International University. Linda McCarter and Ted
Baroody from APA Books, and copyeditor Hyde Loomis, have supported us
throughout this revision, providing input on the clarity of text, tables, and
figures, and attending to the technical details that ensure a high-quality
product. Finally, we are immensely grateful to our families, whose emo-
tional and instrumental support was critical to this project’s success. Spouses
Bob Ekle, Tom Barton, and Jan Cone were great as sounding boards for our
book-related inspirations and frustrations as we prepared this revision.
 Preface xiii

Debora Bell’s daughter Sarah chipped in as well, taking on additional chores

so mom could write.
Seeing our efforts reflected in the lessons learned by the next generation
provided the catalyst for this book. We hope in turn that our accumulated
wisdom will help students find the joy and satisfaction (even amidst inevitable
frustrations!) of contributing to the knowledge base and completing a major
milestone in their professional development.
 Dissertations
and Theses
From Start
to Finish

[Link] 1 9/9/19 5:58 PM

1
What Are Theses and
Dissertations, and Why Write
a Book About Them?

This chapter introduces you to this book and the thesis and dissertation
process, including
• what to expect in the book
• an overview of what theses and dissertations are and why you should do one
• helpful social, environmental, and resource supports

Read thoroughly if
• you are new to the thesis or dissertation process
• you want a quick overview of what you can expect to get from this book

Skim or skip if
• you are ready to dive right in!

Let’s answer the second question in the chapter title first. It’s been almost
30 years since we first conceived this book. When we started the first edition,
students often began graduate school with minimal formal research experience.
The thesis or dissertation may have been based on their first independent
research projects, and these projects were often their primary, if not only,
major research endeavors during graduate school. In addition, most students
relied largely on the professor who chaired their thesis or dissertation for
guidance on these projects.

[Link]
Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish: Psychology and Related Fields, Third Edition,
by D. J. Bell, S. L. Foster, and J. D. Cone
Copyright © 2020 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.
3
4 Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish

Times have changed. Today, it is much more common for students to

have considerable research experience by the time they get to the thesis or
dissertation; for many it is no longer the first project or the pinnacle of their
graduate years. For these students, the thesis or dissertation may feel like just
another project in their evolving program of research, requiring skills they’ve
already developed or at least observed in their lab mates. In addition, the
number of resources available to support thesis and dissertation writing has
exploded since the first edition of our book, including everything from online
resources such as websites, blogs, and YouTube videos, to articles and books on
the topic, to thesis or dissertation coaches and writing services! There are now
journal articles and books, often discipline specific, that address certain aspects
of graduate-level research projects (e.g., selection of a topic, organization
for writing, time management, self-care). So why another edition of this book?
First, the vast array of resources can be overwhelming, as the focus, depth,
and content of their support are different and sometimes even contradictory.
Online informational resources are often too brief to offer much specific detail
about any one aspect of the thesis or dissertation project, or they focus on only
one aspect (e.g., organizing a proposal document). The stream-of-consciousness
style of many blogs can take you down many informational rabbit holes before
you find a nugget that is helpful to you. Writing support websites may offer
some helpful hints, but many are really geared toward selling you a thesis or
dissertation, which, for obvious reasons, we strongly discourage! Face it—
the resources you find on the internet may not have been subjected to any
quality assurance review; you may find useful information, but it is clearly a
“buyer beware” marketplace. We believe that a single curated source of infor-
mation that takes students through the thesis and dissertation process step by
step still has a place on bookshelves and in libraries.
Second, there are key aspects of the thesis and dissertation process that
warrant close attention from students new to the research process, as well
as from students who are more seasoned researchers. If you are newer to
independent research, as a beginning graduate student or even an advanced
undergraduate, information on developing, implementing, and describing
research will be quite useful. If you are already an active researcher, things
such as the etiquette and formalities of university theses and dissertations,
working with committees, or managing greater independence than you’re
accustomed to may still be new to you. Regardless of your experience level,
considering topics such as how to assess your readiness, manage your envi-
ronment, and balance your priorities can be critical in facilitating your
research and graduate school success well beyond these two specific research
projects.
We wrote the first two versions of this book to help graduate students in
psychology and related fields more successfully negotiate the thesis and dis-
sertation process from beginning to end. We included everything from deciding
whether and how to embark on the journey to developing, implementing,
and writing up the project; managing the myriad logistical issues involved in
 What Are Theses and Dissertations? 5

making it to and through a successful defense meeting; and then disseminating

your results through professional presentation and publication.
We also wrote the book to serve as an archival source of the wisdom we have
amassed from a combined total of close to 100 years of supervising theses and
dissertations. All of us have told graduate students many useful (and some-
times not-so-useful!) things over the years to help them through the process.
Until we systematized these suggestions, we, like other faculty members, had
to tell each fledgling thesis or dissertation student everything all over again.
The first edition of this book compiled the best of our ideas on how to make
the process a less mysterious and more exciting educational experience, and the
second edition added a few things we left out and updated our suggestions in
light of new trends in the field.
In the 13 years since the second edition was published, research areas
and methods, expectations and requirements for theses and dissertations, and
technology have all changed in notable ways. The pages that follow address
these changes. Although we aim our suggestions primarily at graduate students
in psychology and related fields and focus more on quantitative than qualita-
tive research methods, much of the content of the book will be useful across
disciplines, research methods, and levels of research experience. Importantly,
we hope that many of our suggestions will be generalizable beyond thesis and
dissertation projects to an ongoing program of research, other types of formal
proposals (e.g., grant applications), collaborative projects that require com-
mittee approval, dissemination to multiple audiences, and even your general
approach to multifaceted and long-range tasks.

HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANIZED

The 14 chapters of this book provide the tools needed to assemble good theses
and dissertations. Of course, simply reading this book is not sufficient to fully
prepare you for the thesis or dissertation process. The book will be most valu-
able as a supplement to an already adequate graduate education. We do not
explain research ethics, designs, methods, or statistics. Instead, we help you
apply what you have already learned in graduate school to the practical conduct
of research and point you toward resources to supplement that knowledge as
needed.
In this chapter, we talk briefly about what theses and dissertations are, what
they look like, and some of the reasons for doing one. Then, in Chapter 2, we
ask you to assess your own preparation and commitment. Chapter 3 helps
you estimate the time you will need to complete your project and anticipate
and manage the various events that can come along to derail your efforts.
Chapter 4 discusses finding a topic and developing a research question and
hypotheses. Because this is most often done in collaboration with one or
more faculty members, Chapter 4 also contains advice about selecting a chair
and committee members and about thesis and dissertation etiquette in general.
6 Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish

Chapter 5 provides an overview of the all-important thesis or dissertation

proposal, and Chapter 6 follows with suggestions for developing your literature
review. Chapter 7 discusses what to include in a good Method section, along
with issues of research ethics and informed consent. Operationalizing and
measuring your variables, collecting and analyzing your data, and presenting
and discussing your results are covered in Chapters 8 through 12. Chapter 13
reviews strategies for handling your proposal meeting and oral defense.
Finally, Chapter 14 discusses readying your research for presentation at pro-
fessional meetings and submission for publication.
Each chapter begins with an advance organizer that gives you, in a few
bullet points, an idea of what to expect in the chapter as well as advice to help
you decide whether you should read the chapter thoroughly or can skim
or skip certain pieces of the chapter. Most chapters end with a checklist that
turns our suggestions from that chapter into concrete steps you can take to
move your project forward. You can adapt these checklists to suit your project
and use them to keep track of your progress.
At the end of most chapters, we also provide references to supplemental
sources you might find useful if you want to explore the topics in more depth.
These resources are ones we have found particularly useful for ourselves or
our students. Although websites come and go, we provide references to a few
websites that we believe offer particularly useful advice and may have some
staying power. When our reason for recommending a specific resource may
not be obvious, we provide a brief explanation of its topic and relevance.
The topics we cover follow the sequence you would normally encounter
in the thesis or dissertation process. We think most readers will benefit from
reading the chapters in order as they approach each new phase of their
research. Some readers, especially if they’ve had a great deal of experience in
a specific area, may want to focus more selectively on areas that are new to
them. It will be useful to skim the entire book quickly before digging in so
you have some idea of its contents and where to look for something should
you want to focus on it or need it in a sequence different from the one we
have chosen.
Now let’s go back to the first question posed in the title of this chapter:
What are theses and dissertations, anyway? First, we define them and talk a
little bit about their history. Then we say something about what theses and
dissertations in psychology actually look like.

DEFINITIONS, DISTINCTIONS, AND FUNCTIONS

Dictionary definitions of “thesis” and “dissertation” often do not distinguish

between these terms. Merriam-Webster (n.d.-a) defines a dissertation as “an
extended usually written treatment of a subject; specifically: one submitted for
a doctorate.” The same source defines thesis as “a dissertation embodying results
of original research and especially substantiating a specific view; especially:
 What Are Theses and Dissertations? 7

one written by a candidate for an academic degree” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.-c).

Similarly, the Oxford English Dictionary defines dissertation as “a long essay on a
particular subject, especially one written for a university degree or diploma”
([Link], n.d.-a) and thesis as “a long essay or dissertation involving
personal research, written as part of a university degree” and gives the exam-
ple of “a doctoral thesis” ([Link], n.d.-b). Not only is there no clear
distinction between the terms “thesis” and “dissertation,” but both definitions
of the former include the latter!
In U.S. universities, it has become common to distinguish between theses
and dissertations by referring to the work done for a master’s degree as a
“thesis” and that done for a doctoral degree as a “dissertation.” This is not a
universally accepted distinction, by any means, and some faculty members
refer to dissertations as “doctoral theses.” Throughout this volume, we use
the term “dissertation” to refer to an original piece of empirical research done
as partial fulfillment of the requirements of doctoral (EdD, PhD, or PsyD)
programs in psychology and related fields. We use “thesis” to refer to empirical
research conducted en route to a master’s degree.
Despite terminological ambiguities, most faculty members agree on the gen-
eral functions of theses and dissertations. One major purpose of both projects
is to demonstrate the student’s skill at conducting independent research that
makes a contribution to knowledge on an important topic. Another is to
assess the student’s mastery of a specialized area of scholarship. Some see the
dissertation process as examining mastery of technical aspects of research,
including knowledge and ability to apply principles of research design, statistics,
and so on. Thus, the dissertation process is an examination of your compe-
tence to function autonomously as a researcher. The finished dissertation also
results in a new and significant contribution to the body of knowledge.
Theses, too, are expected to contribute to the body of knowledge. Thesis
requirements place less emphasis on originality, however, and candidates are
often given more guidance and supervision. Some thesis candidates conduct a
systematic replication of already completed research, for example. In addition,
thesis candidates rarely operate as independently as doctoral candidates must.
Not to be overlooked is the training function theses and dissertations serve.
In undertaking such a project, you learn and grow in your research skills
and knowledge of the field. You expand your skills in thinking critically,
synthesizing and extending the work of others, and communicating clearly
and professionally. Ideally, the process should also increase your respect for
the empirical aspects of the discipline and your pride in participating in the
development of new knowledge about important phenomena.

WHAT THESES AND DISSERTATIONS LOOK LIKE

You have probably asked yourself numerous questions about the form your
thesis or dissertation is supposed to take. Must you use particular methods?
How long is it supposed to be? What format are you supposed to follow?
8 Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish

Are there writing style requirements to follow? Let’s look at some of these
questions.
First, about methods. Although this book focuses primarily on empirical
projects that involve quantitative research, not all theses and dissertations
require this type of project. The traditional terminal degree in psychology,
the PhD, virtually always requires an empirical project; frequently, these use
quantitative methods, but increasingly, mainstream psychology research
uses qualitative or mixed (i.e., quantitative and qualitative) methods. Some
applied psychology programs offer an alternative terminal degree, the PsyD,
or doctor in psychology. PsyD programs explicitly prepare students for careers
as practitioners and thus may have somewhat different degree requirements
than PhD programs. For example, many practitioner-oriented schools allow
alternatives to the traditional empirical dissertation, such as a theoretical dis-
sertation (or, more rarely, a case study) that addresses a clearly defined question
and makes an original contribution to knowledge. However, many students
in PsyD programs still complete an empirical dissertation. In a 1992 survey of
directors of 40 “Vail-model” programs (i.e., professional clinical psychology
programs, which presumably included a significant number of PsyD programs)
in the United States, Sanchez-Hucles and Cash learned that despite the variety
of acceptable dissertation formats, approximately half of the students in these
programs elected to conduct empirical dissertations. Our recent informal
consultations with colleagues in PsyD programs indicate that this is still true.
As for length, there is a great deal of variability within and between disci-
plines and within and between universities. Although we do not have objective
data on theses, we do know something about the length of dissertations.
We recently randomly sampled 100 dissertations completed in 2016–2017
selected from the ProQuest Dissertations & Theses database. Psychology dis-
sertations had a mean length of 132 pages, including text, tables, appendices,
and related items, with a range of 42 to 285 pages.1 Interestingly, these
numbers suggest that dissertations have become shorter in the past 15 years;
when we sampled 2001–2002 dissertations, they averaged 44% longer, with
minimum and maximum lengths close to double our current range (Cone &
Foster, 2006). Likely this is due to the increased acceptability of publication-
style dissertations. Our educated guess is that master’s theses would average
about two thirds this length, or about 88 pages.
As for format: Yes, there is a format you are supposed to follow. This
format is dictated by your particular academic department and institution.
We suggest that you get in touch with the people knowledgeable about such
matters and learn about your local requirements. These people can usually be
found in your department’s graduate services office, your institution’s gradu-
ate school or office of graduate studies, or your library. They typically have a
website or written materials that spell out the acceptable format or formats.
In addition, they can most likely provide you with other useful information,

We are indebted to Madison Beedon for collecting these data.

1
 What Are Theses and Dissertations? 9

such as timelines, committee requirements, document deposit requirements,

fees, and so on. Theses and dissertations in psychology commonly follow the
style and format guidelines set forth in the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (also referred to as the Publication Manual; American
Psychological Association, 2020). This book has been written in that format,
and many journals in the behavioral sciences adhere to it. You will see frequent
references to the Publication Manual throughout this book.
Although the Publication Manual provides an often-followed format, it is
not universally accepted, even in schools and departments of psychology.
Furthermore, even where it is accepted, local deviations often exist (e.g., sec-
tions or chapters to include, their order, reference format, placement of tables)
that you will do well to discover. We advise you to make learning the local
norms one of your first priorities. You will save time and aggravation by
writing and referencing in the locally accepted format right from the start.
A good place to begin to find out what your thesis or dissertation will even-
tually look like is to examine some of those completed by previous students
working with the same committee chairs you are considering. These provide
good, concrete examples of what you can expect. Ask faculty members for
some suggestions. Be aware that completed projects vary in quality, and
faculty members should be able to direct you to the better quality examples.
Because norms for the format and content of a thesis or dissertation may also
differ depending on your specific area of research, you should ask for exam-
ples that are most relevant to the type of research you are contemplating.
Chapter 4 deals specifically with the selection of committee chairs, so don’t
worry if you haven’t yet selected one.
What, in general, will your final document contain? It will most likely
resemble a journal article, or sometimes a series of articles but with more
detail. The traditional thesis or dissertation begins with a table of contents and
then launches into a review of the literature. Following this are the Method,
Results, and finally Discussion sections. A reference section contains details on
the works cited in the text, and appendices provide supplemental material,
such as equipment blueprints, consent forms, data recording forms, and some-
times even raw data. Recently, many departments have begun to encourage
alternative formats that are closer to submission-ready journal articles but
that still allow students to demonstrate in-depth mastery of relevant knowl-
edge. These alternatives may include a journal-length document with an
appendix containing an extended literature review or a portfolio-style project
consisting of a series of two to three studies completed during doctoral study,
often with an integrated introduction and discussion. The portfolio-style alter-
native is more common at the dissertation stage, once students have amassed
a body of work, than at the thesis stage. We say more about these alternative
formats throughout the book.
So, there you have it. You know what theses and dissertations are and
what they look like. The remainder of this book discusses the nuts and bolts
of the process you will follow to complete this major undertaking. Now,
10 Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish

let’s turn our attention to what is probably the most important question of
this chapter.

WHY DO A THESIS OR DISSERTATION IN THE FIRST PLACE?

There are many reasons for doing a thesis or dissertation. In the final analysis,
you are writing one because your graduate program requires you to do so to
obtain a specific degree. There are other good reasons as well, of course. Some
are pragmatic and directly related to your career plans: The project, as a way
to showcase your conceptual, methodological, analytic, and communication
skills, might be your stepping-stone to an academic research or teaching
position or an applied job. Any publications that emerge from the project, as
well as a rich data set that you may be able to work from for several years,
can also jump-start your career and help you maintain momentum as you
transition from trainee to professional.
Other reasons are more purely intellectual. Research offers many challenges
and opportunities to think about and solve conceptual, methodological, and
practical problems. Conducting research is a way to find out more about
some psychological or other behavioral science phenomenon that piques your
curiosity. Completing a thesis or dissertation can also provide the personal
satisfaction of taking on and mastering a complex and challenging task and
seeing how your intellectual skills have grown during the process.
Now that you are at this point in your program, take a moment to consider
how you view this specific requirement. Is it merely a troublesome hoop to
jump through on your way to a degree? Are you looking for the easiest,
quickest way to get beyond it? Do you eagerly anticipate gaining useful skills
during the project? Is it an opportunity for you to continue research you are
already doing? Do you see it as having any relevance to the work you plan
after graduation—for example, as a key part of your developing program of
research or a chance to master and advance knowledge of an area in which
you plan to practice?
As cognitive behavior therapists know, the way you think about the major
research you are about to undertake will contribute to the enjoyment, ease,
and speed with which you conduct the project and the amount you learn
from it. If you are filled with curiosity about some aspect of psychology or
about the process of doing research in psychology, good for you! You will
probably have the stamina to stick with your project from start to finish.
You will probably even have some fun along the way. You probably haven’t
gotten this far if you don’t enjoy learning. For many of us, doing research is
the ultimate learning experience. Even if the prospect of embarking on your
thesis or dissertation is daunting and you’re not sure it will qualify as “fun,”
it will be useful to concentrate on the positive aspects of the project and to
view the hurdles you will encounter as challenges and growth opportunities
rather than obstacles. With that attitude, although the project may never rise
 What Are Theses and Dissertations? 11

to the level of fun, it can be a very satisfying, rewarding, and esteem-building

experience.

FIND WHAT WORKS FOR YOU

Before ending this chapter, a word of warning is in order. Some of the advice
we offer will not be useful to you. Not every strategy works well for every
student, and not every faculty member or department orchestrates the thesis
and dissertation process with the same instruments and score. There are
almost as many ways of getting from the beginning to the end of the thesis
and dissertation process as there are graduate students. The key is finding
ways of negotiating the process that work for you. In addition, rules and
traditions differ from place to place. Take what we say with some healthy
skepticism, and gather information along the way to see whether your local
situation is different from what we present in this book.
Remember, completing a thesis or dissertation is, in some respects, a rite of
passage. As with most such rites, some of the process may seem arbitrary and
nonfunctional. If you acknowledge this up front and decide to do what needs
to be done, whether it makes complete sense or not, you will succeed much
more easily and have a lot more fun along the way. Remember to keep your
eyes on the prize, and engage in lots of positive self-talk as you do.
In other words, don’t get too intimidated or annoyed by the thesis or
dissertation process. Yes, it’s lengthy. Yes, it involves seemingly arbitrary
requirements. Yes, you may never have done anything quite like this before.
Yes, it may be scary. And yes, you, like many others, will probably complete
the process and earn your degree. Remember, most of the project will involve
skills you already have. In addition, your chair and committee will be there to
help. One of our students put it very well:
As I come to the close of my graduate process and the completion of my dis-
sertation, one thought keeps coming back to me—that any goal is possible given
two factors: 1) the ability to break things down into tiny steps, and 2) the sup-
port of family, friends, and the community. (Dionne, 1992, p. iii)

We know you are motivated, or you wouldn’t be reading this book. Are
you ready to act on this motivation? Let’s turn to Chapter 2 to examine your
preparation in some detail and find out what you might do to be even better
prepared for the task ahead.
2
Starting Out
Assessing Your Preparation for the Task Ahead

This chapter guides you through a checklist to assess the skills and resources
you’ll need for your thesis or dissertation, including
• research, writing, and technical skills
• personal skills such as time management, interpersonal abilities, and
adaptive self-talk
• social, environmental, and resource supports
• financial costs and resources

Read thoroughly to
• take a careful look at your professional and personal readiness for the project
• make sure you consider as many personal and environmental resources as
possible

Skim or skip if
• you already know what skills and resources you’ll need for the thesis
or dissertation

In the previous chapter, we suggested that you examine your attitude

toward completing a thesis or dissertation. Being in the right frame of mind
is important both at the start and throughout a big writing project like this.
There are other types of preparation, too. In this chapter, we describe how to

[Link]
Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish: Psychology and Related Fields, Third Edition,
by D. J. Bell, S. L. Foster, and J. D. Cone
Copyright © 2020 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.
13
14 Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish

assess your preparation. Our goal is to help you appraise your skills to do
the job well.

ARE YOU READY?

To get you started, we provide a reality test. By now you have identified good
reasons for undertaking a major research project and are convinced you want
to do it. Are you really prepared, however? Complete the Research Readiness
Checklist in Figure 2.1 to answer that question. When you complete the
checklist, be sure to respond to each of the questions as truthfully as you
can. Remember, this is a test of how realistically you are approaching this
process. Be honest with yourself. A “no” answer will provide useful material
for reflection when we talk about the implications of your responses. Write
down your answers, and we will discuss how to interpret them in the next
section.
Because this checklist is not an empirically validated measure, don’t think
of it as providing definitive answers concerning your preparation to navigate
a complex research project successfully. Instead, use it as an inventory of the

FIGURE 2.1. Research Readiness Checklist

Yes No How well do you write?

    1. Do you organize your papers effectively?

    2. Do you get feedback from professors that your writing is

easy to follow and that your logic is clear?
    3. Do you prepare an outline before beginning to write?
    4. Do you use correct grammar consistently?
    5. Do you know APA Style well enough to write with only
occasional checking?

Yes No Do you have the necessary methodological preparation?

    6. Have you taken two or more graduate-level statistics

courses within the past 3 years?

    7. H
 ave you taken a graduate-level course in test construction
or measurement theory?
    8. H
 ave you taken a course in research design as a graduate
student?
    9. H
 ave you critiqued empirical research papers in graduate
school?
  10. Have you been involved in empirical research as a graduate
student?
  11. Do you know how to use at least one major statistical
software package?
 Starting Out 15

FIGURE 2.1. Research Readiness Checklist (Continued)

Yes No Have you made the following general preparations?
  12. Do you have at least 10 to 20 hours per week to spend on
the project?
  13. Will this time be available for at least 12 months?
  14. Have you talked to at least three other people about their
thesis or dissertation experience?
  15. Have you examined theses or dissertations completed
by other students in your program?
  16. Do you have the physical space for uninterrupted writing,
data analysis, and related activities?
  17. Do you have the agreement of family and loved ones to
support you in this effort?
  18. Do you have access to faculty or adviser input on a
regular basis?
  19. Do you have access to adequate bibliographic resources
(libraries, databases)?
  20. Do you know how to use the databases, literature retrieval
mechanisms, and other resources available at your school’s
library?
  21. Do you own or have access to a computer?
  22. Do you have reasonable time management skills?
  23. Do you have reasonable interpersonal and political skills?
  24. Do you know the formal rules governing the thesis or
dissertation process at your school?
  25. Do you know the informal rules governing the thesis or
dissertation process at your school?
  26. Have you asked other students about the costs of doing
their research?
  27. Have you investigated financial resources to defray thesis
or dissertation costs?

important types of preparation you will need to make the journey a smooth
one. Basically, this list is a task analysis of the skills and resources we believe
you will need to complete the project effectively and in a timely manner.
This leads to a word of warning: On one hand, do not let a “no” answer be a
stimulus for an anxiety attack. A “no” does not mean you will fail to complete
your thesis or dissertation. One of us, for example, would have said “no” to at
least four items before beginning the successfully completed dissertation. At
least a few “no” answers will be even more likely if you’re embarking on your
thesis, as theses often begin fairly early in graduate training at a time when
you may be just beginning to master scientific writing, research design, or
16 Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish

statistics. On the other hand, a full complement of “yes”es does not mean you
will sail through the project trouble free. Use “no” answers to alert you to
potential trouble spots that advance planning and preparation could help you
avoid. Next, we provide some tips on what this preparation might involve.

INTERPRET YOUR CHECKLIST RESPONSES

To analyze your preparation, let’s look more closely at the items on the
checklist.

Writing Skills

Writing and methodology skills are probably the most important skills you
will need to complete a thesis or dissertation successfully. We’ll discuss
methodology in a moment. First, let’s talk about writing. If you said “no” to
Items 1 and 2, you should seriously consider additional preparation before
undertaking your project. Organization skills in writing (Items 1 and 2) are an
indication of how clearly you think and convey your thoughts in written
form. As Zinsser (2006) observed, “Clear thinking becomes clear writing” (p. 8).
Failure to organize well can reflect trouble thinking in a logical fashion. And
unfortunately, there are no quick and easy programs to teach this skill. So,
if you have reason to believe you do not organize verbal material well, stop
and reconsider. You might benefit from specific coursework or tutoring in
organizing and sequencing written material. Examine offerings in the English
department of your school. Have you ever taken a course in logic? If not, look
for one in the philosophy department.
Alternatively, you may have written clearly and logically when most of
your writing was for class papers or exams. A thesis or dissertation is a much
different animal, however. It is typically longer and much more complex,
covering more information in greater depth than papers you have written for
other purposes. This project will require crystal-clear organization to guide
readers (and you!) through the complexity of a comprehensive review that
can include multiple literatures and descriptions of one or more specific
studies and their results. You will also need to provide a clear description of
your methods, as well as thoughtful discussion of your findings and their
limitations and implications.
If you checked “no” for Item 3 (using outlines in your writing), now is the
time to begin using outlines. Writing outlines helps organize your thinking
and is a concrete step you can take to get any writing project underway. Again,
your campus may offer writing courses, workshops, or tutoring that can help
you develop this skill. But be warned that writing in the behavioral sciences
is different from writing in other disciplines. Attending a writers’ workshop
for aspiring journalists or novelists may advance your general organization and
logic, but the conventions of narrative flow in those disciplines will probably not
 Starting Out 17

transfer well to your thesis or dissertation. Look for learning opportunities that
target scientific writing, or ask your adviser or committee chair for guidance.
Grammatical prowess (Item 4) is more specific than organization. If
you have consistently received input during your university schooling that
you have problems with sentence structure, paragraph organization, writing
mechanics, proper choice of words, or spelling errors, give some serious thought
to remediating before beginning your thesis or dissertation. Although some
schools allow editorial consultation on theses and dissertations, most stop short
of allowing the kind of input serious grammatical deficiencies would require.
Unless English is not your native language, faculty will expect you to write
the document yourself, not have an editor do it.
You can take several steps to improve your grammatical skills. First, con-
sider taking advantage of a good course or textbook on syntax, grammar, and
punctuation. When you have a basic foundation in syntax and punctuation,
one next step toward grammatical proficiency would be to subject a sample of
your writing to one of the several good grammar-checking programs that run
in conjunction with your word-processing programs. Most major programs
(e.g., Microsoft Word) have spelling- and grammar-checkers that include a
number of options you can elect to occur automatically or on demand. There
are also many stand-alone software programs (e.g., StyleWriter, Grammarly,
WhiteSmoke) that operate in similar ways. Most are available online (although
they often require purchase) and can be used with a variety of computer
operating systems.
Stand-alone programs typically provide a more detailed assessment of your
writing than a word-processing program. They can indicate whether you
have violated one or more of hundreds of rules of grammar, made punctu-
ation errors, produced too many long sentences, been too negative, or written
in the passive voice. You will be amazed at the thoroughness with which
these programs analyze your writing. Even if you are a good writer, you
will benefit. We all have bad habits that are so automatic we’re not even
aware of them.
As an example of the type of analysis you can receive from a grammar-
and style-checking program, look at the writing sample in Figure 2.2, which
is from an earlier draft of this chapter. As you can see, StyleWriter provides
a rather detailed analysis of this writing sample. It provides indexes of read-
ability (“bog”), interest (“pep”), wordiness (“style” and “glue”), and reading
level; identifies misspellings and use of passive voice; and counts words and
average sentence length. Subjecting repeated samples of your writing to
analyses of this type can lead to considerable improvement, as revealed by
the revision of this sample in Figure 2.3, as well as the final, revised text that
appears four paragraphs below.
Although your faculty adviser or chair will likely edit your writing as you
prepare drafts of your thesis or dissertation, you will not get feedback this
extensive. It is just not humanly possible for faculty to keep the thousands of
rules available in their head and recall them at just the right moment. And
18 Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish

FIGURE 2.2. Original Sample With StyleWriter Corrections Suggested

A1 final suggestion for improving your writing style (i.e.2, organization, flow,
stentence3 structure,4 grammar) is to model your writing on recent publications
in the most prestigious journals in your field. Select a journal that publishes
empirical reseach3 much like what you will be doing in your thesis or dissertation,
and start with one article from a recent issue of the journal. First, carefully
review the article for writing style (don’t worry about the content right now).
Notice how the author(s)5 organize the paper by concentrating on the headings
and subheadings used. Within sections of the paper, notice how the different
paragraphs are sequenced and how they present the flow of information in a
logical way. Notice the sentence structure the author(s)5 use.
Second,6 attempt to reproduce the paper’s organization, sequencing, flow,
and sentence structure.4 The best way to make sure you attend to these things4
in enough detail to improve your own writing is to imitate7 them. prepare8 an
outline of the paper and examine it for organization and structure.4 Leave space
on your outline to copy in text under each heading. Then copy, word for word, the
sentences that support or expand each point in the outline. Note that electronic
cutting and pasting misses the point of this exercise (you are building your writing
skills, not your cut and paste skills!). Based on recent Research (e.g., Mueller
& Oppenheimer, 2014), even typing may reduce this exercise’s effectiveness in
improving your writing. So, dust off your pen and paper and hand-write this outline.
After9 doing this for several papers you will be impressed10 with how much better
your own writing becomes. You can do the same thing4 using dissertations or
theses your chairperson nominates as particularly11 well-written.

• Words: 286 • Bog: 34 Good • Pep: 16 Good • Passive: 13 Good

• Style: 41 Fair • Sentence: 17.9 Excellent • Jargon: 0.7% Excellent
• Glue: 41% Fair • Grade: 10.5 Fairly Easy

Sentences and words that require attention are highlighted in different colors. By clicking
on highlighted words and sentences, you see an explanation from StyleWriter as to why
the passage is flagged. In addition, StyleWriter advises you about changes to consider.
Suggested changes and our responses are as follows:
• 1Poor sentence readability (“bog” index, indicating readability = poor)
– Advice: Edit highlighted words to improve readability (highlighted words:
“suggestion,” “organization,” “publications”). Attend to other suggested edits/
corrections.
– Response: We edited some words.
• 2Abbreviation/acronym use (increased bog)
– Advice: Don’t overuse abbreviations and acronyms.
– Response: We made no change; this use of abbreviation is appropriate.
• 3Spelling
– Advice: Correct typo.
– Response: We corrected the typo.
 Starting Out 19

FIGURE 2.2. Original Sample With StyleWriter Corrections Suggested (Continued)

• 4Nonspecific word choice
– Advice: Be specific or edit out.
– Response: We made no change to “structure,” which we determined to be the
appropriate word. We changed “thing.”
• 5Punctuation check
– Advice: Should be a space before opening bracket.
– Response: We removed the parentheses, which we determined to be unnecessary.
• 6Poor sentence readability (bog index = dreadful)
– Advice: Edit highlighted words to improve readability (highlighted words: “attempt,”
“organization,” “sequencing”). Attend to other suggested edits/corrections.
– Response: We edited the sentence by changing one word but left the remainder
intact.
• 7Complex word choice
– Advice: Consider a more readable synonym.
– Response: We substituted the suggested synonym.
• 8Poor sentence readability (bog index = fair, style = poor)
– Advice: Consider cutting “glue” (often unnecessary) words: “an,” “of,” “the,” “and,”
“it,” “for.”
– Response: We made no change; we deemed these words appropriate.
• 9Poor sentence readability (style = fair)
– Advice: Consider cutting glue words: “after,” “this,” “for,” “will,” “with,” “how,”
“much,” “better,” “own,” “becomes.”
– Response: We made no change; we deemed these words appropriate.
• 10
Passive word choice
– Advice: Use active tense.
– Response: Our original word choice is appropriate.
• Unnecessary word
11

– Advice: Can usually omit “particularly”

– Response: We omitted “particularly.”

even if they could provide this level of feedback, your adviser or chair’s job is
to teach independent research skills, not writing. About all these busy people
will have time to do is comment that your writing needs improvement and,
perhaps, point out a few examples of your run-on sentences, subject–verb
disagreements, and preposition errors. The less time you and they have to
spend correcting these issues, the more time and energy you and they can
spend on the actual content of the project.
Two warnings are in order here. First, it is critical to use software (and
especially your word processing program) to check your grammar as only
part of your writing enhancement routine. In a detailed examination of how
several word-processing programs handled common errors, one English pro-
fessor noted that the grammar-check functions in most programs not only
failed to consistently identify several of the most common writing errors
20 Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish

FIGURE 2.3. Revised Sample With StyleWriter Corrections Incorporated (or Not)

A final suggestion to improve your writing style (i.e., organization, flow, sentence
structure, grammar) is to model your writing on recent articles in the most
prestigious journals in your field. Select a journal that publishes empirical
research much like what you will be doing in your thesis or dissertation, and
start with one article from a recent issue of the journal. First, carefully review the
article for writing style (don’t worry about the content right now). Notice how the
authors organize the paper by concentrating on the headings and subheadings
used. Within sections of the paper, notice how the different paragraphs are
sequenced and how they present the flow of information in a logical way. Notice
the sentence structure the authors use.
Second, try to reproduce the paper’s organization, sequence, flow, and
sentence structure. The best way to make sure you attend to these details in
your own writing is to mimic them. Prepare an outline of the paper and examine
it for organization and structure. Leave space on your outline to copy in text
under each heading. Then copy, word for word, the sentences that support or
expand each point in the outline. Based on recent Research (e.g., Mueller &
Oppenheimer, 2014), even typing may reduce this exercise’s effectiveness in
improving your writing. So, dust off your pen and paper and hand-write this
outline. After you do this for several papers, you will be impressed with how
much better your own writing becomes. You can do the same exercise using
dissertations or theses your chairperson identifies as well-written.

• Words = 272 • Bog = 18 Excellent • Pep = 16 Good • Passive = 0 Excellent

• Style: 14 Excellent • Sentence = 17 Excellent • Jargon: 0.7% Excellent
• Glue = 38% Concise • Grade 9.7 = Fairly Easy

but also offered bad advice about fixing errors (Kies, 2018). The take-home
message is that grammar-checking software is best used in addition to, rather
than instead of, your own knowledge of good writing and the specific nature
of the information you are trying to convey. We encountered this in Style-
Writer’s evaluation of our paragraph, and as we note in Figure 2.2, we chose
to ignore some of the suggested edits.
Second, the informal style we use in this book is not appropriate for your
thesis or dissertation. This book is full of “you” language and contractions, and
it sometimes begins sentences with conjunctions (“And”) and occasionally
ends a series with “and so on.” We attempt to be engaging as we speak directly
to you in sharing our experiences and advice, but these informalities are not
acceptable for the more formal, scholarly writing expected in theses and dis-
sertations. Please do not use the writing in this book as an example of a style
that would be appropriate in your document! At the same time, however,
writing that is overly formal and full of jargon can come across as stilted and
be difficult to read. Remember, you are writing professionally, but that doesn’t
 Starting Out 21

mean you need to use the longest words and most complex sentences possible.
Instead, aim for a writing style that is clear, straightforward, and succinct.
A final suggestion to improve your writing style (i.e., organization, flow,
sentence structure, grammar) is to model your writing on recent articles in
the most prestigious journals in your field. Select an article from a recent
issue of a journal that publishes empirical research much like what you will
be doing for your thesis or dissertation. First, carefully review the article for
writing style (don’t worry about the content right now). By concentrating on
the headings and subheadings used, you’ll notice how the authors organized
the article. Within sections of the article, notice how the sequence and flow of
paragraphs present information in a logical way. Notice the sentence structure
the authors used.
Second, try to reproduce the article’s organization, sequencing, flow, and
sentence structure. The best way to make sure you attend to these details in
your own writing is to mimic those of other authors. Use the article’s struc-
ture to prepare an outline of a paper of your own (e.g., one you need to write
for class, an early version of your thesis or dissertation). Leave space on your
outline to write in text under each heading. Then, using similar sequencing,
structure, and flow, try to write sentences that support or expand each point
in the outline. Research indicates that typing may reduce this exercise’s
effectiveness in improving your writing (e.g., Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014).
So, dust off your pen and paper and handwrite this outline. After you do this
for several papers, you will be impressed with how much better your own
writing becomes. You can do the same exercise using theses or dissertations
that your chair identifies as well written.
APA Style or other specific style requirements (Item 5) deal with even
more specific verbal skills (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020).
Happily, although these skills are important, their absence is not fatal in the
budding behavioral scientist. Your institution may have a subscription to
Academic Writer, a comprehensive online platform that provides instruc-
tion and support for APA Style writing (for more information, visit https://
[Link]/academic-writer). Academic Writer helps students learn
to conduct research, create APA Style citations and references, and structure and
format their papers in APA Style to help make the process straightforward
and painless. Better yet, buy the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (seventh ed.; APA, 2020) and learn the proper formatting yourself.
Anyone competent enough to complete graduate work can master APA Style
with a little help from this clear and detailed manual.
In addition to Academic Writer, APA also provides a series of online
resources with answers to frequently asked questions, online courses and
tutorials, and an APA Style blog ([Link] If you
are at a school that uses some other style, ask at your library, department,
or dean’s office for a style sheet, website, or manual that indicates what is
acceptable. Again, a quick online search should reveal several software pro-
grams to help you conform to your particular style requirements.
22 Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish

Methodology Skills

Items 6 through 11 deal with the adequacy and recency of your method-
ological and data analytic preparation. It is probably safe to say that taking
two or more data analysis classes (Item 8) is an essential requirement for
satisfactory thesis or dissertation completion in most departments. Of course,
the specific types of courses you need may differ depending on the type of
research methods you will be using—that is, quantitative, qualitative, behav-
ior analytic, brain imaging, and so forth. If you are not currently fluent in the
statistical concepts and tools covered in the usual two-course graduate statis-
tical sequence, you may have to take some remedial steps. Part of the material
covered in such courses can be found in Chapter 9. Look it over. Does it seem
comfortably familiar? Could it be, with just a brief review?
If it has been some time since you completed your statistics coursework, or
your particular research will require skills outside of those typically covered
in your program’s statistics courses, you might want to appraise your current
skills more systematically. If your graduate program includes tests in statistics
as part of its comprehensive exams, ask your adviser if you can take the cur-
rent version of the test. Explain that you want to know whether you need to
take a refresher course. You might accomplish this by auditing the major
methodological courses, all or in part. YouTube videos with statistics tutorials
provide another way of beefing up or reviving your understanding. Now is
also a good time to identify whether you need any advanced or specialized
data analysis courses or workshops. If so, begin planning how and when you
will take them.
Before you let statistics phobia scare you away from doing a thesis or dis-
sertation, remember that we said “fluent”; we did not say that you must be an
A+ whiz in statistics or that you must find the material easy. Many students,
in our experience, find statistics to be the most challenging and intimidating
part of research. Even students who earn As in stats classes may find that they
need to review the material or that they sometimes get stumped when it
comes to applying what they learned to their own projects. Nonetheless, with
adequate guidance, they master this aspect of their thesis or dissertation.
A committee member with specific analytic expertise can provide invaluable
guidance. Many departments and institutions also offer statistical consulting
services that students find helpful. The key is obtaining adequate guidance if
you have mastered basic statistical concepts, and additional training or tutor-
ing if you have not. Thousands of psychologists in training have mastered
their fear of numbers, and so can you.
An affirmative answer to Item 7 (measurement theory) is most important
if you are planning a project that will require constructing your own mea-
sure(s). Are you working in an area with nonexistent or inadequate measures
of the variables you will be studying? For example, are you planning to
survey the attitudes of a group of migrant workers, or interested in emerging
adult dating relationships among transgender individuals, but you have found
there are no good measures? If your answer is “yes” to similar questions, you
 Starting Out 23

should be fluent in measure development or test construction concepts. The

intricacies of scale construction and validation are myriad and should not be
approached lightly. Even if your research does not involve the actual construc-
tion of new measures, it is well to be an educated consumer. Making the most
informed choice of instruments for the variables you will be studying requires
more than passing familiarity with psychometric concepts. If you are unsure of
your preparation in this area, take a look at the material in Chapter 8.
Have you taken a class in research design (Item 8)? This is important
for understanding how to design studies that maximize both internal and
external validity. If these terms are unfamiliar to you, we strongly recom-
mend that you review research design principles. Another outcome of design
classes is that you learn to speak the language of research, and to speak it
correctly. Ill-prepared students often use the term “confound” when they
mean “methodological problem.” Others refer to the “reliability” of a research
design or confuse dependent and independent variables. Or they state that
they will test “mediation” when they really mean “moderation.” Correct use
of terminology is important for discussing the methodology of your own study
as well as others’ work. In addition, an incorrectly used term in an proposal or
defense is a signal to committee members that you may not know what you
are talking about, and indeed, you may not! This kind of problem can lead
to serious flaws in your research conclusions, if not your design, and invites
probing and sometimes antagonistic questioning by committee members.
Fortunately, both the flaws and their discussion can be prevented if you make
sure you understand research terms and use them precisely.
Which brings us to Item 9—having some experience reading and evaluat-
ing the research literature. All published articles are not equal in terms of
their methodological rigor. Part of your job in creating a good study is to sort
the good from the mediocre (we can hope the bad never made it into print!)
and to make sure your study is in the “good” group. You will need to be
appropriately critical of what others have done (in your literature review)
and what you yourself have done (in the Discussion section). As with most
things, practice makes perfect. Experience in critically reading and evaluating
empirical literature in graduate courses can help you build these skills and has
the added advantage of sharpening your thinking skills generally. If your
adviser reviews manuscripts submitted to journals, you can also ask to assist
with those.
To some extent, answering positively to Item 10 (research experience)
may cover you with respect to Items 6 to 9. If you have been especially active
in a program of research that serves as the basis for your own study, you will
likely be familiar with the methodology required for conducting that research.
If you have been involved less extensively or if your plans have led you
to another area, you might not be as well prepared. In this case, a thorough
appraisal of your competence in research design, measurement, and data
analysis might be in order.
Most graduate programs expose students to computer software designed to
make the number crunching part of research very efficient (Item 11). Among
24 Dissertations and Theses From Start to Finish

the more popular are SPSS, SAS, Mplus, and R (R is free!). Find out which
of these are available to you and can be used to analyze the data you will
eventually produce. If you do not know yet exactly which tests or procedures
you will need, just familiarize yourself with what is available for now. You
can get more specific after you design your project and know the type of data
you will be analyzing.
In summary, your writing and methodology skills are the most important
determinants of your success in the research process. Before moving on,
however, let’s look at the implications of some of the other items on the
Research Readiness Checklist. Consider Items 12 and 13, for example. Some
otherwise realistic candidates are amazed at suggestions that they will need at
least 10 to 20 hours a week to devote to the effort. And the thought that this
might have to extend over a year or more completely dumbfounds them!
In truth, these are probably conservative estimates—at least for dissertations.
Of course, these estimates are subject to local variation, and that is where
Items 14 and 15 can be useful. What have others at your school said about the
time required to complete their thesis or dissertation?

Environmental and Social Support

What about the physical space to pursue this mammoth undertaking

(Item 16)? This is clearly not the time to be eyeing the kitchen table, figuring
you can work around the salt and pepper, morning paper, and your family’s
or roommate’s meals! You are going to be at this a while, so choose your work
space carefully. Find some quiet place that will afford uninterrupted privacy
for sustained periods of time. If you are fortunate to have a private or semi-
private office on campus, consider arranging private writing shifts with office
mates and then closing the door (and perhaps using a “Do Not Disturb” sign)
during your scheduled writing time. Many university libraries also provide
locked carrels or private workspaces that scholars can reserve for long-term
projects. We have even had the occasional student who rented an office
specifically for doing their dissertation. They planned to do no other work in
this office.
Designating physical space exemplifies an important behavior management
principle. Behavior that is under the control of narrowly defined stimulus con-
ditions will, other things being equal, become increasingly focused. Researchers
in self-control have talked about stimulus control for decades (Stuart, 1977).
People with weight problems are told to eat only at the dining room table and
(sometimes) only with a white placemat in front of them. Insomniacs are told
to sleep only in bed, and only to sleep in bed, thus bringing sleeping more
clearly under the stimulus control of the bed. Behavioral psychologist B. F.
Skinner had a special desk in his house for writing. He spent several hours at
this desk each day and permitted himself no other activity (e.g., bill paying,
personal correspondence) at this desk. One of us has a student who still claims
that she cannot enter a particular coffee shop without having an almost
 Starting Out 25

overwhelming urge to pull out her computer and get to work. Although this
setting certainly was not private, the student and her colleague had spent every
Saturday morning for more than a year frequenting that coffee shop for their
thesis writing, and no other activity (including simply relaxing with a cup of
coffee) felt appropriate in that location.
Related to bringing your writing under the stimulus control of a particu-
lar location is bringing it under the control of a particular time of day as
well. In his later years, Skinner wrote each day between 5 a.m. and 7 a.m.
By being consistent in the time you work each day, you increase the chances
that a whole host of additional temporally related stimuli will control your
writing. The outside light and sounds are likely to be constant (and thus less
distracting), as is your biological state. In selecting your writing time, it is
helpful to ask yourself when you are most apt to write well. When is your
thinking (including your organization, logic, creativity, and concentration)
at its sharpest? Do you work best with longer stretches of time or with more
frequent but shorter time blocks? Do you prefer to immerse yourself in
just one task or work better when you’re able to move between a few dif-
ferent tasks?
It is also useful to anticipate interruptions. You should be rigid in writing
during the same time each day. Others will test your consistency and want
you to do things with them (e.g., meetings, shopping, trips with the kids
to the park) during your sacrosanct research and writing time. Although
consistency might be, for some, the hobgoblin of little minds, it is more often
the godparent of successfully completed theses and dissertations.
You will be much more likely to produce this consistency if you carefully
cultivate the support of family and loved ones (Item 17). Do not neglect these
important people. Be up front and realistic with them about your need for
sustained periods of molelike behavior. At the same time, arrange occasions
when you can be exclusively with them. Children and other family members
will be much less likely to interrupt your work if they know you have com-
mitted to spend specific times with them and you keep your commitments.
Finally, your faculty adviser or chair, and often other faculty, will provide
indispensable instrumental and social support (Item 18). To assess your
preparation for the upcoming project, take realistic stock of your ability to
access these faculty. Do you and your adviser already meet on a regular basis?
If so, this is a great start, but will the current arrangements be sufficient to
support all stages of your project? Consider whether you’ll need to develop
other routines with your adviser. For example, if your weekly meetings cover
everything—your assistantship, clinical work, collaborative work on your
adviser’s research—you might want to schedule specific dissertation-only
meetings to make sure the dissertation doesn’t get set aside in favor of more
immediate deadlines. Can you reach your adviser between meetings for help
with data collection problems or an analysis that just won’t run? The students
of one of our colleagues knew that for impromptu meetings, it was always best
to catch up with this colleague during a midmorning walk. Understanding
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
were themselves produced from God. This was a corrupted
Platonism. Plato imagined that the ideas which were in the mind of
the Deity created intellectual beings: Simon taught that the supreme
God by an operation of his own mind produced the angels. The first
intelligences of Plato were employed by God to create the world:
Simon also taught that the angels, or æons, created the world; but
in one respect the Gnostics had totally changed the philosophy of
Plato; for they taught that the angel, or angels, who created the
world, acted contrary to the wishes of the supreme God.
SIN, the transgression of the law, or want of conformity to the will
of God, 1 John iii, 4. Original sin is that whereby our whole nature is
corrupted, and rendered contrary to the nature and law of God; or,
according to the ninth article of the church of England, “It is that
whereby man is very far gone from original righteousness, and is, of
his own nature, inclined to evil.” This is sometimes called, “indwelling
sin,” Rom. vii. The imputation of the sin of Adam to his posterity, is
also what divines call, with some latitude of expression, original sin.
Actual sin is a direct violation of God’s law, and generally applied to
those who are capable of committing moral evil; as opposed to idiots
or children, who have not the right use of their powers. Sins of
omission consist in leaving those things undone which ought to be
done. Sins of commission are those which are committed against
affirmative precepts, or doing what should not be done. Sins of
infirmity are those which arise from ignorance, surprise, &c. Secret
sins are those committed in secret, or those of which, through
blindness or prejudice, we do not see the evil, Psalm xix, 7–12.
Presumptuous sins are those which are done boldly against light and
conviction. The unpardonable sin is, according to some, the ascribing
to the devil the miracles which Christ wrought by the power of the
Holy Ghost. This sin, or blasphemy, as it should rather be called,
many scribes and Pharisees were guilty of, who, beholding our Lord
do his miracles, affirmed that he wrought them by Beelzebub, the
prince of devils, which was, in effect, calling the Holy Ghost Satan, a
most horrible blasphemy; and, as on this ground they rejected
Christ, and salvation by him, their sin could certainly have no
forgiveness, Mark iii, 22–30. No one therefore could be guilty of this
blasphemy, except those who were spectators of Christ’s miracles.
There is, however, another view of this unpardonable offence, which
deserves consideration: The sin or blasphemy against the Holy
Ghost, says Bishop Tomline, is mentioned in the first three Gospels.
It appears that all the three evangelists agree in representing the sin
or blasphemy against the Holy Ghost as a crime which would not be
forgiven; but no one of them affirms that those who had ascribed
Christ’s power of casting out devils to Beelzebub, had been guilty of
that sin, and in St. Luke it is not mentioned that any such charge
had been made. Our Saviour, according to the account in St.
Matthew and St. Mark, endeavoured to convince the Jews of their
error; but so far from accusing them of having committed an
unpardonable sin in what they had said concerning him, he declares
that “whosoever speaketh a word against the Son of man, it shall be
forgiven him;” that is, whatever reproaches men may utter against
the Son of man during his ministry, however they may calumniate
the authority upon which he acts, it is still possible that hereafter
they may repent and believe, and all their sins may be forgiven
them; but the reviling of the Holy Ghost is described as an offence of
a far more heinous nature: “The blasphemy against the Holy Ghost
shall not be forgiven unto men.” “He that shall blaspheme against
the Holy Ghost hath never forgiveness.” “Unto him that blasphemeth
against the Holy Ghost it shall not be forgiven.” It is plain that this
sin against the Holy Ghost could not be committed while our Saviour
was upon earth, since he always speaks of the Holy Ghost as not
being to come till after his ascension into heaven. A few days after
that great event, the descent of the Holy Ghost enabled the Apostles
to work miracles, and communicated to them a variety of other
supernatural gifts. If men should ascribe these powers to Beelzebub,
or in any respect reject their authority, they would blaspheme the
Holy Ghost, from whom they were derived; and that sin would be
unpardonable, because this was the completion of the evidence of
the divine authority of Christ and his religion; and they who rejected
these last means of conviction, could have no other opportunity of
being brought to faith in Christ, the only appointed condition of
pardon and forgiveness. The greater heinousness of the sin of these
men would consist in their rejecting a greater body of testimony; for
they are supposed to be acquainted with the resurrection of our
Saviour from the dead, with his ascension into heaven, with the
miraculous descent of the Holy Ghost, and with the supernatural
powers which it communicated; circumstances, all of which were
enforced by the Apostles when they preached the Gospel; but none
of which could be known to those who refused to acknowledge
Jesus as the Messiah during his actual ministry. Though this was a
great sin, it was not an unpardonable one, it might be remedied by
subsequent belief, by yielding to subsequent testimony. But, on the
other hand, they who finally rejected the accumulated and complete
evidence of Jesus being the Messiah, as exhibited by the inspired
Apostles, precluded themselves from the possibility of conviction,
because no farther testimony would be afforded them, and
consequently, there being no means of repentance, they would be
incapable of forgiveness and redemption. Hence it appears that the
sin against the Holy Ghost consisted in finally rejecting the Gospel as
preached by the Apostles, who confirmed the truth of the doctrine
which they taught “by signs and wonders, and divers miracles, and
gifts of the Holy Ghost,” Heb. ii, 4. It was unpardonable, because
this was the consummation of the proofs afforded to the men of that
generation of the divine mission of Christ. This sin was manifestly
distinct from all other sins; it indicated an invincible obstinacy of
mind, an impious and unalterable determination to refuse the
offered mercy of God. It would appear from this, that those only
committed or could commit this irremissible offence, who were
witnesses of the mighty works wrought by the Holy Spirit in the
Apostles after Christ’s ascension and the day of pentecost. Our
Lord’s declaration appears chiefly to respect the Jews. This view will
serve to explain those passages in the Epistle to the Hebrews, in
which the hopeless case of Jewish apostates is described. But see
Blasphemy.
SIN, Desert of. To this the tenth station the Israelites came exactly
a month after they left Egypt. And here again they murmured for
“the bread and the flesh-pots of Egypt.” So the Lord gave them
quails for a day, and manna for forty years, till they came to the
borders of Canaan. On this occasion the institution of the Sabbath
was revived, as a day of rest, which had been intermitted during
their Egyptian bondage. On this day there fell no manna, but on the
preceding they were directed to gather two days’ provision. To
perpetuate the memorial of “this bread from heaven” to future
generations, a pot of manna, which was preserved fresh, by a
standing miracle, was ordered to be laid up beside the ark of the
covenant, in the sanctuary, Exod. xvi.
SINAI, a famous mountain of Arabia Petræa, on which God gave
the law to Moses, Exod. xix, 1; xxiv, 16; xxxi, 18; xxxiv, 2, 4, &c;
Lev. xxv, 1; xxvi, 46. It stands in a kind of peninsula, formed by the
two arms of the Red Sea; one extending north, called the Gulf of
Kolsom; the other extending east, called the Gulf of Elan. The Arabs
call Mount Sinai by the name of Tor, that is, the mountain, by way of
excellence; or Gibel Mousa, “the mountain of Moses.” It is two
hundred and sixty miles from Cairo, which is a journey of ten days.
The wilderness of Sinai, where the Israelites continued encamped
almost a year, and where Moses erected the tabernacle of the
covenant, is considerably elevated above the rest of the country; the
ascent to it is very craggy, the greater part cut out of the rock; then
one comes to a large space of ground, which is a plain surrounded
on all sides by rocks and eminences, whose length is nearly twelve
miles. Toward the extremity of this plain, on the north, two high
mountains appear; the highest is called Sinai, the other Horeb. They
are of very steep ascent, and do not stand on much ground in
comparison to their extraordinary height. Sinai is at least one third
part higher than the other, and its ascent more upright and difficult.
The top of the mountain terminates in an uneven and rugged space,
which might contain about sixty persons. On this eminence is built a
little chapel, called St. Catherine’s, where it is thought the body of
this saint rested for three hundred and sixty years; but afterward it
was removed into a church at the foot of the mountain. Near this
chapel issues a fountain of very good fresh water; it is looked upon
as miraculous, it not being conceivable how water can flow from the
brow of so high and so barren a mountain. Mount Horeb stands west
of Sinai; so that at sun-rising the shadow of Sinai covers Horeb.
Beside the little fountain at the top of Sinai, there is another at the
foot of Horeb, which supplies the monastery of St. Catherine. Five or
six paces from thence they show a stone, whose height is four or
five feet, and breadth about three, which they say is the very stone
from whence Moses caused the water to gush out. Its colour is of a
spotted grey; and it is, as it were, set in a kind of earth, where no
other rock appears. This stone has twelve holes or channels, which
are about a foot wide, from whence they say the water issued which
the Israelites drank.
“Sinai,” says Sandys, “has three tops of a marvellous height; that
on the west side, where God appeared to Moses in a bush, fruitful in
pasturage, far lower than the middlemost, and shadowed when the
sun riseth thereon; which is that whereon God gave the law to
Moses, and which is now called the Mount of Moses, at the foot of
which stands the monastery called St. Catherine’s, from which there
were steps formerly up to the very top of the mountain, and were
computed fourteen thousand in number. At present some of them
are broken, but those that remain are well made, and easy to go up
and down. There are, in several places of the ascent, good cisterns;
and especially near the top, a fair and good one. The third or most
easterly summit is called by the religious in those parts, Mount
Catherine; on the top of which there is a dome, under which they
say was interred the body of this saint, brought thither by angels
after she was beheaded at Alexandria.” One may judge of the height
of St. Catherine’s Mount, which certainly is not so high as that of
Moses by a third part, from this circumstance, that Thevenot found
much snow on both when he was there, which was in February. The
monastery of St. Catherine is from Cairo some eight days’ journey
over the deserts.
SION, or ZION, Mount, a mount or hill on the south of Old
Jerusalem or Salem, and higher than that on which the ancient city
stood. This hill was, perhaps, on this account, made choice of by the
Jebusites for building a fort or citadel upon; which fort was taken by
David, who transferred his court thither from Hebron, and brought
the ark of the Lord and set it in a tabernacle or tent pitched for it.
On this account it is, that this hill is so frequently styled in the
Psalms the “holy hill;” and, by way of excellence, is used in the
poetical language of Scripture to denote the whole city of Jerusalem.
Here David built a palace, and a city, called after him the city of
David; and which subsequently formed a part of Jerusalem, enclosed
within the same walls, although a great part of the hill is now left
without them; while, on the contrary, Calvary, which is supposed to
have stood formerly without the walls, is now enclosed within them,
the city having drawn itself round about this sacred mount. “This
hill,” says M. Chateaubriand, “is of a yellowish colour, and barren
appearance; open in form of a crescent, toward Jerusalem; and is
about as high as Montmartre at Paris, but rounder at the top. This
sacred summit is distinguished by three monuments, or, more
properly, by three ruins, the house of Caiaphas, the place where
Christ celebrated his last supper, and the tomb or palace of David.
From the top of the hill you see, to the south, the valley of Ben
Hinnom; beyond this, the field of blood, purchased with the thirty
pieces of silver given to Judas; the hill of Evil Counsel, the tombs of
the judges, and the whole desert toward Hebron and Bethlehem. To
the north, the wall of Jerusalem, which passes over the top of Sion,
intercepts the view of the city, the site of which gradually slopes
toward the Valley of Jehoshaphat.”
Dr. Richardson observes of Sion, “At the time when I visited this
sacred ground, one part of it supported a crop of barley, another
was undergoing the labour of the plough, and the soil turned up
consisted of stones and lime mixed with earth, such as is usually
met with in the foundations of ruined cities. It is nearly a mile in
circumference, is highest on the west side, and toward the east falls
down in broad terraces on the upper part of the mountain, and
narrow ones on the side as it slopes down toward the brook Kedron.
Each terrace is divided from the one above it by a low wall of dry
stone, built of the ruins of this celebrated spot. The terraces near
the bottom of the hill are used as gardens, and are watered from the
pool of Siloam. We have here another remarkable instance of the
special fulfilment of prophecy. ‘Therefore shall Zion for your sakes be
ploughed as a field, and Jerusalem shall become heaps,’ Micah iii,
12.” Mr. Jolliffe represents the hill of Sion as not more raised above
the city than the Aventine hill above the Roman forum; but
conjectures that its height, from its base in the Valley of Gehinnon,
from which it rises abruptly, may be equivalent to some of the lowest
hills which encompass Bath; that is, if the estimate be correct, about
three hundred and sixty feet, which is the height of the lowest of the
hills above that city.
SISTER, in the style of the Hebrews, has equal latitude as brother.
It is used not only for a sister by natural relation from the same
father and mother, but also for a sister only by the same father or by
the same mother, or a near relation only. Sarah is called sister to
Abraham, Gen. xii, 13; xx, 12, though only his niece according to
some, or sister by the father’s side according to others. In the law,
Lev. xviii, 18, it is forbidden to take to wife the sister of a wife; to
marry two sisters; or, according to some interpreters, to marry a
second wife, having one already. Literally, “Thou shalt not take a
wife over her sister to afflict her;” as if meaning to forbid polygamy.
In the Gospels, the brothers and sisters of Jesus Christ are his
cousins, children of the sisters of the holy virgin, Matt. xiii, 56; Mark
vi, 3.
SLAVE. See Servant.
SLEEP, Sleeping, Slumbering, is taken either for the sleep or repose
of the body; or for the sleep of the soul, which is supineness,
indolence, stupidity; or for the sleep of death. “You shall sleep with
your fathers;” you shall die, as they are dead. Jeremiah, li, 39,
threatens Babylon, in the name of the Lord, with a perpetual sleep,
out of which they shall not awake. Daniel, xii, 2, speaks of those that
sleep in the dust of the grave. “Lazarus our friend sleepeth; let us go
and awake him,” John xi, 11; he is dead, let us go and raise him up.
“Awake, thou that sleepest, and arise from the dead, and Christ shall
give thee light,” Eph. v, 14. Here St. Paul speaks to those that were
dead in sin and infidelity. St. Peter says of the wicked, “Their
damnation slumbereth not,” 2 Peter ii, 3. God is not asleep, he will
not forget to punish them in his own due time. Isaiah, lxv, 4, speaks
of a superstitious practice among the Pagans, who went to sleep in
the temples of their idols, to obtain prophetic dreams: “They remain
among the graves, and lodge in the monuments.” The word, which
we translate “monuments,” signifies places “kept” or “observed.”
Some interpret it of idol temples, some of caves and dens, in which
the Heathens used to worship their idols; and some of tombs or
monuments for dead persons. Thus also the superstitious and
idolatrous Jews, in contempt of the prophets, and of the temple of
the Lord, went into the tombs and temples of idols to sleep there,
and to have dreams that might discover future events to them. The
Pagans for this purpose used to lie upon the skins of the sacrificed
victims.
SLINGS. See Arms.
SMYRNA, a city of Asia Minor, and one of the finest in all the
Levant. It contended for the honour of giving birth to Homer, and its
title is by many thought to be the best founded. The Christian
church in Smyrna was one of the seven churches of Asia to which
the Apostle John was commanded to address an epistle, Rev. ii, 8–
10. The present Smyrna, which the Turks call Esmir, is about four
miles in circumference, and contains a population of about a
hundred thousand souls. It is less remarkable for the elegance of its
buildings than for the beauty of its situation, the extent of its
commerce, and the riches of its inhabitants.
SOCINIANS, a sect so called from Faustus Socinus, who died in
Poland in 1604. This celebrated man was born in Tuscany, and was
descended from an ancient and noble family. In the earlier period of
his life he devoted little time to literary acquisitions, but he was
possessed of a vigorous understanding, and of that steady fortitude
which qualified him for the memorable part which he afterward
acted. His connection with his uncle Lælius probably gave a bias to
his mind with respect to religion. He warmly embraced his tenets,
and he spent a great part of his days in studying and disseminating
them. Having left his native country, he visited Poland; and finally he
settled in it for the express purpose of propagating his own peculiar
views of religious truth. The fundamental principles which he
assumed were, the rejection of all mystery from revelation, and the
necessity of trying its doctrines by the light of reason; and he
rigorously applied this latter maxim in conducting his theological
investigations. He inculcated in the strictest sense, the unity of God;
considered the Word and the Holy Ghost as attributes of the
supreme Being; taught that Christ was a man peculiarly honoured by
the Almighty, having been born through the operation of the Spirit;
and that he was so highly exalted, in consequence of his office as
the Saviour of the world, that he might be styled the Son of God,
and ought to be worshipped. Struck with several declarations of our
Lord which seemed to imply that he had descended from heaven,
and which militated against his leading tenet respecting Jesus, he
endeavoured to evade the application of them, by supposing or
affirming that, previous to the commencement of our Saviour’s
ministry, he had, through the power of God, been taken up to the
celestial regions, and had in them received from the Almighty the
truths which he was commissioned to reveal.
The first reception of Socinus in Poland, even by those who might
have been expected to welcome him, was most discouraging. The
Unitarian churches which had been previously established in that
kingdom, differing from him in several points, would not admit him
into their communion; and he had to encounter the enmity of the
great majority of Christians, who abhorred his tenets, and branded
them as impious. But, notwithstanding all this, and although he was
visited with much suffering and affliction, his perseverance, his
talents, and his zeal soon excited admiration; his views were
adopted by many even in the highest stations of life; his principles
were embodied in a catechism, which, though not imposed upon his
followers, they read with very extensive acquiescence; and he had
the satisfaction of beholding the sentiments which he had long
cherished, embraced by various churches enjoying the protection of
government, and permitted to establish seminaries of education by
which the impression made on the public mind might be preserved
and deepened. There was not, however, perfect unanimity of faith
among all his associates who united in denying the divinity of our
Lord. Vast numbers of these, previous to their having perused the
papers of Lælius Socinus, had so far received the system of
Arianism, that they believed Christ to have existed before he entered
into the world; and although many, in consequence of the
reasonings and representations of Socinus, abandoned this doctrine,
it was retained by some, who, from their leader, were called
Farnovians. Socinus conducted himself toward these men with
admirable address. Fully aware that the tendency of their having
departed so far from the orthodox tenets was to lead them to still
farther recession, and sensible that his own system naturally and
consequentially resulted from what they readily admitted, he used
every method to conciliate them, and he permitted them to remain
with his followers, upon condition of their not openly insisting on the
preëxistence of Christ. They did, however, at length separate from
the great body of his adherents; but they gradually approached
nearer and nearer to them, and, upon the death of Farnovius, most
of them incorporated themselves with the Socinians, and all trace of
them as a distinct party was obliterated.
Socinus was much more agitated by the promulgation of an
opinion very opposite to those now mentioned. As might have been
anticipated, there were some who, having adopted the sentiments of
Lælius Socinus as to the simple humanity of Christ, deduced from
this tenet consequences which appeared to them obviously to flow
from it, although these had not been perceived or admitted by
Lælius himself. A striking example of this took place in the time of
Faustus Socinus. Francis David, a man of considerable influence
among the Unitarians, being the superintendent of their churches in
Transylvania, maintained that, as Christ was born just like other
men, so he continued, notwithstanding his exaltation, to be merely a
human being; and that therefore all invocation of him, and worship
paid to him, were to be shunned as impiety or idolatry. Socinus
inveighed with the utmost warmth against this opinion; he used
every method to induce David to renounce it; and, at the desire of
one of his friends, he resided for a considerable time at the house of
his opponent, that the subject at issue might be fully and calmly
discussed. He failed, however, in accomplishing his object. David
persisted, as he had, upon the ground which he had taken, good
reason to do, in asserting the doctrine which he had announced; and
he was soon after this thrown by the prince of Transylvania into
prison, where he lingered for several years, and then died at an
advanced age. It has been insinuated that Socinus was accessary to
this cruel deed of detestable persecution; and, although attempts
have been made to wipe off the imputation, there is too much cause
to think that it is not wholly unfounded. Most certain it is, that he
had it much at heart to root out what he viewed as the heresy of
David, and that the support of it after the death of the unhappy
sufferer by some distinguished Unitarians gave him much
uneasiness. It is not unlikely that the zeal which he thus displayed
arose from his apprehension that the tenets which he opposed
would supplant his own, and from the difficulty that he must have
experienced in turning aside the inferences which were affirmed to
follow from what he admitted. If such was the case, and it seems in
many respects more probable than the conjecture of Mosheim, that
it is to be attributed to the dread of rendering the sect more odious
than it actually was, we have a striking proof of his discernment,
though at the expense of his candour; for the present creed of
Unitarianism approaches much nearer to that of David than to the
doctrines of the founder of Socinianism himself.
But, while he was thus disquieted by opposition which, after the
liberty with which he had himself departed from the faith of the
most ancient and numerous Christian churches, should have created
no surprise, he was highly gratified by the zeal and the
establishment of his followers. Under the protection of the ample
toleration which they enjoyed in Poland they were sedulous in their
attempts to imprint their tenets upon those among whom they lived,
and to send these tenets abroad to foreign nations. The Anti-
trinitarians in Poland had early translated the Scriptures, and their
successors under Socinus composed many works with the design of
defending the principles of their faith. They also sent missionaries to
propagate their views and to disseminate the books which supported
them, anticipating success similar to that which had accompanied
their efforts in Transylvania. But in Hungary and in Austria they were
successfully opposed by the united and cordial efforts of Catholics
and Protestants. In Holland they were more fortunate; and in
England they established only one congregation, which differed in
some points from the parent sect, and which soon dwindled away.
 These failures, which the ardour, the ability, and the high rank of
many who engaged in the diffusion of Socinianism were unable to
prevent, were soon followed by their expulsion from the country in
which they had so long remained in security and peace. Toward the
middle of the seventeenth century some of the students attending
the academy at Racow, wantonly insulted the feelings and the
principles of the Catholics, by a contemptible act of outrage against
a crucifix, which, with stones, they threw down from the place in
which it had been erected. By men warmly attached to their own
religion, and who had at all times regarded the Socinians as
undermining its foundation, this youthful excess was represented as
confirming all the charges that had been made against the
community to which the perpetrators belonged, and they determined
to exert themselves to procure their punishment or extirpation. The
supporters of the established religion accordingly applied to the diet
at Warsaw; and, notwithstanding the powerful influence used in
favour of the Socinians, a cruel edict was passed, abolishing their
academy at Racow, banishing the learned men who had taught in it,
breaking the printing presses, and shutting up the churches. This
edict was carried into effect with much severity; but it did not
exhaust the enmity now cherished against the sect; for within a few
years after, by a solemn act of the Polish diet, they were banished
from the territories of the republic, and, with sad departure from the
tolerant and beneficent spirit of the Gospel, death was denounced
against all who held their opinions, or who even sheltered and
protected those who entertained them. A short time was allowed to
the unfortunate victims to arrange their affairs before they bade an
eternal adieu to scenes which all the ties of human life must have
endeared to them; but this period was abridged. Some, however,
had escaped the operation of the law, and had remained in Poland;
but three years after the edict was renewed, and the Socinians who
still lingered in their beloved country were driven from it with a
rigour and an inhumanity reflecting infamy upon those who were
guilty of them, and leading to the most melancholy reflections upon
that dismal perversion of all that is amiable in our nature, which has
so often been effected by a mistaken zeal for a religion breathing
the tenderest concern for the happiness of mankind. The principles
of Socinus were, notwithstanding, secretly fostered, and various
causes tended to perpetuate them even where in profession they
were abjured. The propensity, so natural to man, of dissipating every
shade of mystery, and casting the light of his own understanding
around the subjects of his contemplation, did not cease to operate;
and the application of this principle, so gratifying to the pride of
human reason, carried many farther than even Socinus had probably
anticipated.
The Socinians hold, that Jesus Christ was a mere man, who had
no existence before he was born of the virgin Mary; that the Holy
Ghost is no distinct person; but that the Father only is truly and
properly God. They own that the name of God is given in Scripture
to Jesus Christ, but contend that it is only a deputed title; which,
however, invests him with a great authority over all creatures. They
deny the doctrine of satisfaction and imputed righteousness, and
say, that Christ only preached the truth to mankind, set before them
in himself an example of heroic virtue, and sealed his doctrines with
his blood. Original sin they esteem a mere scholastic chimera. Some
of them, likewise, maintain the sleep of the soul, which, they say,
becomes insensible at death, and is raised again with the body at
the resurrection, when the good shall be established in the
possession of eternal felicity, while the wicked shall be consigned to
a fire that will torment them, not eternally, but for a certain duration,
proportioned to their demerits.
SODOM, the capital of Pentapolis, which for some time was the
residence of Lot, the nephew of Abraham. The history of its
destruction is given in the book of Genesis. See Abraham, Lot, and
Dead Sea.
SOLOMON, or SALOMON, son of David and Bathsheba, was born
A. M. 2971. The Lord loved him, and sent Nathan to David to give
Solomon the name of Jedidiah, or, “beloved of the Lord,” 2 Sam. xii,
24, 25. This was probably when Nathan assured David that his son
should succeed him, and that he should inherit those promises which
had been made to him some years before, when he had conceived
the design of building a temple to the Lord; for then God declared,
by the prophet Nathan, that the honour of building a temple should
be reserved for his son, 2 Sam. vii, 5, &c. Solomon, being confirmed
in his kingdom, contracted an alliance with Pharaoh, king of Egypt,
and married his daughter, A.M. 2291. He brought her to Jerusalem,
and had apartments for her in the city of David, till he should build
her a palace, which he did some years afterward, when he had
finished the temple. It is thought that on occasion of this marriage,
Solomon composed the Canticles, which are a kind of epithalamium.
The Scripture speaks of the daughter of Pharaoh, as contributing to
pervert Solomon, 1 Kings xi, 1, 2; Neh. xiii, 26; and it is very likely,
that if at first this princess might seem converted to the Lord, she
afterward might retain her private disposition to idolatry, and might
engage her husband in it.
Solomon, accompanied by his troops and all Israel, went up to
Gibeon, where was then the brazen altar, upon which he offered a
thousand burnt-offerings. The night following, God appeared to him
in a dream, and said, “Ask of me what thou wilt.” Solomon begged of
God a wise and understanding heart, and such qualities as were
necessary for the government of the people committed to him. This
request pleased the Lord, and was fully granted by him. Solomon
returned to Jerusalem, where he offered a great number of sacrifices
on the altar before the ark of the Lord, and made a great feast for
his servants. He enjoyed a profound peace throughout his
dominions; Judah and Israel lived in security; and his neighbours
either paid him tribute, or were his allies; he ruled over all the
countries and kingdoms from the Euphrates to the Nile, and his
dominions extended even beyond the former; he had abundance of
horses and chariots of war; he exceeded the orientals, and all the
Egyptians, in wisdom and prudence; he was the wisest of mankind,
and his reputation was spread through all nations. He composed or
collected, three thousand proverbs, and one thousand and five
canticles. He knew the nature of plants and trees, from the cedar on
Libanus to the hyssop on the wall; also of beasts, of birds, of
reptiles, of fishes. There was a concourse of strangers from all
countries to hear his wisdom, and ambassadors from the most
remote princes.
 When Hiram, king of Tyre, knew that Solomon was made king of
Israel, he sent ambassadors to congratulate him on his accession to
the crown. Some time afterward, Solomon desired him to supply
wood and workmen, to assist in building a temple to the Lord. Hiram
gladly undertook this service, and Solomon, on his part, obliged
himself to give twenty thousand measures of wheat, and twenty
thousand measures of oil. The Hebrew and the Vulgate have only
twenty measures of oil; but the reading ought no doubt to be twenty
thousand. Solomon began to build the temple in the fourth year of
his reign, and the second after the death of David; four hundred and
eighty years after the exodus from Egypt. He employed in this great
work seventy thousand proselytes, descendants of the ancient
Canaanites, in carrying burdens, fourscore thousand in cutting
stones out of the quarries, and three thousand six hundred
overseers of the works; beside thirty thousand Israelites in the
quarries of Libanus.
The temple was completed in the eleventh year of Solomon, so
that he was but seven years in performing this vast work. The
dedication was made the year following, A. M. 3001. To make this
ceremony the more august, Solomon chose for it the eighth day of
the seventh month of the holy year, which was the first of the civil
year, and answered to our October. The ceremony of the dedication
lasted seven days, at the end of which began the feast of
tabernacles, which continued seven days longer; so that the people
continued at Jerusalem fourteen or fifteen days, from the eighth to
the twenty-second of the seventh month. When the ark was placed
in the sanctuary, while the priests and Levites were celebrating the
praises of the Lord, the temple was filled with a miraculous cloud, so
that the priests could no longer stand to perform the functions of
their ministry. Then Solomon, being on his throne, prostrated himself
with his face to the ground; and rising up, and turning toward the
sanctuary, he addressed his prayer to God, and besought him that
the house which he had built might be acceptable to him, that he
would bless and sanctify it, and hear the prayers of those who
should address him from this holy place. He besought him also to
fulfil the promises he had made to David his servant in favour of his
family, and of the kings his successors. Then turning himself to the
people, he solemnly blessed them. Fire coming down from heaven
consumed the victims and burnt sacrifices on the altar, and the glory
of the Lord filled the whole temple. On this day the king caused to
be sacrificed twenty-two thousand oxen, and one hundred and
twenty thousand sheep for peace-offerings. And because the altar of
burnt-offerings was not sufficient for all these victims, the king
consecrated the court of the people.
Solomon afterward built a palace for himself, and another for his
queen, the king of Egypt’s daughter. He was thirteen years in
finishing these buildings, and employed in them whatever the most
exquisite art, or the most profuse riches, could furnish. The palace in
which he generally resided was called the house of the forest of
Lebanon; probably because of the great quantity of cedar used in it.
Solomon also built the walls of Jerusalem, and the place called Millo
in this city; he repaired and fortified Hazor, Megiddo, Gezer, the two
Bethhorons, Upper and Lower, Baalath, and Palmyra in the desert of
Syria. He also fortified the cities where he had magazines of corn,
wine, and oil; and those where his horses and chariots were kept.
He brought under his government the Hittites, the Hivites, the
Amorites, and the Perizzites, which remained in the land of Israel.
He made them tributaries, and compelled them to work at the public
works. He fitted out a fleet at Ezion-Geber, and at Elath, on the Red
Sea, to go to Ophir. Hiram, king of Tyre, furnished him with
mariners, who instructed the subjects of Solomon. They performed
this voyage in three years, and brought back gold, ivory, ebony,
precious wood, peacocks, apes, and other curiosities. In one voyage
they brought Solomon four hundred and fifty talents of gold, 2
Chron. ix, 21. About the same time, the queen of Sheba came to
Jerusalem, attracted by the great fame of the king. She brought rich
presents of gold, spices, and precious stones; and proposed several
enigmas and hard questions, to which Solomon gave her such
satisfactory answers, that she owned what had been told her of his
wisdom and magnificence was far short of what she had found. The
king, on his part, made her rich presents in return.
 Solomon was one of the richest, if not the very richest, of all
princes that have ever lived; and the Scripture expressly tells us he
exceeded in riches and wisdom all the kings of the earth. His annual
revenues were six hundred and sixty-six talents of gold, without
reckoning tributes from kings and nations, or paid by Israelites, or
sums received for customs. The bucklers of his guards, and the
throne he sat on, were overlaid with gold. All the vessels of his table,
and the utensils of his palaces, were of gold. From all parts he
received presents, vessels of gold and silver, precious stuffs, spices,
arms, horses, and mules; and the whole earth desired to see his
face, and to hear the wisdom which God had put into his heart. But
the latter actions of his life disgraced his character. Beside Pharaoh’s
daughter, he married wives from among the Moabites, Ammonites,
Idumeans, Sidonians, and Hittites. He had seven hundred wives,
who were so many queens, beside three hundred concubines. These
women perverted his heart in his declining age, so that he
worshipped Ashtoreth, goddess of the Sidonians, Moloch, idol of the
Ammonites, and Chemosh, god of the Moabites. To these he built
temples on the Mount of Olives, over against and east of Jerusalem,
and thus insulted openly the Majesty he had adored.
Solomon died after he had reigned forty years, A. M. 3029. He
might be about fifty-eight years of age; for he was about eighteen
when he began to reign. Josephus makes him to have reigned eighty
years and to have lived ninety-four years; but this is a manifest error.
The history of this prince was written by the prophets Nathan,
Ahijah, and Iddo. He was buried in the city of David; and Rehoboam
his son reigned in his stead. Of all the ingenious works composed by
Solomon, we have nothing remaining but his Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
and the Canticles; that is, every literary monument respecting him
has perished, except those written under inspiration--the inspired
history which registers his apostasy, and his own inspired works,
which, in all the principles they contain, condemn his vices. Some
have ascribed to him the book of Wisdom, and Ecclesiasticus; but
these were written by Hellenistic Jews.
SOUL, that immortal, immaterial, active substance or principle in
man, whereby he perceives, remembers, reasons, and wills. See
Materialism.
SOWING. Our Lord, in his parable of the sower, says, “Some seeds
fell by the wayside, and the fowls came and devoured them.”
Buckingham, in his Travels in Palestine, remarks, “We ascended to
an elevated plain where husbandmen were sowing, and some
thousands of starlings covered the ground, as the wild pigeons do in
Egypt, laying a heavy contribution on the grain thrown into the
furrows, which are not covered by harrowing, as in Europe.” The
sowing “beside all waters,” mentioned by Isaiah, seems to refer to
the sowing of rice, which is done on low grounds flooded, and
prepared for sowing by being trodden by oxen and asses, mid-leg
deep; thus, they send “forth thither the feet of the ox and the ass.”
SPARROW, ‫צפור‬, Gen. vii, 14, and afterward frequently; ϛρουθίον,
Matt. x, 29; Luke xii, 6, 7; a little bird every where known. The
Hebrew word is used not only for a sparrow, but for all sorts of clean
birds, or for those the use of which was not forbidden by the law.
That the sparrow is not intended in Psalm cii, 7, is evident from
several circumstances; for that is intimated to be a bird of night, one
that is both solitary and mournful; none of which characteristics is
applicable to the sparrow, which rests by night, is gregarious and
cheerful. It seems rather to mean a bird melancholy and drooping,
much like one confined in a cage. See Swallow.
SPEECH. See Language.
SPIDER, ‫עכביש‬, Job viii, 14; Isa. lix, 5. An insect well known,
remarkable for the thread which it spins, with which it forms a web
of curious texture, but so frail that it is exposed to be broken and
destroyed by the slightest accident. To the slenderness of this filmy
workmanship, Job compares the hope of the wicked. This, says Dr.
Good, was “doubtless a proverbial allusion; and so exquisite, that it
is impossible to conceive any figure that can more fully describe the
utter vanity of the hopes and prosperity of the wicked.”
 “Deceiving bliss! in bitter shame it ends,
His prop a cobweb, which an insect rends.”

So Isaiah says, “They weave the web of the spider; of their webs
no garment shall be made; neither shall they cover themselves with
their works.”
SPIKENARD, ‫נרד‬. By this was meant a highly aromatic plant
growing in the Indies, called “nardostachys,” by Dioscorides and
Galen; from whence was made the very valuable extract or unguent,
or favourite perfume, used at the ancient baths and feasts,
unguentum nardinum, unguentum nardi spicatæ, [the perfume or
unction of spikenard,] which it appears from a passage in Horace,
was so valuable, that as much of it as could be contained in a small
box of precious stone, was considered as a sort of equivalent for a
large vessel of wine, and a handsome quota for a guest to contribute
at an entertainment, according to the custom of antiquity:

Nardo vina merebere:

Nardi parvus onyx eliciet cadum.

“Bring you the odours, and a cask is thine.

Thy little box of ointment shall produce
A mighty cask.”
Francis.

St. Mark, xiv, 3, mentions “ointment of spikenard very precious,”

which is said to be worth more than three hundred denarii; and
John, xii, 3, mentions a pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly;
the house was filled with the odour of the ointment; it was worth
three hundred denarii. It is not to be supposed that this was a Syrian
production, but the true “atar” of Indian spikenard; an unguent,
containing the very essence of the plant, and brought at a great
expense from a remote country.
SPIRIT, in Hebrew, ‫רוח‬, in Greek, ϖνεῦμα, and in Latin, spiritus, is
in the Scriptures sometimes taken for the Holy Ghost, the third
person of the Holy Trinity. The word signifies also the reasonable
soul which animates us, and continues in existence even after the
death of the body: that spiritual, thinking and reasoning substance,
which is capable of eternal happiness, Num. xvi, 22; Acts vii, 59. The
term spirit is also often used for an angel, a demon, and a ghost, or
soul separate from the body. It is said, in Acts xxiii, 8, that the
Sadducees denied the existence of angels and spirits. Jesus Christ
appearing to his disciples, said to them, Luke xxiv, 39, “Handle me
and see, for a spirit hath not flesh and bones, as ye see me have.”
And St. Paul calls the good angels “ministering spirits,” Heb. i, 14. In
1 Sam. xvi, 14; xviii, 10; xix 9, it is said that an evil spirit from the
Lord troubled Saul: and we have also the expression unclean spirits.
Add to this, spirit is sometimes put for the disposition of the heart or
mind: see Num. v, 14; Zech. xii, 10; Luke xiii, 11; Isa. xi, 2.
Discerning of spirits, or the secret character and thoughts of men,
was a gift of God, and placed among the miraculous gifts of the Holy
Ghost, 1 Cor. xii, 10; 1 John iv, 1.
STAR, in Hebrew, ‫בוכב‬. Under the name of stars, the ancient
Hebrews comprehended all the heavenly bodies, constellations, and
planets; in a word, all the luminaries, the sun and moon excepted.
The number of the stars was looked upon as infinite. And the
Psalmist, to exalt the power and magnificence of God, says, that he
numbers the stars and calls them by their names; and so are they
put to express a vast multitude, Gen. xv, 5; xxii, 17; Exod. xxxiii, 13.
STEPHEN, the first martyr. He is always put at the head of the
seven deacons; and it is believed he had studied at the feet of
Gamaliel. As he was full of the Holy Ghost, and of zeal, Acts vi, 5, 6,
&c, he performed many wonderful miracles: and those of the
synagogue of the Libertines, of the Cyrenians, of the Alexandrians,
and others, disputing with him, could not withstand the wisdom and
the power with which he spoke. Then having suborned false
witnesses, to testify that they had heard him blaspheme against
Moses, and against God, they drew him before the sanhedrim.
Stephen appeared in the midst of this assembly, with a countenance
like that of an angel; and the high priest asking him what he had to
answer, in his defence he rapidly traced the history of the Jews,
showing that they had always opposed themselves to God and his
prophets; faithfully upbraided them with the hardness of their
hearts, with their putting the prophets to death, and, lastly, with
slaying Christ himself. At these words they were filled with rage, and
gnashed their teeth against him. But Stephen, lifting up his eyes to
heaven, calmly exclaimed, “I see the heavens opened, and the Son
of man standing at the right hand of God.” Then the Jews cried out,
and stopped their ears as though they had heard blasphemy, and
falling on him, they drew him out of the city, and stoned him. The
witnesses laid down their clothes at the feet of a young man called
Saul, afterward St. Paul, who then appears to have commenced his
career of persecution. “And they stoned Stephen, calling upon God,
and saying, Lord Jesus, receive my spirit; and he kneeled down and
cried with a loud voice, Lord, lay not this sin to their charge. And
when he had said this, he fell asleep,” an example of the majesty
and meekness of true Christian heroism, and as the first, so also the
pattern, of all subsequent martyrs. His Christian brethren forsook not
the remains of this holy man; but took care to bury him, and
accompanied his funeral with great mourning, Acts viii, 2.
STOICS, a sect of Heathen philosophers, Acts xvii, 18. Their
distinguishing tenets were, that God is underived, incorruptible, and
eternal; possessed of infinite wisdom and goodness; the efficient
cause of all the qualities and forms of things; and the constant
preserver and governor of the world: That matter, in its original
elements, is also underived and eternal; and is by the powerful
energy of the Deity impressed with motion and form: That though
God and matter subsisted from eternity, the present regular frame of
nature had a beginning originating in the gross and dark chaos, and
will terminate in a universal conflagration, that will reduce the world
to its pristine state: That at this period all material forms will be lost
in one chaotic mass; and all animated nature be reunited to the
Deity: That from this chaotic state, however, the world will again
emerge by the energy of the efficient principle; and gods, and men,
and all forms of regulated nature be renewed and dissolved, in
endless succession: And that after the revolution of the great year all
things will be restored, and the race of men will return to life. Some
imagined, that each individual would return to its former body; while
others supposed, that similar souls would be placed in similar
bodies. Those among the stoics who maintained the existence of the
soul after death, supposed it to be removed into the celestial regions
of the gods, where it remains until, at the general conflagration, all
souls, both human and divine, shall be absorbed in the Deity. But
many imagined that, before they were admitted among the
divinities, they must purge away their inherent vices and
imperfections, by a temporary residence in some aërial regions
between the earth and the planets. According to the general
doctrine of the stoics, all things are subject to a stern irresistible
fatality, even the gods themselves. Some of them explained this fate
as an eternal chain of causes and effects; while others, more
approaching the Christian system, describe it as resulting from the
divine decrees--the fiat of an eternal providence. Considering the
system practically, it was the object of this philosophy to divest men
of their passions and affections. They taught, therefore, that a wise
man might be happy in the midst of torture; and that all external
things were to him indifferent. Their virtues all arose from, and
centred in, themselves; and self approbation was their great reward.
STONE. This word is sometimes taken in the sense of rock, and is
applied figuratively to God, as the refuge of his people. See Rock,
The Hebrews gave the name of “stones” to the weights used in
commerce; no doubt because they were originally formed of stone.
“Just weights,” is therefore in Hebrew, “just stones.” “The corner
stone,” or “the head stone of the corner,” is a figurative
representation of Christ. It is the stone at the angle of a building,
whether at the foundation or the top of the wall. Christ was that
corner stone, which, though rejected by the Jews, became the
corner stone of the church, and the stone that binds and unites the
synagogue and the Gentiles in the unity of the same faith. Some
have thought the showers of stones cast down by the Lord out of
heaven, mentioned several times in the Old Testament, to be
showers of hail of extraordinary size; which was probably the case,
as they even now sometimes occur in those countries in a most
terrific and destructive form, and show how irresistible an agent this
meteor is in the hands of an offended God. The knives of stone that
were made use of by the Jews in circumcision, were not enjoined by
the law; but the use of them was founded, either upon custom, or
upon the experience that this kind of instrument is found to be less
dangerous than those made of metal. Zipporah made use of a stone
to circumcise her sons, Exod. iv, 25. Joshua, v, 2, did the same,
when he caused such of the Israelites to be circumcised at Gilgal, as
had not received circumcision during their journey in the wilderness.
The Egyptians, according to Herodotus, made use of knives of stone
to open dead bodies that were to be embalmed; and Pliny assures
us, that the priests of the mother of the gods had sharp stones, with
which they cut and slashed themselves, which they thought they
could not do with any thing else without danger. Great heaps of
stones, raised up for a witness of any memorable event, and to
preserve the remembrance of some matter of great importance, are
among the most ancient monuments. In those elder ages, before the
use of writing, these monuments were instead of inscriptions,
pyramids, medals, or histories. Jacob and Laban raised such a
monument upon Mount Gilead in memory of their covenant, Gen.
xxxi, 46. Joshua erected one at Gilgal, made of stones taken out of
the Jordan, to preserve the memorial of his miraculous passage over
this river, Josh. iv, 5–7. The Israelites that dwelt beyond Jordan also
raised one upon the banks of the river, as a testimony that they
constituted but one nation with their brethren on the other side,
Joshua xxii, 10. Sometimes they heaped up such a collection of
stones upon the burying place of some odious persons, as was done
in the case of Achan and Absalom, Joshua vii, 26; 2 Kings xviii, 17.
A “heart of stone” may be understood several ways. Job, xli, 24,
speaking of the leviathan, says, that “his heart is as firm as a stone,
yea as hard as a piece of the nether millstone:” that is, he is of a
very extraordinary strength, boldness, and courage. It is said, 1
Sam. xxv, 37, that Nabal’s heart died within him, and he became as
a stone, when he was told of the danger he had incurred by his
imprudence; his heart became contracted or convulsed, and this was
the occasion of his death. Ezekiel, xxxvi, 26, says, that the Lord will
take away from his people their heart of stone, and give them a
heart of flesh; that is, he will render them contrite, and sensible to
spiritual things. “I will give him a white stone,” Rev. ii, 17; that is, I
will give him full and public pardon and absolution. It is spoken in
allusion to an ancient custom of delivering a white stone to such as
they acquitted in judgment. They used likewise to give a white stone
to such as conquered in the Grecian games.
STORK, ‫חסידה‬, Lev. xi, 19; Deut. xiv, 18; Job xxxix, 13; Psalm civ,
17; Jer. viii, 7; Zech. v, 9; a bird similar to the crane in size, has the
same formation as to the bill, neck, legs, and body, but is rather
more corpulent. The colour of the crane is ash and black; that of the
stork is white and brown. The nails of its toes are also very peculiar;
not being clawed like those of other birds, but flat like the nails of a
man. It has a very long beak, and long red legs. It feeds upon
serpents, frogs, and insects, and on this account might be reckoned
by Moses among unclean birds. As it seeks for these in watery
places, nature has provided it with long legs; and as it flies away, as
well as the crane and heron, to its nest with its plunder, therefore its
bill is strong and jagged, the sharp hooks of which enable it to retain
its slippery prey. It has long been remarkable for its love to its
parents, whom it never forsakes, but tenderly feeds and cherishes
when they have become old, and unable to provide for themselves.
The very learned and judicious Bochart has collected a variety of
passages from the ancients, in which they testify this curious
particular. Its very name in the Hebrew language, chasida, signifies
mercy or piety: and its English name is taken, if not directly, yet
secondarily, through the Saxon, from the Greek word στοργὴ, which
is often used for natural affection.

The stork’s an emblem of true piety;

Because, when age has seized and made his dam
Unfit for flight, the grateful young one takes
His mother on his back, provides her food,
Repaying thus her tender care of him
Ere he was fit to fly.
Beaumont.
 It is a bird of passage, and is spoken of as such in Scripture: “The
stork knoweth her appointed time,” Jer. viii, 7.

Who bid the stork, Columbus-like, explore

Heavens not its own, and worlds unknown before?
Who calls the council, states the certain day,
Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way?
Pope.

Bochart has collected several testimonies of the migration of

storks. Ælian says, that in summer time they remain stationary, but
at the close of autumn they repair to Egypt, Libya, and Ethiopia. “For
about the space of a fortnight before they pass from one country to
another,” says Dr. Shaw, “they constantly resort together, from all the
adjacent parts, in a certain plain; and there forming themselves,
once every day, into a ‘douwanne,’ or council, (according to the
phrase of these eastern nations,) are said to determine the exact
time of their departure, and the place of their future abodes.” See
Swallow.
STRANGER. Moses inculcated and enforced by numerous and by
powerful considerations, as well as by various examples of
benevolent hospitality, mentioned in the book of Genesis, the
exhibition of kindness and humanity to strangers. There were two
classes of persons who, in reference to this subject, were
denominated strangers, ‫גרים‬. One class were those who, whether
Hebrews or foreigners, were destitute of a home, in Hebrew
‫תושבים‬. The others were persons who, though not natives, had a
home in Palestine; the latter were ‫גרים‬, strangers or foreigners, in
the strict sense of the word. Both of these classes, according to the
civil code of Moses, were to be treated with kindness, and were to
enjoy the same rights with other citizens, Lev. xix, 33, 34; xxiv, 16,
22; Num. ix, 14; xv, 14; Deut. x, 18; xxiii, 7; xxiv, 17; xxvii, 19. In
the earlier periods of the Hebrew state, persons who were natives of
another country, but who had come, either from choice or from
necessity, to take up their residence among the Hebrews, appear to
have been placed in favourable circumstances. At a later period,
namely, in the reigns of David and Solomon, they were compelled to
labour on the religious edifices which were erected by those princes;
as we may learn from such passages as these: “And Solomon
numbered all the strangers that were in the land of Israel, after the
numbering wherewith David his father had numbered them; and
they were found a hundred and fifty thousand and three thousand
and six hundred; and he set three score and ten thousand of them
to be bearers of burdens,” &c, 1 Chron. xxii, 2; 2 Chron. ii, 1, 16, 17.
The exaction of such laborious services from foreigners was probably
limited to those who had been taken prisoners in war; and who,
according to the rights of war, as they were understood at that
period, could be justly employed in any offices, however low and
however laborious, which the conqueror thought proper to impose.
In the time of Christ, the degenerate Jews did not find it convenient
to render to the strangers from a foreign country those deeds of
kindness and humanity which were not only their due, but which
were demanded in their behalf by the laws of Moses. They were in
the habit of understanding by the word ‫רע‬, neighbour, their friends
merely, and accordingly restricted the exercise of their benevolence
by the same narrow limits that bounded in this case their
interpretation; contrary as both were to the spirit of those passages
which have been adduced above, Lev. xix, 18.
STREETS, Corners of. Our Lord reproves the Pharisees for praying
in the corners of the streets, that is, choosing public places for what
ought to have been private devotion. The Hindoos, Mohammedans,
and others still have this practice. “Both Hindoos and Mussulmans
offer their devotions in the most public places; as, at the landing
places of rivers, in the public streets, and on the roofs of boats,
without the least modesty or attempt at concealment.” “An aged
Turk,” observes Richardson, “is particularly proud of a long flowing
white beard, a well shaved cheek and head, and a clean turban. It is
a common thing to see such characters, far past the bloom of life,
mounted on stone seats, with a bit of Persian carpet, at the corner
of the streets, or in front of their bazaars, combing their beards,
smoking their pipes, or drinking their coffee, with a pitcher of water
standing beside them, or saying their prayers, or reading the Koran.”
 STUMBLING, Stone of. “We set out from Argos very early in the
morning,” says Hartley, “and were almost eleven hours in reaching
Tripolitza. The road is, for the most part, dreary; leading over lofty
and barren hills, the principal of which is Mount Parthenius. In
England, where the roads are so excellent, we do not readily
perceive the force and just application of the Scriptural figures,
derived from a ‘stone of stumbling, and a rock of offence,’ Isaiah viii,
14, and similar passages; but in the east, where the roads are, for
the most part, nothing more than an accustomed track, the constant
danger and impediment arising to travellers from stones and rocks
fully explain the allusion.”
In the grand description which Isaiah gives, lxiii, 13, of God “with
his glorious arm” leading his people through the Red Sea, it is said,
“That led them through the deep, as a horse in the wilderness, that
they should not stumble;” that is, who preserved them from falling
amidst the numerous inequalities in the bed of the sea, caused in
some instances by deep cavities, and in others by abrupt intervening
rocks. The figure is a very natural one, especially in the east, where
the Arabs and Tartars are famed for their dexterity in the
management of even bad horses. A curious instance of this occurs in
Colonel Campbell’s “Overland Journey to the East Indies.” Speaking
of the Tartar, an accredited courier of the Turkish government, under
whose guidance he travelled in disguise across the desert from
Aleppo to Mosul, he says, “One day, after riding about four miles
from a caravansera, at which we had changed our cattle, I found
that a most execrably bad horse had fallen to my lot. He was stiff,
feeble, and foundered; in consequence of which he stumbled very
much, and I every minute expected that he would fall and roll over
me. I therefore proposed to the guide to exchange with me; a
favour which he had hitherto never refused, and for which I was the
more anxious as the beast that he rode was of the very best kind. To
my utter astonishment, he peremptorily refused; and as this had
been a day of unusual taciturnity on his part, I attributed his refusal
to peevishness and ill temper, and was resolved not to let the matter
rest there. I therefore desired the interpreter to inform him, that as
he had at Aleppo agreed to change horses with me as often as I
pleased, I should consider our agreement infringed if he did not
comply, and would write to the consul at Aleppo to that effect. As
soon as this was conveyed to him, he seemed strongly agitated by
anger, yet endeavoured to conceal his emotions under affected
contempt and derision, which produced from him one of the most
singular grins that ever yet marred the human physiognomy. At
length he broke forth:--‘You will write to Aleppo, will you? Foolish
Frank! they will not believe you,’ &c.--‘Why do you not, then,’ said I,
interrupting him; ‘why do you not perform your promise by changing
horses, when you are convinced in your conscience (if you have any)
that it was part of our agreement?’--‘Once for all, I tell you,’
interrupted he, ‘I will not give up this horse. There is not,’ said he
gasconadingly, ‘there is not a Mussulman that ever wore a beard,
not to talk of a wretched Frank, who should get this horse from
under me. I would not yield him to the Commander of the Faithful
this minute, were he in your place; and I have my own reasons for
it.’--‘I dare say you have,’ returned I, ‘love of your ease, and fear of
your bones.’ At hearing this he grew quite outrageous; called
Mohammed and Allah to witness, that he did not know what it was
to fear any thing; declared that he was convinced some infernal
spirit had that day got possession of me, &c. At length observing
that I looked at him with sneering contemptuous defiance, he rode
up alongside of me. I thought it was to strike, and prepared to
defend myself. I was however mistaken: he snatched the reins out
of my hand, and caught hold of them collected close at the horse’s
jaw, then began to flog my horse and to spur his own, till he got
them both into full speed: nor did he stop there, but continued to
belabour mine with his whip and to spur his own, driving headlong
over every impediment that came in our way, till I really thought he
had run mad, or designed to kill me. Several times I was on the
point of striking him with my whip, in order to knock him off his
horse; but as often patience providentially came in to my assistance,
and whispered to me to forbear, and see it out. Meantime I
considered myself as being in some danger; and yet such was the
power which he had over the cattle, that I found it impossible to
stop him. So, resigning the event to the direction of Providence, I
suffered him, without a farther effort, to proceed. He continued this
for some miles, over an uncultivated tract, here and there
intersected with channels formed by rills of water in the periodical
rains, thickly set with low furze, ferns, and other dwarf bushes, and
broken up and down into little hills. His horse carried him clear over
all; and though mine was every minute stumbling and nearly down,
yet, with a dexterity inexpressible and a vigour altogether amazing,
he kept him up by the bridle, and, I may say, carried him gallantly
over every thing. At all this I was very much astonished; and, toward
the end, as much pleased as astonished; which he perceiving, cried
out frequently and triumphantly, ‘Behold, Frank, behold!’ and at last,
drawing in the horses, stopping short, and looking me full in the
face, he exclaimed, ‘Frank, what say you now?’ For some time I was
incapable of making him any answer, but continued surveying him
from head to foot as the most extraordinary savage I had ever
beheld; while he stroked his whiskers with great self-complacency
and composure, and nodded his head every now and then, as much
as to say, ‘Look at me! Am I not a very capital fellow?’ We alighted
on the brow of a small hill, whence was to be seen a full and
uninterrupted prospect of the country all round. The interpreter
coming up, the Tartar called to him, and desired him to explain to
me carefully the meaning of what he was about to say. ‘You see
those mountains,’ said he, pointing to the east; ‘they are in the
province of Kurdestan, and inhabited by a vile race of robbers, who
pay homage to a god of their own, and worship the devil from fear.
They live by plunder; and often descend from those mountains,
cross the Tigris which runs between them and us, and plunder and
ravage this country in bands of great number and formidable
strength, carrying away into slavery all they can catch, and killing all
who resist them. This country therefore, for some distance round us,
is very dangerous to travellers, whose only safety lies in flight. Now
it was our misfortune this morning to get a very bad horse. Should
we meet with a band of those Curds, what could we do but fly? And
if you, Frank, rode this horse, and I that, we could never escape; for
I doubt you could not keep him up from falling under ME, as I did
under YOU. I should therefore come down and be taken; you would
lose your guide and miss your way; and all of us would be undone.’
As soon as the interpreter had explained this to me, ‘Well,’ continued
the Tartar, ‘what does he say to it now?’--‘Why, I say,’ returned I,
‘that you have spoken good sense and sound reason; and I am
obliged to you.’ This, when fully interpreted, operated most
pleasingly upon him, and his features relaxed into a broad look of
satisfaction.”
SUPERSTITION may be described to be either the careful and
anxious observation of numerous and unauthorized ceremonies in
religion, under the idea that they possess some virtue to propitiate
God and obtain his favour, or, as among Pagans and others, the
worship of imaginary deities, and the various means of averting evil
by religious ceremonies, which a heart oppressed with fears, and a
perverted fancy, may dictate to those ignorant of the true God, and
the doctrines of salvation. Dr. Neander observes, The consideration
of human nature and history shows us that the transition from
unbelief to superstition is always easy. Both these conditions of the
human heart proceed from the self-same ground, the want of that
which may be properly called faith, the want of a life in God, of a
lively communion with divine things by means of the inward life; that
is, by means of the feelings. Man, whose inward feelings are
estranged from the divine nature, is inclined, sometimes to deny the
reality of that of which he has nothing within him, and for the
conception and application of which to himself he has no organ. Or
else, the irresistible force of his inward nature impels man to
recognize that higher power from which he would fain free himself
entirely, and to seek that connection with it which he cannot but feel
needful to his comfort; but, inasmuch as he is without any real
inward sympathy of disposition with the Divinity, and wants a true
sense of holiness, the Divinity appears to his darkened religious
conscience only under the form of power and arbitrary rule. His
conscience paints to him this power as an angry and avenging
power. But as he has no idea of that which the Divinity really is, he
cannot duly understand this feeling of estrangement from God, this
consciousness of divine wrath; and, instead of seeking in moral
things the source of this unquiet feeling, which leaves him no rest by
day or night, and from which there is no escape, he fancies that by
this or that action, which of itself is perfectly indifferent, he may
have offended this higher power, and he seeks by outward
observances again to reconcile the offended power. Religion here
becomes a source, not of life, but of death; the source, not of
consolation and blessing, but of the most unspeakable anxiety which
torments man day and night with the spectres of his own
imagination. Religion here is no source of sanctification, but may
unite in man’s heart with every kind of untruth, and serve to
promote it. There is one kind of superstition in which, while man
torments himself to the utmost, he still remains estranged from the
true nature of inward holiness; and while he is restrained from many
good works of charity by his constant attendance on mischievous,
arbitrary, and outward observances, he is still actuated by a horror
of any great sin, a superstition in which man avoids pleasure so
completely that he falls into the opposite extreme; and even the
most innocent enjoyments, which a childlike simplicity would receive
with thankfulness from the hand of a heavenly Father, he dares not
indulge in. But there is also another kind of superstition, which
makes it easy for man, by certain outward observances, to silence
his conscience under all kinds of sin, and which therefore serves as a
welcome support to it.
SUPPER, Lord’s, derives its name from having been instituted by
Jesus, after he had supped with his Apostles, immediately before he
went out to be delivered into the hands of his enemies. In Egypt, for
every house of the children of Israel, a lamb was slain upon that
night, when the Almighty punished the cruelty and obstinacy of the
Egyptians by killing their first-born, but charged the destroying angel
to pass over the houses upon which the blood of the lamb was
sprinkled. This was the original sacrifice of the passover. In
commemoration of it, the Jews observed the annual festival of the
passover, when all the males of Judea assembled before the Lord in
Jerusalem. A lamb was slain for every house, the representative of
that whose blood had been sprinkled in the night of the escape from
Egypt. After the blood was poured under the altar by the priests, the
lambs were carried home to be eaten by the people in their tents or
houses at a domestic feast, where every master of a family took the
cup of thanksgiving, and gave thanks with his family to the God of
Israel. Jesus having fulfilled the law of Moses, to which in all things
he submitted, by eating the paschal supper with his disciples,
proceeded after supper to institute a rite, which, to any person that
reads the words of the institution without having formed a previous
opinion upon the subject, will probably appear to have been
intended by him as a memorial of that event which was to happen
not many hours after. “He took bread, and gave thanks, and brake it,
and gave it unto them, saying, This is my body which is given for
you: this do in remembrance of me. Likewise also the cup after
supper, saying, This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is
shed for you,” Luke xxii, 19, 20. He took the bread which was then
on the table, and the wine, of which some had been used in sending
round the cup of thanksgiving; and by saying, “This is my body, this
is my blood, do this in remembrance of me,” he declared to his
Apostles that this was the representation of his death by which he
wished them to commemorate that event. The Apostle Paul, not
having been present at the institution, received it by immediate
revelation from the Lord Jesus; and the manner in which he delivers
it to the Corinthians, 1 Cor. xi, 23–26, implies that it was not a rite
confined to the Apostles who were present when it was instituted,
but that it was meant to be observed by all Christians till the end of
the world. “As often as ye eat this bread, and drink this cup, ye do
show the Lord’s death till he come.” Whether we consider these
words as part of the revelation made to St. Paul, or as his own
commentary upon the nature of the ordinance which was revealed
to him, they mark, with equal significancy and propriety, the extent
and the perpetuity of the obligation to observe that rite which was
first instituted in presence of the Apostles.
There is a striking correspondence between this view of the Lord’s
Supper, as a rite by which it was intended that all Christians should
commemorate the death of Christ, and the circumstances attending
the institution of the feast of the passover. Like the Jews, we have
the original sacrifice: “Christ our passover is sacrificed for us,” and
by his substitution our souls are delivered from death. Like the Jews,
we have a feast in which that sacrifice, and the deliverance
purchased by it, are remembered. Hence the Lord’s Supper was
early called the eucharist, from its being said by St. Luke, “Jesus,
when he took the bread, gave thanks;” and his disciples in all ages,
when they receive the bread, keep a feast of thanksgiving. To
Christians, as to Jews, there is “a night to be much observed unto
the Lord,” in all generations. To Christians, as to Jews, the manner of
observing the night is appointed. To both it is accompanied with
thanksgiving.
The Lord’s Supper exhibits, by a significant action, the
characteristical doctrine of the Christian faith, that the death of its
author, which seemed to be the completion of the rage of his
enemies, was a voluntary sacrifice, so efficacious as to supersede
the necessity of every other; and that his blood was shed for the
remission of sins. By partaking of this rite, his disciples publish an
event most interesting to all the kindreds of the earth; they declare
that, far from being ashamed of the suffering of their Master, they
glory in his cross; and, while they thus perform the office implied in
that expression of the Apostle, “Ye do show forth the Lord’s death,”
they at the same time cherish the sentiments by which their religion
ministers to their own consolation and improvement. They cannot
remember the death of Christ, the circumstances which rendered
that event necessary, the disinterested love and the exalted virtues
of their deliverer, without feeling their obligations to him. Unless the
vilest hypocrisy accompany an action, which, by its very nature,
professes to flow from warm affection, the love of Christ will
constrain them to fulfil the purposes of his death, by “living unto him
who died for them;” and we have reason to hope, that, in the places
where he causes his name to be remembered, he will come and
bless his people. As the object of faith is thus explicitly set before
them in every commemoration, so the renewed exercise of that
faith, which the ordinance is designed to excite, must bring renewed
life, and a deeper experience of the “great salvation.” See Sacrament.
SURETY, in common speech, is one who gives security for another;
and hence it has become prevalent among theological writers to
confound it with the terms substitute and representative, when