UNIT 2.

WRITING A PARAGRAPH

What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single
topic. Learning to write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on
track during your drafting and revision stages. Good paragraphing also
greatly assists your readers in following a piece of writing. You can have
fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an organized fashion,
you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).
The manner in which you present your material is vital. As you
know, an essay (or any academic text) is built up around
paragraphs. They help the reader understand the organization of your
essay and grasp its main points. A paragraph is a series of sentences that are
organized and coherent, and are all related to a single topic. Paragraphs are
units of thought with one adequately developed idea.
Listed here are some RULES OF THUMB to use when paragraphing.
As your writing improves, you'll be able to break these "rules" to meet your
own needs. Until then, these suggestions can be helpful.
Put only one main idea per paragraph. The basic rule of thumb with
paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to transition
into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some simple ways
to tell if you are on the same topic or a new one. You can have one idea and
several bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also
have several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall
topic of the paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then perhaps
elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the
route to go.
Each paragraph should contain one new point in your overall thesis
The reason why paragraphs should be “headlined” with reference to
the overall argument is to keep that argument in the reader’s mind, thereby
making it easier for them to see the relevance of the rest of the paragraph.
This way, the reader doesn’t lose track, and neither do you. Let the thesis
decide how your arguments should be organized, not chronology!
Each paragraph should be able to stand on its own and have its own
internal structure
 The length of a paragraph largely depends on the purpose of the
paragraph, and what you have set out to talk about in your topic sentence.
Aim for three to five or more sentences per paragraph. A paragraph that is
too long makes it difficult for your audience to follow. A paragraph that is
too short won’t develop the main idea. If you have a few very short
paragraphs, think about whether they are really parts of a larger paragraph
—and can be combined—or whether you can add details to support each
point and thus make each into a more fully developed paragraph.
Avoid a one-sentence paragraph. Each paragraph should state its
purpose early on, in the form of a topic sentence, followed by sentences of
elaboration and explanation (i.e. supporting sentences).
Include on each page about two handwritten or three typed
paragraphs.
Think of a paragraph as a brick. A well-organised piece of writing is
like laying a brick neatly on top of one another; a disorganised one is like a
heap of bricks thrown on the ground. You can check on whether your
paragraphs are balanced by looking at your paper.
Be conscious of how your paragraphs work together to communicate
your information and understanding to your audience.
Make your paragraphs proportional to your paper. Since paragraphs
do less work in short papers, have short paragraphs for short papers and
longer paragraphs for longer papers.
Paragraphs should be visually separated by either line shift or
indents. Not both.

Paragraph structure
Each paragraph consists of one main point, and is made up of a number
of sentences: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding
sentence. The typical three-part structure of a paragraph is as follows:

1. Introduction: including a topic sentence and transition words. The

introduction of an academic paper is usually 1-2 paragraphs long – longer
for longer papers with more background information. In general, your
introduction should do the following things:
a) Gain the immediate attention of the audience
 Here are some (but not all) of the ways to start an interesting and
relevant introduction:
Short anecdote that leads to your topic o Surprising statement/fact
that relates to your topic
Quotation from a famous person or expert that introduces your
topic Brief and interesting historical review of your topic
Statement which stresses the importance of your topic
Contradiction – someone else’s opinion (opposite of yours) about
your topic
Do NOT be boring! Use the first sentence (often called the “hook
sentence”) to hook the readers’ interest.
Do NOT be too general! Immediately dive into your specific topic;
don’t waste space with a general introduction of the entire subject area.
Remember that your audience is familiar with the subject area. And never
start with the origins of humankind: “Since the beginning of history”!
Do NOT begin with your thesis idea! Use the introduction to build
up to your thesis statement, so it comes with a little tension.

b)Provide any necessary background information or definition of

any terms
Give only the history, facts, or definitions that readers will need to
understand your topic and thesis. Keep in mind what the audience already
knows.
Use facts/statistics to show the problem if necessary.
Avoid dictionary and encyclopedia definitions if possible and
explain in your own words what the important concepts in your paper mean.
Use source information to provide background information, but not
to answer the research question or give your opinion.
Make sure that the readers now know enough to follow your paper,
but not too much that they have lost the focus of your paper.

c) Briefly introduce the main points (sections) of the paper

In academic writing, the writer lets the reader know what to
expect.
Provide a brief overview of your paper’s main points.
Do NOT support or try to prove these points.
 Do not go into depth. Do NOT just write a one-sentence list of your
points. You can't summarize a great idea in one word.

d)Have a thesis statement (often the last sentence)

This guide has covered the thesis statement already, but because it’s the
most important sentence of your paper, we’ll go over it again. In the thesis,
Answer the research question in a clear, straightforward statement. o
Make sure the purpose and point of view of your paper are clear.
Do NOT write a long, wordy, confusing thesis statement (especially
do not try to include all of your main points).
Do NOT announce your intentions. Avoid “This paper will prove…”
or “I’m going to write about…” Don’t tell the audience what you are going
to do; just do it.

2. Body (supporting sentences): discussing, elaborating and explaining the

main thesis, using various forms of evidence. Body paragraphs can be
written in many ways, depending on your purpose. However, each
paragraph should have ONE point which supports the thesis statement.
Most body paragraphs will have:

Topic Sentence
Usually, but not always, the first sentence of the paragraph. If it’s not
the first sentence, it should be very clear which sentence is the topic
sentence.
It introduces the paragraph's main idea, makes your point about this
idea, and relates to the thesis statement.
The topic sentence connects to the previous paragraph.
The topic sentence is NOT a fact. It has a point of view.
The topic sentence is NOT something from a source. It is your idea.
Every sentence in the paragraph will support this topic sentence.

Explanation of topic sentence

The sentence(s) after the topic sentence often further describe the main
idea of the paragraph.
 Support
The topic sentence is supported by supporting points, details, and
explanations, often presented in sandwiches. A body paragraph could have
one to several sandwiches, depending on how long and in-depth the detail
is.
Supporting points are the ideas that support the main point of the
paragraph. These can be written in your own words and then supported by
details.
Specific details are very important to show the readers that your ideas
are valid.
When using facts, examples, studies, experts’ opinions, etc. be as
specific as possible. Use the expert’s names and professions. Use names,
places, dates and other specific information about examples. Include
numbers and dates. For scientific studies, explain a little about how the
study was done. Use vivid descriptions to make the details clear to the
readers.
Make sure the details are relevant to your point. A common mistake is
including misunderstood source information that does not actually support
the student’s point.
Remember that one example does not prove something. Use more than
one example or source in a paragraph.
Check with your instructor if you can also include your own personal
experience as a detail.
Clear and complete explanations are very important because the
readers are expecting you to explain everything to them. The readers do not
expect to have to think too hard. So explain why/how the details support the
topic sentence, and thus the thesis.
Your explanation should not just repeat the source material, but rather
interpret and analyze it.
Your explanation should not simply repeat your thesis or topic
sentence, but rather explain how the source material supports those ideas.
Do NOT rely on sources too much. It’s YOUR paragraph, so it should
contain your ideas about the topic as well.
Make sure all your support has a logical order and good connections.
 Concluding sentence
The last sentence should review the body paragraph, emphasize the
point and/or thesis again, or prepare the reader for the next body paragraph.
Do NOT end the paragraph with a source citation. End with your
own idea.
A final, important guideline about body paragraphs:

No long body paragraphs!

It is difficult for readers to stay focused on long blocks of text. ¾ of a
page is generally as long as a paragraph should be. If your paragraph is
much longer, find a logical way to divide it into two body paragraphs.
3. Conclusion (concluding sentence): commenting and drawing
connections. The conclusion may be the shortest paragraph, but it’s also the
most important because this is what the reader will remember. A conclusion
usually does these things:

a) Connect to the last sentence of the previous paragraph

Use an advanced style. In conclusion, to summarize, at the end are
rather boring and 16 typical although they will work. Try to be more
sophisticated by repeating or connecting ideas in another way.

b)Summarize the findings of your paper

Remind the readers of the paper’s main ideas and wrap up your
argument.
Restate the thesis in different words/phrases.
Briefly summarize the main points of your paper. Again, say these in
a different way, so readers are not bored by repetition of the same sentences
and phrases.
Use your own thoughts, not your sources’. The place for source
support was in the body paragraphs, not the conclusion.
Do NOT write any new information, points, or support in the
conclusion.

c) Show the significance of your findings

Explain why your paper is important – What does it mean? What
does it solve? What does it say about your topic? What does it show about
the future of your topic? What should the readers take away from your
paper?

d) End with a strong, memorable concluding statement(s)

Also known as the “Wow statement,” the last sentence(s) of your paper
should make your readers say, “Wow! I’m glad I read this paper.” There are
several ways to do this:
End with the significance of your paper, as described above.
Relate your conclusion to the hook sentence(s) from your
introduction. This can be a very effective way of wrapping up your paper.
End with an idea for the reader to think about – a prediction or
recommendation perhaps.
Do NOT ask a question that leaves the reader uncertain. The purpose
of academic writing is not to confuse the reader, but to enlighten the reader.
Do NOT be too general. Stay focused on your specific topic.
DO NOT be too shocking, unbelievable, sweet, or obvious.

How to connect paragraphs?

Cohesion within paragraphs
Because academic papers should have a clear organizational structure,
throughout your paper, you need to show the readers how your ideas are
connected between paragraphs and between sentences. Often this happens
naturally as you write; however, sometimes you will need to make the
connection clearer to the reader. Order your paragraphs so that each one
follows logically on from the previous one. Text cohesion is the way the
writing holds together, to make sense. Each sentence should relate to the
other sentences in the paragraph. Here are a number of cohesive devices
which assist in creating text cohesion:
-transitions which are usually one or several sentences that "transition"
from one idea to the next. Transitions can be used at the end of most
paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow one into the next.
-transition words. These words clearly state the relationship between
two sentences. Here are some transitions; if you are not sure what a word
means, look it up in a dictionary.
to start – first, first of all, to begin with
 to add another idea – in addition, furthermore, also, moreover, what's
more
to add a more important idea – more importantly, what's worse,
what's more
to add your last idea – finally, most of all, most importantly
to contrast with the previous idea – however, nevertheless, on the
other hand
to show the result of the previous idea – therefore, thus,
consequently, as a result
to emphasize an idea – in fact, in particular
to give an example of the previous idea – for instance, for example,
to illustrate
to show a time relationship between ideas – first, second, then, next,
finally
While they are very helpful, there are two big problems with using
these words:
- Students over-use them. Too many transition words at the beginning
of sentences can be annoying. Do NOT use a lot of transition words. One or
two in a paragraph is enough.
- Students often use them incorrectly. Please see the box below about
proper use of these words.
USING TRANSITIONS
Sentence. Transition, sentence. OR Sentence; transition, sentence.
Transitions usually connect two sentences. Therefore, they will usually
appear at the beginning of a complete sentence – after a period or semi-
colon.
The law does not stop teenagers from drinking therefore it is ineffective.
WRONG
The law does not stop teenagers from drinking, therefore it is ineffective.
WRONG
The law does not stop teenagers from drinking; therefore, it is ineffective.
RIGHT!
The law does not stop teenagers from drinking. Therefore, it is ineffective.
RIGHT!
Transitions must also be followed by a comma and a complete
sentence!
 Many organizations use English, for example, the UN, the EU, and
NATO. WRONG
Many organizations use English. For example, the UN, the EU, and NATO.
WRONG
Many organizations use English. For example, it is one of the official
languages of the UN, the EU, and NATO.
RIGHT!
key words (or synonyms) repeated. Use the same word or a synonym
in the next sentence.

The policy on changing classes is too strict. According to the policy, a

student must get the signatures of 7 different people before moving to
another class.
pronouns (it, she, they). Use a pronoun to refer to a noun from the
previous sentence (referring to a person or thing already mentioned).
Teachers should not put grades on essays. This would eliminate
students' tears.
Angela Rizzi argues that grades do not motivate students. She thinks
teachers should only write comments, but not grades.
reference words (that, this) which link related ideas, e.g. one such
experiment; in this way; these
general class words – (these characteristics, this process)
conjunctions and sentence connectors (but, however, furthermore,
yet)
signposts to emphasise the relationships expressed (on the other
hand; in contrast; in addition; moreover; first, second). Signposts are
internal aids to assist readers; they usually consist of several sentences or a
paragraph outlining what the article has covered and where the article will
be going.
parallel structures (using a repeated grammatical form)
In the following paragraph the sentences are all about mummification
but they jump all over the place. There is no overall paragraph plan and they
jump all over the place.
The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people’s bodies by
making mummies of them. Mummies several thousand years old have been
discovered nearly intact. The skin, hair, teeth, finger- and toenails, and
facial features of the mummies were evident. It is possible to diagnose the
diseases they suffered in life such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional
deficiencies. The process was remarkably effective. Sometimes apparent
were the fatal afflictions of the dead people: a middle-aged king died from a
blow on the head, and polio killed a child king. Mummification consisted of
removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and out,
and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages.

Here is the same paragraph revised with a plan (from general to

specific)and clearer links to help the reader.
The ancient Egyptians were masters of Topic sentence is bold
preserving dead people’s bodies by
making mummies of them. The process
of mummification consisted of removing Words in italics – nouns
the internal organs, applying natural repeated and then pronouns
preservatives inside and out, and then
wrapping the body in layers of bandages. Highlighted words: links
It was a remarkably effective practice. between sentences
Indeed, mummies several thousand years
old have been discovered nearly intact. Underlined words: parallel
Their skin, hair, teeth, fingers and toenails, grammatical form for parallel
and facial features of the mummies are still content
evident. Their diseases in life, such as
smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional
deficiencies, are still diagnosable.
Eventheir fatal afflictions are still
apparent: a middle-aged king died from a
blow on the head: a child king died from
polio.

Cohesion across paragraphs

There should also be cohesive links between the paragraphs. These
alert the reader to the relationships between the points you present. The
following series of paragraphs uses a basic list structure (a writing
equivalent of 1, 2, 3…) This structure is very useful for grouping sections of
text that develop a set of points. These paragraphs may then be set off
against other sections of text (as in comparison).
Billing bytes received does have some Topic sentences in
flaws. First, many network protocols send bold
acknowledgments from the destination to the
source, resulting in users who offer services to
the network receiving bytes of data from the Problem 1 (flaws)
network that they did not request. Fortunately, Text markers and
acknowledgment packets are usually quite reference words are in
small. These bytes could be ignored, however, italics. These words orient
by network devices that can compute the total the reader through the text,
number of acknowledgments seen. Also, the clarifying the topic focus at
organization that computes the bills can each stage
recognize the users who offer services to the
network and possibly offer then a discount on Problem 2(problem)
their bills. The subject repeated in
Another problem with billing based on a full but slightly altered
bytes received is that unsolicited network form is in a box
data, such as electronic mail, adds to the
user's bill. This flaw can perhaps be
overlooked because many users send and
receive mail on the same order of magnitude. Problem 3
This might not be the case, however, when a (imperfection)
user is on the mailing list and receives many The subject repeated
mail messages. In this situation, the user is on but with a general word
the mailing list for a reason and their bill ‘method’ is in a box
should reflect the receipt of this data as a
result of this network service.
Still another possible imperfection in this
billing method arises from each user
receiving data from the network as the
organization monitors it for management
reasons, as illustrated in Fig. 6.5. …
However, …

Elements of a paragraph
To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the
following:
1) Unity
 2) Coherence
3) A Topic Sentence
4) Adequate Development
As you will see, all of these traits overlap. Using and adapting them to
your individual purposes will help you construct effective paragraphs.

Unity
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it
begins with one focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with
another or wander within different ideas.A paragraph should contain one
main idea or claim, expressed in a topic sentence, often the first sentence.
The paragraph should have a logical structure so that all the sentences are
connected and flow from the central theme. There are many types of
paragraph structure. This is problem‐solution.

Coherence
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable
to a reader. You can help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating
logical bridges and verbal bridges.

Logical bridges
The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence
Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form

Verbal bridges
Key words can be repeated in several sentences
Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences

A topic sentence
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea
or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs
have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that topic sentences can
occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last sentence, or
somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your reader
understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the
beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less experienced
writers, although it is not the only way to do it). Regardless of whether you
include an explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily
summarize what the paragraph is about.

Adequate development
The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be
discussed fully and adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to
paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should be wary of
paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It's a pretty good bet that
the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.A paragraph has to
have enough information in it to justify being a paragraph! It should consist
of a main point that is then further elaborated on. Some possible
development models include:
expansion – the point is further defined or broken down and analysed
or reframed for clarification.
illustration – examples or scenarios are given
evidence – research‐based or sometimes experience‐based support
for the point
application – how this can then operate in practice. There may also
be a sentence which comments on the material or relates the expanded point
back to main topic of that section of the writing.

Topic sentence (expressing the The emphasis of the criminal justice

“problem”) → system has until recently been on the
battle between the offender/ defendant
Expansion of point → and the state/prosecutor and not the
actual harm experienced by the victim.
Evidence/ support → In Fact victims have had minimal
participation in the criminal justice
Solution → process; their role being primarily to
provide information to the state
prosecutor with no involvement in
prosecution and sentencing. McShane
and Williams (1992, p. 260) contend
that ʺvictim neglect is not simply a result
of indifference, it is a logical extension of
a legal system which defines crime as an
 offence against the stateʺ. They argue that
this neglect can be remedied by training
of personnel within the criminal justice
system and through victim support
services.
Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed
Use examples and illustrations
Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and
paraphrases)
Use an anecdote or story
Define terms in the paragraph
Compare and contrast
Evaluate causes and reasons
Examine effects and consequences
Analyze the topic
Describe the topic
Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)

When to start a new paragraph?

You should start a new paragraph when:

When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always
start in new paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that spans multiple
paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.
To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to
contrast sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other
difference.
When your readers need a pause. Breaks between paragraphs
function as a short "break" for your readers—adding these in will help your
writing be more readable. You would create a break if the paragraph
becomes too long or the material is complex.
When you are ending your introduction or starting your
conclusion. Your introductory and concluding material should always be in
a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions have multiple
paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.
 Example of an Academic Paragraph:
1) Topic Sentence– 2) Support Sentences – 3) Concluding
Sentence
1) A number of problems associated with the traditional routines of
handover practices. 2) Baldwin and McGinnis find that many handovers
are unnecessarily lengthy which means that there is an unacceptable
period of time during each shift when nurses are not available in the
ward or unit. Another area that has received attention is the content and
presentation of handover information. Wills observes that “an
unprofessional approach has been noted among some nurses, with
derogatory comments about patients or their families”. Lastly, there is
the issue of what information nurses actually pass on during the
handover. It appears that:
2) Nurses frequently report on their own activities over the shift
rather than providing patient centred information. Information obtained
from discussions with relatives is rarely relayed onto other nursing staff,
and of the patient information reported, most is described from a
medical perspective rather than focusing on the discussion of nursing
related information.
3) Thus, many serious problems have been identified in traditional
handover practices, which may reflect on the professional standing of
nurses in this profession.