SERIES

Terminology and Notation

A partial sum is the sum of a part of a sequence. Partial sums are called
finite series. The sum of the first n terms is denoted by Sn.
Thus, for a sequence an n 1


S1  a1
S 2  a1  a2
S3  a1  a2  a3
n
S n  a1  a2  a3   an   ak
k 1

 is used to represent the summation. This is the sigma notation.


An infinite series is the sum of all terms in an infinite sequence, i.e.  ak
k 1
 SERIES
Index Shift

Sometimes it would be useful to start the series from a different initial

index. Consider the following series:

n5

n2 2
n

and let’s say that we need to start from 0. We need to define a new
index i (which would be used for the series starting from 0). Thus,
in2 i.e. n  i  2
and

n5  i7

n2 2
n
  i  2
i 0 2

or

n7

n0 2
 n  2

since the letter does not matter

 FINITE SERIES
Arithmetic series: The sum of an AP

Recall that the nth term of an AP is given by: uk  a   k  1 d

Let Sn denote the sum of the first n terms of an AP. Then:
a1 a2 an 1 an
Sn  a  ad   a   n  2  d  a   n  1 d
Sn  a   n  1 d  a   n  2  d   ad  a
an an 1 a2 a1
Adding up the two equations:
2Sn  n  2a   n  1 d 
n
n
 S n   a   k  1 d 
2
 2a   n  1 d 
k 1

Also, a   n  1 d  an  l , the last term. Thus,

n
Sn  a  l 
2
 FINITE SERIES
Geometric series: The sum of a GP
 k 1
The nth term of a GP is given by: ak  ar
Let Sn denote the sum of the first n terms of a GP. Then:
a1 a2 a3 an 1 an
Sn  a  ar  ar 2   ar n  2  ar n 1 r
rSn  ar  ar 2   ar n  2  ar n 1  ar n

Subtracting the two equations:

Sn  rSn  a  ar n

n a 1  r n 
 Sn   ar k 1 
k 1 1  r 
This also means that the expansion of a term with the general form
given by a 1  x n  1  x  is a  ax  ax 2   ax n 1
 FINITE SERIES
The sum of n squares and the Binomial Expansion
n
For series of the form: k
k 0
2
 0  1  22  32  ...  n 2

n n  n  1 2n  1
Sn   k 2 
k 0 6
The binomial expansion is the expansion of the function (1+x)n in powers
of x when n is a positive integer. For example:
1  x   1  2 x  x 2
2

1  x   1  3x  3x 2  x3
3

1  x   1  4 x  6 x 2  4 x3  x 4
4

The expansions follow a particular pattern that can be generalised as

follows:
n  n  1 n  n  1 n  2 
1  x 
n
 1  nx  x 
2
x3   xn
2! 3!

Where the general term is: n  n  1 n  2  ...  n  r  1 x r

r!
 FINITE SERIES
Using properties of series to find a sum
7
Let us find the value for the series   3k
k 1
2
 2k  4 

We can split this up into series which we are already familiar with
- Sum of squares
n n  n  1 2n  1
Sn   k 2  n7
k 0 6
- Arithmetic series
n
n
S n   a   k  1 d  a  l  n  7, a  2, d  2, l  14
k 1 2
- Constant series
Sn  nC n  7, C  4
 FINITE SERIES
Using properties of series to find a sum
7
Let us find the value for the series   3k
k 1
2
 2k  4 

We can split this up into series which we are already familiar with
- Sum of squares
7 7  7  7  1 2.7  1 
 3k2
 3 k 2
 3 
6
  420
k 1 k 1  
- Arithmetic series
7
7
 2k 
k 1 2
 2  14   56

- Constant series
7

 4  4  7   28
k 1
7
   3k 2  2k  4   504
k 1
 INFINITE SERIES
How to Find Series Value: Limit of Partial Sums

Consider an infinite series: S   an  a1  a2 
n 1

We can come up with a sequence of partials sums

{Sn} = {S1, S2, S3, …}
As Sn becomes larger we get closer and closer to S. Mathematically,

S  lim Sn
n 

which means that an infinite series (or series) is a limit of a sequence of

partial sums (finite series) and hence, if such limit exists it will be a single
value.

If the sequence {Sn} is convergent, S is also convergent. Likewise, if {Sn}

is divergent (limit is   or does not exist), so is S.
 INFINITE SERIES
EXAMPLE 1: Limit of Partial Sums

Let’s say that the formula for the partial sums of a series is given by:
2n 3
Sn 
 n  1 n  2 
How do we determine if the series converges?
2n 3 2n 3 2n
S  lim Sn  lim  lim 2  lim
n  n   n  1 n  2  n  n  3n  2 n  3 2
1  2
n n
As n gets larger the denominator tends to 1 wile the numerator grows
larger and larger i.e.
n  , 2n  

 S  lim Sn  
n 

so that the series diverges.

 INFINITE SERIES
EXAMPLE 2: Limit of Partial Sums

1
Show that  k  2
k 0 2

n
1
This is another way of saying that Sn   k is close to 2 whenever n is
k 0 2
big enough. Let us look at the sequence of partial sums:
S0  1 S3  1  34  18  1  78
S1  1  12 S 4  1  78  161  1  16
15

S 2  1  12  14  1  34 2n  1 1
Sn  1  n  2  n
1 2 2
Thus, lim Sn  lim 2  n  2
n  n  2
Graphically,
 INFINITE SERIES
Common Diverging series

Arithmetic series are divergent. Recall that their partial sum is given by:
n
Sn 
2
 2a   n  1 d 

and thus Sn keeps increasing indefinitely as n increases.

The harmonic series is also divergent.

1 1 1  1 1 1 1 
S 1       
2 3 4  5 6 7 8 
1 1
 
2 2
Such grouping can be done for all the terms in the series. Thus,
1 1 1
S 1   
2 2 2
 INFINITE SERIES - General Expressions
Beahviour of Infinite Geometric Series

The general formula for the partial sums of geometric series is given by:
n a 1  r n 
Sn   ar k 1 
1 r
k 1
a 1  r n 
The sum of an infinite geometric series is thus: S  lim Sn 
n  1 r

Four different outcomes are possible:

(1) For r  1, r n becomes very large as n   and series diverges

(2) For r  1, Sn alternates between a and 0

(3) For r  1, denominator is 0 and formula breaks down

n
(4) For r  1 , r becomes increasingly smaller as n   and ar n  0

a
S 
1 r
 INFINITE SERIES - General Expressions
Infinite Geometric Series: An Application

Geometric series can be used to represent repeating decimals. As an

example let us consider 0.3

This can be rewritten as an infinite series:

0.3  0.3  0.03  0.003 
3 3 3
   
10 100 1000
3 3 3
  2 3
10 10 10
 n 1
31
  
n 1 10  10 

This is a geometric series with a = 3/10 and r = 1/10. Since r  1, we can

find the sum of the series by:
a 3 10 1
S  . 
1  r 10 9 3
 INFINITE SERIES - Tests
Testing for Divergence: nth term test

If successive an terms keep on having a non-zero value even for large n-

values, then their sum will never reach a finite value. This forms the basis
of the divergence test:


If lim an  0 , then  an diverges.

n  n 1

Note that even if the sequence {an} itself converges to some non-zero
value, the corresponding infinite series still diverges.

NOTE: If the test returns a zero value, it is inconclusive.

EXAMPLE: 4n 2  n 3 1 
4n 2  n 3
lim  0 
n  7  3n 3
n 1 7  3n
3
3 diverges

Recall: Sequences that are bounded and are monotonic will always
converge (Monotone convergence theorem) since
lim an  L
n 
If L is not zero, series diverges.
 INFINITE SERIES – Divergence Tests
Example

Consider the sequence with a1  1 and an 1  an  2 . We can deduce:

(1) Lower bound: an  0, an 1  0  all terms > 0since a1  0

(2) Sequence is increasing if

an 1  an i.e. an  2  an  an 2  an  2  0
 an  2  an  1  0
Since an  0  an  1  0 . Sequence increases if an  2

(3) Upper bound: To show that sequence is increasing we need to

prove that it has an upper bound of 2. Assume that an  2
We have to show that it also hold for the an 1 term i.e.
an 1  an  2
an 12  an  2  4  an 1  2
Since a1  1  2, a2 , a3 , will all be less than 2 for all values of n.
Sequence is monotonic increasing and bounded with lim an  2
n 
 INFINITE SERIES – Convergence Tests
Ratio Test

The Ratio Test is like a generalisation of the test of convergence for a

geometric series.


an 1
Suppose that  an and L  lim
n 1
n  an


(1) If L  1 then a
n 1
n converges

(2) If L  1 then a
n 1
n diverges

(3) If L  1 then test is inconclusive

If L  1, it means that successive terms are getting smaller in magnitude

and closer to zero, which is a requirement for a convergent series.

This method is particularly effective when the series includes factorials

and powers.
 INFINITE SERIES – Convergence Tests
EXAMPLE: Ratio Test
4n

Does the series  converge or diverge?
n 1 n !

First we compute L:
an 1 4n 1 n! 4
L  lim  lim . n  lim  0
n  a n   n  1! 4 n  n
n

Since L  1, series converges.

Note:  
1 1
For the series 
n 1 n
and  2 the test is inconclusive.
n 1 n

The test is generally inconclusive for series whose numerator and

denominator are both polynomials.

The fact that an+1/an  1 does not mean that the series is convergent. We
have to look at the limit.
 INFINITE SERIES – Convergence Tests
Ratio Test: Interval of Convergence

The ratio test can also be used to find the range of values for which a
given series converges.

Let us consider the series:


x n 1 x 2 x3 x4
S  n 4   2 4 3 4
n 1 4 n 4 42 43
Using the ratio test,

an 1 xn2 4n n 4 x
lim  lim n 1 . 
4  n  1 x
n  a 4 n 1
n
n  4

For the series to converge, we require that

an 1 x
lim   1  x  4 or 4  x  4
n  an 4

These are known as the radius (or interval) of convergence.

 INFINITE SERIES
Power Series

Power series are polynomials that go one forever and have the form:


 a  x  c  ao  a1  x  c   a2  x  c  
n 2
n
n0

an can be terms of any sequence as long as they do not involve x while

c is the point at which the series is centered.


A geometric series, for example:  ax

n0
n
 a  ax  ax 2 

can be considered as a special case of the power series with an being

constant, c = 0 and a common ratio of x. Recall that if x  1 then, the
series converges to:
a
1 x

This means that functions of this form can be expanded. In fact, the idea
behind power series is to represent functions as a series. This allows us
to approximate functions and manipulate them.
 INFINITE SERIES
Power Series: Radius and Interval of Convergence

Like the geometric series, the power series only converges under
certain conditions. To identify the radius or interval of convergence, the
ratio test can be used i.e.

an 1  x  c  an 1  x  c 
n 1

lim  lim 1
an  x  c 
n
n  n  an

an
x  c  lim R
n  an 1

Radius of convergence: x  c  R

Interval of convergence: c  R  x  c  R

R is the radius of convergence centred about c

 INFINITE SERIES
EXAMPLE: Power Series

Find power series and the radius of convergence for the following
function:
1
h x 
3  x2

a
The first step is to convert the function into the form of
1 r
1 1 1
h x   3
 3

3  x2 1  x 3 1    x 3 
2 2

This would represent the value of a geometric series with a  1 3

and r   x 3 i.e.
2

n

1  x2  1 x2 x4
h x         
n0 3  3  3 9 27
This series converges to h(x) if x lies within the radius / interval of
convergence which in this case is:
x2
 1  x  3 or  3  x  3
3
 INFINITE SERIES
Power Series: Representation Using Integration

Sometimes it may be easier to find the power series of certain

functions by integrating another function and its corresponding power
series. This is particularly true for functions involving the natural
logarithms.

Let’s say we want to find the power series for f  x   ln 1  x3  .

We can find a function which when integrated gives us f  x  . In this
case this would be:
g  x 
d
dx
 3

ln 1  x  
3x 2

3x 2
1  x 1  x 
3 3
 3 x 2
 3 x 5
 3 x 8
 3 x11
 x 1

Integrating both sides of the equation gives us the power series of f  x 

x 6 x 9 x12
ln 1  x  C  x   
3 3

2 3 4
When x  0,ln 1  C  0
 1  x3 
n 1 n
6 9 12 
x x x
 ln 1  x3  x3     
2 3 4 n 1 n
 INFINITE SERIES
Maclaurin Series: Concept

The Maclaurin series is the power series expansion of a function about x

= 0. To illustrate the concept, let us try to use a polynomial p  x  to
approximate and arbitrary function f  x  that is continuous and assume
that we are able evaluate its derivatives at x  0

(2) f  x

(1)

(1) First approximation: p  x  is a constant

Since the series is centered at x  0 we need to set the constraint that

p  0   f  0  . Putting p  x   f  0  ensures that this condition is met.
 INFINITE SERIES
Maclaurin Series: Concept Cont’d

(1) Second approximation: p  x  is a linear equation

Additional condition: first derivatives of p  x  and f  x  evaluated at x  0

are also equal i.e. p '  0   f '  0  .(equal gradients).

Polynomial: p  x   f  0   f '  0  x

When x  0, p  0   f  0  (first condition). Also, p '  x   f '  0  so that

p '  0   f '  0  ensuring second condition.

(3) Third approximation: p  x  is quadratic

Additional condition: p  2  0   f  2  0 
f  2  0 
Polynomial: p  x   f  0   f '  0  x  x2
2
The factor of ½ is required to ensure that all conditions are satisfied
 INFINITE SERIES
Maclaurin Series: Concept Cont’d
f  2  0 
Polynomial: p  x   f  0   f '  0  x  2
x2

When x  0, p  0   f  0  (first condition)

p 1  x   f 1  0   f  2  0  x  p 1  0   f 1  0  (second condition)

p  2  x   f  2  0   p  2  0   f  2  0  (third condition)

We can go on with this process and each term that is added will further
improve the fit of p  x  to f  x . The polynomial would have the following
form:

f  2  0  f  3  0  f  4  0  f  n  0 
p  x   f  0  f 1
 0 x  x2  x3  x4   xn
2! 3! 4! n!

f  n  0 
This is the Maclaurin series, a power series where an 
n!
 INFINITE SERIES
Maclaurin Series: Example – the Cosine function

Find the Maclaurin representation of the function f  x   cos  x 

First we find the derivatives of the function and evaluate them at x = 0

f  x   cos  x   f  0  1
f 1  x    sin  x   f 1  0   0
f  2  x    cos  x   f  2  0   1
f  3  x   sin  x   f  3  0   0

Pattern repeats itself for higher derivatives.

Thus, the Maclaurin representation is:
f  2  0  f  3  0  f  4  0  f  n  0 
p  x   f  0  f 1
 0 x  x 
2
x 
3
x 
4
 xn
2! 3! 4! n!
x2 x4
1  0   0  
2! 4!
x2 x4 x6
1   
2! 4! 6!
 INFINITE SERIES
Maclaurin Representation of common functions

Sine function f  x   sin  x 

x3 x5 x 7
p  x  x    
3! 5! 7!

Exponential function f  x   e x
x 2 x3 x 4
p  x  1 x    
2! 3! 4!
 INFINITE SERIES
Maclaurin representation of more complex functions

Consider a function f  x   x cos  x  .

3 2

We can find its Maclaurin representation by finding consecutive

derivatives. However, this would be very time consuming.

As an alternative, we can use the Maclaurin representation for the

cosine function, which we already know.
x2 x4 x6
Since cos  x   1    
2! 4! 6!
x 4 x8 x12
cos  x   1   
2

2! 4! 6!
x 7 x11 x15
Thus, x cos  x   x  
3 2 3
 
2! 4! 6!

Note: To find the Maclaurin representation directly from the derivatives

of the function, we would have had to differentiate the function 15 times
to get to the 4th term of the series.
 INFINITE SERIES
Taylor Series

The concept of approximating functions can also be extended to

evaluate values that are not centred about x=0. This time we want to
approximate the function about x = c.

Consecutive derivatives evaluated at this point are given by:

Constant p  x  f c

Linear p  x   f  c   f 1  c  x  c   p  c   f  c  , p 1  c   f 1  c 

f  2  c  x  c 
2

Quadratic p  x   f  c   f 1  c  x  c  
2!
 p c  f c, p 1  c   f 1  c  , p  2  c   f  2  c 
 INFINITE SERIES
Taylor Series

Thus if we know the derivative of the function at some point on a

function, we can write it in terms of a series given by the Taylor series:

f  n   c  x  c 
n

f  x  
n0 n!
f  2  c  f  3  c 
 f c  f 1
 c  x  c    x  c  x  c
2 3
 
2! 3!

Note that when c = 0, the series reduced to the Maclaurin series.

 INFINITE SERIES
Power Series and Taylor Series : EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate the power series for:

where x  3 

x6n
  1
n

n0  2n ! 2
We expand the series to see what it looks like:

x6n x 6 x12 x18
  1
n
1    (1)
n0  
2 n ! 2! 4! 6!
This looks very similar to the Maclaurin series for cosine function (first
term is 1, factorials of even numbers):
x2 x4 x6
cos  x   1     (2)
2! 4! 6!
In fact, if we substitute x by x3, we get equation (1). Thus, we can write:

x6n
  1  cos  x3 
n

n0  2n ! 3
     
so that when x  3 , the series evaluates to cos  3
  cos  0
2  2 2
 INFINITE SERIES
Power Series and Taylor Series : EXAMPLES
 1 x 2 n 1  1 x 2 n 1
n n
x3 x5 
EXAMPLE 2: If f  x   x      
2! 4!  2 n ! n0  2 n !
Find the series which represents f  x 
 2

Since we know the expression for the nth term we can differentiate it as
follows:
 2n  1 1
n
 x2n
f 1
 x  
n0  2n !

2n  2n  1 1 x 2 n 1  2n  1 1 x 2 n 1

n n
 
f  2
 x   
n 1  2n ! n 1  2n  1!
Note that for the second derivative the initial value of the index n shifts
from 0 to 1. This is because the corresponding second derivative of the
first term in the original expression is zero and is not written as part of
the series.
 INFINITE SERIES
Power Series and Taylor Series : EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 3: Let the following be the third-degree polynomial for g  x 

centred at x = 4.
p  x   2  3 x  4  4  x  4  3 x  4
2 3

Find the fourth-degree Taylor polynomial for h centred at x = 4 where

x
h  x    g  t  dt
4

We know that g  t   p  t   2  3  t  4   4  t  4   3  t  4 
2 3

Thus,
x x
h  x    g  t  dt   2  3  t  4   4  t  4   3  t  4  dt
2 3
4 4

x
 3t  4 4 t  4 3t  4 
2 3 4

  2t    
 2 3 4  4
3 x  4 4  x  4 3 x  4
2 3 4

 2  x  4   
2 3 4
 INFINITE SERIES
Power Series and Taylor Series : EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 4: Let g 1  2, g   1  3, g   1  3, g   1  6 and g   1  9.
1 2 3 4

Use a third-degree Taylor polynomial for g 1  x  centred at x = 1 to

approximate g 1  2 

The Taylor expansion for g  x  centred at x = 1 is given by:

3  x  1 6  x  1 9  x  1
2 3 4

g  x   2  3  x  1   
2! 3! 4!

Thus,
3  x  1
3

g 1  x   3  3  x  1  3  x  1 
2

3 9
At x  2, g 1  2   3  3  3  
2 2
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: Concept

A Fourier series is an expansion of a periodic function in terms of an

infinite sum of sine and cosine functions having different amplitudes
and periods.

2
sin  x 
1 2 sin  x   cos  4 x 
0
0 180 360
-1 1
-2

0
0 180 360
2 cos  4x  -1
1

0
0 180 360
-2
-1

-2

It is similar to a power series except that the function are of the form
A cos  nx  and A sin  nx  rather than an  x  c 
n
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: Concept

The Fourier series can be used to represent even discontinuous

functions ones, which is not possible with power series.

Let us consider a periodic function

This can be approximated by a sine
0.5
function where at f  L   sin   . This
x means that the sine curve must be of the
-1.5
L -1 -0.5 0 0.5
L
1 1.5
form x
sin  
 L 
-1.5

To make a better approximation additional sine curves need to be

included. These need to be such that an integer number of curves fit
within  L  x  L (if function is periodic then all sine curves must start a
new cycle at x = L.
The equation describing such sine terms is more generally written as
 n x 
sin  
 L 
n is the number of cycles that fit within the interval.
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: Concept

Certain functions can be better represented through cosine functions,

while others would require a combination of both. For a given function,
the Fourier series is given by:

 n x    n x 
f  x   ao   an cos    n
 b sin   L  x  L
n 1  L  n 1  L 

1 L
where ao   L f  x  dx
2L

1 L  n x 
an   f  x  cos   dx n  1, 2,3,
L  L
 L 

1 L  n x 
bn   f  x  sin   dx n  1, 2,3,
L  L
 L 
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: EXAMPLE (Square wave)

Let us find the Fourier series for the function:

1 for 0 x 
f  x 
0 for    x  
1.5

The Fourier series is given by:

1

 n x    n x 
f  x   ao   an cos    n
 b sin  
n 1  L  n 1  L 
x
-1.5

-1 -0.5 0 0.5

1 1.5
where  L  x  L
-0.5

In our case, the period is 2 so that L   . Thus

 
f  x   ao   an cos  nx    bn sin  nx 
n 1 n 1
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: EXAMPLE (Square wave)

Finding ao
1 L
ao   f  x  dx
2L  L

In our case, L   so that:

1 
ao 
2   f  x  dx


Also, f  x  is not a continuous function. Thus we have to split the

integral into two parts: 1.5

1  0  1
ao   f  x  dx   f  x  dx 
2   0 
x
1  0 
-1.5

-1 -0.5 0 0.5

1 1.5

  0dx   dx 
2   
-0.5

1 1
 x 0 


2 2
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: EXAMPLE (Square wave)

Finding an
1 L  n x 
an   f  x  cos  dx
1.5


L  L
 L  1

Once again, L   so that:

x
1 
f  x  cos  nx  dx

an  -1.5

-1 -0.5 0 0.5

1 1.5

 -0.5

1 0 
  f  x  cos  nx  dx   f  x  cos  nx  dx 
   0 

1 0 
  0dx   cos  nx  dx 
   0 

1 
 sin  nx   0
n
1
 sin  n 
n
0
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: EXAMPLE (Square wave)

Finding bn
1 L  n x 
bn   f  x  sin  dx
1.5


L  L
 L  1

Once again, L   so that:

x
1 
f  x  sin  nx  dx

bn  -1.5

-1 -0.5 0 0.5

1 1.5

 -0.5

1 0 
  f  x  sin  nx  dx   f  x  sin  nx  dx 
   0 

1 0 
  0dx   sin  nx  dx 
   0 

1  1
 cos  nx   0   cos  n   1
n n

Thus when n = 2, 4, 6, … cos  n   1  bn  0

2
when n = 1, 3, 5, … cos  n   1  bn 
n
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: EXAMPLE (Square wave)

Combining all results:

 
f  x   ao   an cos  nx    bn sin  nx 
n 1 n 1

1 2
ao  an  0 bn  0 n  2, 4, bn  n  1,3,5,
2 n

1 2 2 2
f  x   sin  x   sin  3x   sin  5 x  
2  3 5

1  2sin  2n  1 x 
 
2 n0  2n  1 
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: EXAMPLE (Linear)

A function with a period of 2 is defined by:

f  x  x   x  
Find the Fourier series of the function.
4

3 In this case, L  
2

Finding ao
1
x
-10 -5  0
0  5 10
-1
1 
-2

-3
ao 
2   f  x  dx

-4

Noting that the area under the graph has equal negative and positive
components it follows that ao = 0
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: EXAMPLE (Linear)

Finding an 4

1
3

an   f  x  cos  nx  dx 2

 
 1
x
1  -5 
0

  x cos  nx  dx
-10 0 5 10
-1

  -2

-3

Integration by parts gives: -4

1 
an   nx sin  nx   cos  nx   
n 2
1
 2  n sin  n   cos  n   n sin  n   cos  n  
n
1
 2  n sin  n   cos  n   n sin  n   cos  n  
n
0
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: EXAMPLE (Linear)

Finding bn 4

1  1 
bn   f  x  sin  nx  dx   x sin  nx  dx
2

   
1
x
-10 -5  0
0  5 10
-1

Integration by parts gives: -2

1 
-3

bn  2 sin  nx   nx cos  nx    -4

n
1
 2 sin  n   n cos  n   sin   n   n    cos   n  
n
1
 2  n cos  n   n cos  n  
n
2cos  n 

n
2
When n  2, 4,6, cos  n   1  bn  
n
2
n  1, 2,3, cos(n )  1  bn 
n
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: EXAMPLE (Linear)

Thus the Fourier series is given by:

2sin  2 x  2sin  3 x  2sin  4 x 

f  x   2sin  x     
2 3 4
 1 2sin  nx 
n 1


n 1 n

1
x
-10 -5  0
0  5 10
-1

-2

-3

-4
 INFINITE SERIES
Fourier Series: Tips and Tricks

If a function is odd i.e. f  x    f   x 

f  x
1.5
There are no cosine components since
they will offset f(0) from 0. Also, the area
1

under the graph is 0 so that ao is also 0.

0.5

0
x
-4 -3 -2  L -1 0 1 L 2 3 4


 n x 
-0.5

-1 f  x    bn sin  
-1.5
n 1  L 

If a function is even i.e. f  x   f   x 

There are no sine components since
2

f  x1.8
they will offset the symmetry about f(0).
1.6

1.4

1.2

1
In this case the area under the graph is
0.8

0.6
not 0 so ao has to be found. Thus,
0.4

 n x 
f  x   ao   an cos 
0.2
x
 L-1
0
L1 
 L 
-4 -3 -2 0 2 3 4
n 1