Wind Energy

Ancient Resource Meets 21st Century

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Wind Turbines
Power for a House or City

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Old resource
The wind
Global wind circulation
The global wind circulation
[Link]
ch29/global_wind_circulation.swf
At equator, warm air rises and loses its moisture. At 30°, dry air
descends; therefore, deserts occur at 30° latitude around the world.
Because the Earth is rotating on its axis, the trade winds move from the
northeast to west in the Northern Hemisphere, and form the sourtheast
to the west in the Southern Hemisphere. The westerlies move toward
the east.
Wind power
 How much of this
power can we
extract?

Power in the Wind

 AS FLOW SLOWS IT EXPANDS –
THIS ENVELOPE IS KNOWN AS A
STREAM TUBE

Extracting Power from the Wind

 Streamtube & Actuator Disc

FLOW VELOCITY CHANGES

SMOOTHLY THROUGH THE
ACTUATOR DISC, WHILST PRESSURE
EXPERIENCES A DISCONTINUITY

D FOR DISK; W FOR WAKE

Extracting power from the
wind
Axial Momentum Analysis

from conservation of mass flow:

 AU    ADU D   AWUW

an induction factor, a, is defined in order

that:
U D  U (1  a)
Axial Momentum Balance
rate of change of momentum is change of
velocity times mass flow rate hence overall
rate of change of momentum from upstream to
downstream is:
(U   UW )  ADU D
force (in this case due to pressure difference
across the disk) is equal to rate of change of
momentum, hence:

( pD   pD  ) AD  (U   UW )  ADU  (1  a)
Application of Bernoulli
From Bernoulli (conservation of energy):
1
 U  p   gh  const
2
2
upstream:

1 1
U   p   gh  DU D2  pD  D ghD
2
2 2
which simplifies (incompressible and const. height) to:

1 1
 U   p   U D2  pD
2
2 2
Bernoulli & Momentum Balance
similarly for the downstream side of the rotor:

1 1
 UW  p   U D2  pD
2

2 2
upstream and downstream together give:

1
( pD 
 pD )   (U 2  UW2 )

2
so from momentum balance:
1
 (U 2  UW2 ) AD  (U   UW )  ADU  (1  a)
2
which simplifies to: UW  (1  2a)U
Power Coefficient
it is natural to define a power coefficient as: P
Cp 
Pw
P
which gives: C p 
1  A U3
2 0

considering the force on the air at the disk:

 
F  ( pD  pD ) AD  2  ADU2 a(1  a)
since power is force times velocity:

Power  FUD  2 ADU a(1  a) 3


2

so that finally: CP  4a(1  a)2

Betz Limit
to find the maximum power coefficient differentiate
CP  4a(1  a)2 and set the result equal to zero:

dC p
4(1  a)(1  3a)0
da
the physically meaningful solution is a = 1/3, which
gives:

C p 16
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0.593
known at the Betz limit.
Betz Limit
All wind power cannot be captured by rotor
or air would be completely still behind rotor
and not allow more wind to pass through.
Theoretical maximum energy extraction
from wind = 59.3%
Undisturbed wind velocity reduced by 1/3
Albert Betz (1928)

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So… Power in the Wind
2
(W/m )
= 1/2 x air density x swept rotor area x (wind speed)3
 A U3

Density = P/(RxT)
P - pressure (Pa)
R - specific gas constant (287 J/kgK) Area =  r2 Instantaneous Speed
T - air temperature (K) (not mean speed)
kg/m3 m2 m/s

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Wind Energy Natural
Characteristics
Wind Speed
◦ Wind energy increases with the cube of the wind speed
◦ 10% increase in wind speed translates into 30% more
electricity
◦ 2X the wind speed translates into 8X the electricity

Height
◦ Wind energy increases with height to the 1/7 power
◦ 2X the height translates into 10.4% more electricity

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Wind Energy Natural
Characteristics
Air density
◦ Wind energy increases proportionally with air density
◦ Humid climates have greater air density than dry climates
◦ Lower elevations have greater air density than higher elevations

Blade swept area

◦ Wind energy increases proportionally with swept area of the blades
◦ Blades are shaped like airplane wings
◦ 10% increase in swept diameter translates into 21% greater swept
area
◦ Longest blades up to 125 m diameter
◦ Resulting in 180 m total height

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 Vertical axis Horizontal axis

Wind
turbine
types
Turbines can be
categorized into two
overarching classes
based on the
orientation of the
rotor
Vertical Axis Turbines
Advantages
•Omnidirectional
– Accepts wind from any angle
•Components can be
mounted at ground level
– Ease of service
– Lighter weight towers
•Can theoretically use less
materials to capture the
same amount of wind
Vertical Axis Turbines
Disadvantages
•Rotors generally near ground
where wind poorer
•Centrifugal force stresses
blades
•Poor self-starting capabilities
•Requires support at top of
turbine rotor
•Requires entire rotor to be
removed to replace bearings
•Overall poor performance and
reliability
•Have never been commercially
successful

KIDWIND PROJECT | [Link]

Horizontal
Axis Wind
Turbines
•Rotors are
usually Up-wind
of tower
•Some
machines have
down-wind
rotors, but only
commercially
available ones
are small
turbines
How Big is
a 2.0 MW
Wind
Turbine?
This picture shows a
Vestas V-80 2.0-MW
wind turbine
superimposed on a
Boeing 747 JUMBO JET

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 Wind Turbine Power Curve
2500

Vestas V80 2 MW Wind Turbine

2000

KW 1500

1000

500

0
10 20 30 40 50

MPH 29
 Recent Capacity Enhancements
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Source: NREL
Nacelle Components
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 Lift & Drag Forces
The Lift Force is perpendicular
to the direction of motion. We α = low
want to make this force BIG.

α = medium
<10 degrees

The Drag Force is parallel to

the direction of motion. We α = High
want to make this force small. Stall!!
How do wind turbines work?
[Link]
 ΩR
TSR =
V
ΩR
ΩR

RR
Tip-Speed
Ratio
Tip-speed ratio is the ratio of
the speed of the rotating
blade tip to the speed of the
free stream wind.

There is an optimum angle of

attack which creates the
highest lift to drag ratio.

Because angle of attack is Where,

dependant on wind speed, Ω = rotational speed in radians /sec
there is an optimum tip- R = Rotor Radius
speed ratio . V = Wind “Free Stream” Velocity
 Rotor Solidity
Solidity is the ratio of total rotor planform
area to total swept area R
Low solidity (0.10) = high speed, low torque a

A
High solidity (>0.80) = low speed, high torque
Solidity = 3a/A
Number of Blades – One
•Rotor must move more rapidly to
capture same amount of wind
– Gearbox ratio reduced
– Added weight of counterbalance
negates some benefits of lighter design
– Higher speed means more noise, visual,
and wildlife impacts
•Blades easier to install because
entire rotor can be assembled on
ground
•Captures 10% less energy than two
blade design
•Ultimately provide no cost savings
Number of Blades - Two
•Advantages &
disadvantages similar to
one blade
•Need teetering hub and
or shock absorbers
because of gyroscopic
imbalances
•Capture 5% less energy
than three blade designs
Number of Blades - Three
•Balance of gyroscopic
forces
•Slower rotation
–increases gearbox &
transmission costs
–More aesthetic, less noise,
fewer bird strikes
Turbines Constantly Improving
Larger turbines
Specialized blade design
Power electronics
Computer modeling
◦ produces more efficient design

Manufacturing
improvements

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Improving Reliability
Drastic improvements since mid-80’s
Manufacturers report availability data of over 95%

100
% Available

80
60
40
20
0
1981 '83 '85 '90 '98 Year

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[Link]
Wind Project Siting

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 Wind Power Classes
Wind 10 m 50 m
Power Speed Speed
Class m/s m/s
0 0
1
4.4 5.6
2
5.1 6.4
3
5.6 7.0
4
6.0 7.5
5
6.4 8.0
6
7.0 8.8
7
9.4 11.9

Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions. To maintain the same power density, speed
increases 3%/1000 m elevation.

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Wind Map
Ecuador
Siting a Wind Farm
Winds
◦ Minimum class 4 desired for utility-scale wind farm (>7 m/s at hub
height)

Transmission
◦ Distance, voltage excess capacity

Permit approval
◦ Land-use compatibility
◦ Public acceptance
◦ Visual, noise, and bird impacts are biggest concern

Land area
◦ Economies of scale in construction
◦ Number of landowners
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Ecuador
Loja
Ecuador
Galápagos
San
Cristóbal
Installed Capacity 2,4 MW
Energy 3,20 GWh/year
Wind farm Baltra 2.25 MW
3 wind turbines of 750 kW.
Diesel savings: 450000 gal per year
Investment: $ 26 millions (Ecuadorian Government and PNUD).
Wind Disadvantages

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Market Barriers
Siting
◦ Avian
◦ Noise
◦ Aesthetics

Intermittent source of power

Transmission constraints
Operational characteristics different from conventional fuel sources
Financing

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Wind Energy and the Grid
PROS CONS

Small project size Generally remote location

Short/flexible development time Grid connectivity -- lack of
transmission capability
Dispatchability
Intermittent output
◦ Only When the wind blows (night?
Day?)

Low capacity factor

Predicting the wind -- we’re
getting better

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Wind – Characteristics &
Consequences
Remote location and low capacity factor
Higher transmission investment per unit output

Small project size and quick development time

Planning mismatch with transmission investment

Intermittent output
Higher system operating costs if systems and protocols not designed
properly

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Wind Economics

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Cost of Energy Components
Cost (¢/kWh) =
(Capital Recovery Cost + O&M) / kWh/year
◦ Capital Recovery = Debt and Equity Cost
◦ O&M Cost = Turbine design, operating environment
◦ kWh/year = Wind Resource

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Capital cost
Reductions
between
1980 - 2003
Over this time frame,
technological
innovations allowed for
the development of
larger turbines at
lower costs.
Economies of scale
resulting from
increased turbine size
were followed by
economies of scale in
project size and
manufacturing.
Capital cost
Increases
between
2004 - 2009
An important exception
to this general trend of
substantially rising
costs from 2004 to An array of factors has contributed to this increase in turbine
2009 was China. prices.
The increase in capital o Raw material commodity prices and energy prices.
costs observed o Supply constrains (Growth from approximately 40,000 MW to
between roughly 2004 nearly 200,000 MW of installed wind power capacity in a period of
and 2009 has been about 6 years).
largely tied to increases o Increasing OEM profitability and increasing labor costs.
in the price of wind o Continued turbine upscaling and increasingly sophisticated
turbines. designs (increased material use, more complex control and sensing
systems, and enhanced power conversion capabilities).
o Manufacturer warranty provisions.
Construction Cost Elements
Design &
Financing & Legal Engineering
Fees 2%
3% Land
Development Transportation
Activity 2%
4%
Interconnect/
Subsation Turbines, FOB
4% USA
49%
Interest During
Construction
4%
Towers
(tubular steel)
10%
Construction
22%

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 Wind Farm Component Costs

100%

Wind Farm
Cost 80%
Balance of System
Components Transportation
60%
Foundations
Tower
40% Control System
Drive Train Nacelle
20% Blades and Rotor

0%
750 kW 1500 kW 3000 kW

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LCOE trends: 1980 – 2009
Costs Nosedive  Wind’s Success
Significant reductions in capital cost and
increases in performance
The increasebetween
in capital1980
cost and
between
2003 had the2004
combined effect of dramatically
and 2009, however, pushed the
reducing the LCOE
LCOEofupward
wind energy.
despite the continued
performance increases noted during
this period.

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LCOE trends: 2010 - 2013
Turbine prices and therefore project capital costs have recently declined
since their peak in the late 2000s, but turbine pricing and capital costs
have not returned to the historical lows observed earlier in the 2000s.
Despite this, continual improvements in turbine technology are
expected to result in the industry achieving an apparent historic low in
the LCOE of wind, particularly in low and medium wind speed sites (i.e.,
6.0 m/s to 8.5 m/s average annual hub-height wind speed).

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LCOE for wind energy over
time
UNITED STATES DENMARK
Wind Farm Design Economics
Key Design Parameters
◦ Mean wind speed at hub height

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Wind Farm Economics
Key Design Parameters
◦ Capacity factor
◦ Start with 100%
◦ Subtract time when wind speed < optimum
◦ Subtract time due to scheduled maintenance
◦ Subtract time due to unscheduled maintenance
◦ Subtract production losses
◦ Dirty blades, shut down due to high winds
◦ Typically 33% at a Class 4 wind site

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 The capacity factor assess the productivity of a
Capacity wind turbine, comparing the actual
production with the amount of power the

factor plant would have produced if it had run at full

capacity the same amount of time.

It is important to note that while capacity factor is almost entirely a matter of

reliability for a fueled power plant, it is not for a wind plant— for a wind plant,
it is a matter of economical turbine design.
Capacity factor
With a very large rotor and a very small generator, a wind
turbine would run at full capacity whenever the wind blew
and would have a 60-80% capacity factor— but it would
produce very little electricity.
The most electricity per dollar of investment is gained by
using a larger generator and accepting the fact that the
capacity factor will be lower as a result.
Improved Capacity Factor
Performance Improvements due to:
◦ Better siting
◦ Larger turbines/energy capture
◦ Technology Advances
◦ Higher reliability
Capacity factors > 35% at good sites

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Wind Farm Economics
Key parameter
◦ Distance from grid interconnect
◦ ≈ $350,000/mile for overhead transmission lines (in the US)

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Wind Farm Economics in the
US
Cost of Energy – New Facilities
◦ Wind – 4.9¢/kWh
◦ Coal – 3.7¢/kWh
◦ Natural gas – 7.0¢/kWh
◦ @ $12/MMBtu

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Wind Farm
Development

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Wind Farm Development
Key parameters
◦ Wind resource
◦ Zoning/Public Approval/Land Lease
◦ Power purchase agreements
◦ Connectivity to the grid
◦ Financing
◦ Tax incentives

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Wind Farm Development
Wind resource
◦ Absolutely vital to determine finances
◦ Wind is the fuel
◦ Requires historical wind data
◦ Daily and hourly detail
◦ Install metrological towers
◦ Preferably at projected turbine hub height
◦ Multiple towers across proposed site
◦ Multiyear data reduces financial risk
◦ Correlate long term offsite data to support short term onsite data
◦ Local NWS metrological station

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Wind Farm Development
Zoning/Public Approval/Land Lease
◦ Obtain local and state governmental approvals
◦ Often includes Environmental Impact Studies
◦ Impact to wetlands, birds (especially raptors)
◦ Negotiate lease arrangements with ranchers, farmers,
Native American tribes, etc.
◦ Annual payments per turbine or production based

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Wind Farm Development
Power Purchase Agreements (PPA)
◦ Must have upfront financial commitment from utility
◦ 15 to 20 year time frames
◦ Utility agrees to purchase wind energy at a set rate
◦ e.g. 4.3¢/kWh
◦ Financial stability/credit rating of utility important aspect
of obtaining wind farm financing
◦ PPA only as good as the creditworthiness of the uitility
◦ Utility goes bankrupt – you’re in trouble

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Wind Farm Development
Connectivity to the grid
◦ Power fluctuations stress the grid
◦ Especially since the grid is operating near max capacity

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 The record number of GW of wind power installed in 2014,
51,5 bringing the total installed global capacity to more than 369,6
GW at the end of 2014.

608 Million tonnes of CO2 avoided in 2014.

The number of average EU households that one 6 MW

5 500 offshore turbine can power.
The number of wind turbines spinning around the world at
Wind in 241 100 the end of 2013.

numbers 8 759
The amount of offshore wind power installed globally at the
end of 2014 in GW.
[Link]
It takes a wind turbine 3-6 months to recoup the energy that
-figures/wind-in-numbers/
3 goes into producing, operating and recycling the wind turbine
after its 20 to 25 year lifetime.

The amount of subsidies given to all renewable energy

1$ technologies, versus the $USD 6-7 in subsidies given to fossil fuels.

3% The percentage of global electricity supplied by wind power.

A 10 MW wind farm can easily be built in two months. A

2 larger 50 MW wind farm can be built in six months.

The number of people employed worldwide by the wind

60 1500 industry in 2013.

The amount of global electricity that could be supplied by

17-19% wind power in 2030.
Future Trends

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 Expectations for Future
Growth Worldwide
241 100 total turbines installed by 2013
3% of electricity supply by 2013

17-19% of global electricity

supplied by wind power in 2030.

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Future Cost Reductions
Financing Strategies
Manufacturing Economy of
Scale
Better Sites and “Tuning”
Turbines for Site Conditions
Technology Improvements

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Future Tech Developments
Application Specific Turbines
◦ Offshore
◦ Limited land/resource areas
◦ Transportation or construction limitations
◦ Low wind resource
◦ Cold climates

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The Future of Wind - Offshore
•1.5 - 6 MW per turbine
•60-120 m hub height
•5 km from shore, 30 m deep
ideal
•Gravity foundation, pole, or
tripod formation
•Shaft can act as artificial reef
•Drawbacks- T&D losses
(underground cables lead to
shore) and visual eye sore

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Europe (taken from European Wind
Association)1990-2007 (MW)

Eight offshore wind farms could

produce all the EU’s electricity
Eight 100x100 km offshore wind
farms could produce 3,000 TWh
– equivalent to EU power demand

Source: Siemens
 End 2008: 1.5 GW offshore – 8 EU countries

Offshore – current status

[Link]
Global and
2008 cumulative
2009: wind power
steady capacity
as she goes
1990-2007 (MW)
2008:
• 366 MW annual installed offshore capacity
• 1,471 MW cumulative installed offshore capacity

2009:
• 420 MW annual installed offshore capacity
• 2,000 MW cumulative installed offshore capacity
Global cumulative
Offshore wind power
wind energy marketcapacity
in the EU in 2020
1990-2007 (MW)

• Total installed capacity of 40,000 MW

• Annual installations of 6,900 MW
• Electricity production of 148 TWh
• Meeting between 3.6% and 4.3% of total EU electricity demand
• Avoiding 85Mt of CO² annually
• Annual investments in wind turbines of €8.8 billion
Global cumulative
Offshore wind power
wind energy marketcapacity
in the EU in 2030
1990-2007 (MW)

• Total installed capacity of 150,000 MW

• Annual installations of 13,690 MW
• Electricity production of 563 TWh
• Meeting between 12.8% and 16.7% of total EU electricity
demand
• Avoiding 292 Mt of CO² annually
• Annual investments in wind turbines of €16.5 billion
EWEA’s 20 year offshore network development plan

Source: EWEA 2009

Building the European offshore grid
Benefits
• Predictable energy output
• Connections to more than one country
• Power trading between countries
• Viable alternative to onshore grid construction
• Connection to other marine renewable energy sources
• More economical utilisation of grid through shared use
• More energy security
• More interconnection capacity means more firm power
• Building a single European electricity market would benefit all
consumers
About 70 - 80% round
trip efficiency

Raises cost of wind energy by 25%

Wind Energy Storage

Pumped hydroelectric
Difficult to find, obtain government approval and build new facilities
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Wind Energy Storage
Compressed Air Energy Storage
Costly, inefficient
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Wind
Energy
Storage
Use wind power
Hydrogen to electrolyze
storage water into
50% losses in energy hydrogen
from wind to Store hydrogen
hydrogen and for use later in
hydrogen to fuel cells
electricity
25% round trip
efficiency
Raises cost of wind
energy by 4X

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Wind Power
As any other renewable energy resource is
intermittent
The “fuel” is the wind… wind is free
At good sites it is already competitive with fossil
fuels
Storage!