Resistance : (Concept) It is the property of material to resist the flow of charges or current as current
flows through it.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Definition : 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = → 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = , It is scalar and SI unit is ohm
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
( Ω ).
1 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 1𝑉
Define ohm : 1 𝑜ℎ𝑚 = 1 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 → 1 𝑜ℎ𝑚 = 1𝐴
Resistivity ( ꝭ ) : It is the resistance offered by conductor of unit length and unit cross sectional area.
𝑅𝐴
ꝭ= , S.I. unit is ohm meter ( Ωm ) , It is scalar quantity .
𝐿
Where, ꝭ = resistivity , R = Resistance, A = Cross sectional area and L = length of conductor.
Note: 1. Resistivity depends on material medium.
2. The different length of conductors of the same material have same resistivity.
𝑅1 𝐴1 𝑅2 𝐴2
=
i.e; ꝭ1 = ꝭ2 𝐿1 𝐿2 →
Characteristics of Resistors connected in Series:
1. Net resistance of circuit is equal to the sum of resistances of each resistor.
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
2. Total current supplied by the battery is same throughout the circuit and through each resistor in series is
the same. This is because the current has only single path to flow.
3. Total supply voltage is divided across each resistor accordingly.
Characteristics of Resistors Connected in Parallel:
1. Net resistance is less than the each resistance in the circuit.
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑇
= 𝑅1
+ 𝑅2
+ 𝑅3
2. Potential difference or voltage across each resistor is equal to e.m.f. of the cell. This is because each
resistor is directly connected with the cell.
3. The total current supplied by the cell is divided through each resistance.
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
Question : Why we use different ranges of meters ?
Ans. For small change of current or voltage we use more sensitive meter , which needle deflects at large , to
minimise the error in reading.
Galvanometer:
It is used to detect very small current in the circuit and also find the direction of current in the circuit.
It is connected in series in the circuit.
Iftikhar ul Hassan , Mathematics O/A Level and Physics O Level. Circle Academy Lahore
Important Formulae to find electrical power.
𝑉2 𝐸
P=VI , 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 , 𝑃 = 𝑅
,𝑃 = 𝑡 ,
Formulae to find Electrical Energy :
𝑉2 𝑡
𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡, 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 , 𝐸 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝑡 , 𝐸= 𝑅
Here , P= Power, V=voltage , I=current, R=Resistance, E= energy , t=time.
Alternating Current (A.C.) :
It flows forward to back word then back word forward , continuously changes direction with time.
A.C. source is also known as mains supply.
Voltage or Potential divider Circuit :
A potential divider or voltage divider is an electrical
component that splits an input larger voltage into two
smaller voltages. Each of the two smaller voltages can be
used to drive another circuit.
A simple potential divider uses two fixed resisters R1 and
R2 arranged in series with an input voltage Vas shown in
fig. The input voltage is split in proportion to the values of
the resistors.
Variable Potential Divider:
A variable potential divider is a modified form of potential
divider that can be formed by replacing the fixed resistor
R1with a variable resistor.
In a variable potential divider, when the resistance R1
increases, the output voltage V out decreases and vice versa.
A variable potential divider is used in a light-dimmer in order
to increase or decrease the intensity of light in a room.
Iftikhar ul Hassan , Mathematics O/A Level and Physics O Level. Circle Academy Lahore
Thermistor as Temperature Sensor:
A thermistor can be used as a temperature sensor in fire alarms or as a
temperature controller in freezers, ovens etc.
The resistance of a thermistor called negative temperature coefficient
(NTC) decreases as its temperature increases, so more current flows
through it. On the other hand, at low temperatures, its resistance is
high causing a very little current to flow through it.
To be used as a temperature sensor, a thermistor is connected in place
of a To
variable
be usedresistor in a potentialsensor,
as a temperature dividera in order to control
thermistor the size
is connected in of
place of a variable resistor in a potential
current.
divider in order to control the size of current.
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) as Light Sensor:
A light-dependent resistors (LDR) can be used in light
sensing circuits to detect light levels.
The resistance of an LDR decreases as the light intensity
increases. In the dark and at low light levels, the resistance
of an LDR is high, and little current can flow through it. In
bright light, the resistance of an LDR is low, so more
current can flow through it.
To be used as a light sensor, an LDR is connected as a
variable resistor in a potential divider to control the size of
current.
Iftikhar ul Hassan , Mathematics O/A Level and Physics O Level. Circle Academy Lahore
