Refrigeration
Branch of engineering sciences that deals with the transfer of
heat from a lower temperature region to a higher
temperature region, in order to maintain a region at a
temperature lower than the surrounding atmosphere
System used for accomplishing the process of refrigeration is
called refrigeration system
The region which is maintained at a temperature lower than its
surroundings is called refrigerated space
Working fluid inside the system is called refrigerant
Applications of Refrigeration System
• Preservation and transportation of food products
• Preserving life saving drugs, vaccines,…etc
• For air conditioning purpose
• Used in medical fields
• Used for making ice products
• Used for the efficient operation of computers and other
work stations
Unit of Refrigeration
• Standard unit of refrigeration is expressed in Ton
• Rate of heat absorbed by the system from the body to be
cooled, equivalent to the latent heat of fusion of ‘One Ton’
of ice at degree Celsius in 24 hours is called One ton
refrigeration
• Rate of heat absorbed from a body or space to be cooled is
called refrigerating effect
• This unit is used in India, USA, UK
• Other unit in MKS is kcal/hr used in other countries
• 1 Ton = 3.5167 kJ of heat removal per second
Coefficient of Performance (COP)
• It is a measure of the effectiveness or the performance of
the refrigeration system
• Ratio of refrigerating effect (Q) to the input work required
to produce the effect (W)
• COP= Refrigerating effect/ Work input
= Desired output/ Input
= Q/W
• Its value can be more than one
• COP = 1/efficiency
Reversed Carnot Cycle
• The Carnot Cycle is used to convert the convert the heat
into the mechanical work whereas; the Reversed Carnot
Cycle (or refrigeration system) is used to absorb the heat
from the system and rejects to the surroundings (or
environment) to maintain the system cool (refrigeration
effect).
• Since all the four processes in the Carnot cycle are reversible
processes, it is possible to have a cycle with all the four
processes reversed. This cycle is called reversed Carnot cycle.
• In this cycle, heat is absorbed from a cold reservoir and is
rejected to a hot reservoir with the expenditure of external
work.
• The effectiveness of this cycle is the ratio of heat absorbed to the
work required for this heat absorption from the cold reservoir.
• This effectiveness is expressed by a term known as coefficient of
performance, COP.
• The reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrigeration
cycle operating between two specified temperature levels. It sets
the highest theoretical COP.
• This cycle includes the
following processes
• 1–2: Isentropic Compression.
• 2–3: Isothermal Compression.
• 3–4: Isentropic Expansion.
• 4–1: Isothermal Expansion
• COP= Heat absorbed/Work
done
Methods of Producing Refrigeration
• Air Refrigeration system
• Vapour compression refrigeration system (VCRS)
• Vapour absorption refrigeration system
Vapor Compression Refrigeration
Systems (VCRS)
• In this system, a liquid refrigerant is
used which is alternately evaporates
and condenses for absorbing heat Components
from the refrigerated space and for • Compressor
rejecting heat to the surroundings • Condensor
• During the evaporation process, it • Expansion
absorbs heat from refrigerated device/Valve
space and gets converted from
• Evaporator
liquid to vapor
• During the condensing process, it
rejects heat to the surrounding and
gets condensed from vapor to liquid
Basic components of VCRS
1. Compressor: Suck the low temperature refrigerant vapor
from the evaporator and to compress it to a high pressure
and temperature
2. Condenser: Condense the high pressure and temperature
refrigerant vapor from the compressor, by rejecting its
latent heat to the cooling water at ambient temperature(
or rejects heats to ambient air)
3. Expansion valve(Throttle valve): Throttle the liquid
refrigerant from the condenser. By throttling, the pressure
and temperature reduces and the refrigerant becomes
partly liquid and partly vapor at the required low
temperature. It also regulates the flow of liquid refrigerant
to the evaporator
4. Evaporator: To evaporate the liquid refrigerant by
absorbing the latent heat of vaporization from the cold
refrigerated space
It consists of four processes a) 1-2 Isentropic compression in a
compressor
b) 2-3 Constant-pressure heat rejection in a
condenser
c) 3-4 Throttling in an expansion
device(constant enthalpy)
d) 4-1 Constant-pressure heat absorption in
an evaporator
Vapor Compression Refrigeration Systems (VCRS)
Working Principle
• In vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant
enters the compressor at state 1 as saturated vapor and is
compressed isentropically to the condenser pressure. The
temperature of the refrigerant increases during this
isentropic compression process to well above the
temperature of the surrounding medium.
• The refrigerant then enters the condenser as superheated
vapor at state 2 and leaves as saturated liquid at state 3 as
a result of heat rejection to the surroundings. The
temperature of the refrigerant at this state is still above the
temperature of the surroundings
• The saturated liquid refrigerant at state 3 is throttled to the
evaporator pressure by passing it through an expansion
valve or capillary tube. The temperature of the refrigerant
drops below the temperature of the refrigerated space
during this process
• The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low-
quality saturated mixture, and it completely evaporates by
absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. The refrigerant
leaves the evaporator as saturated vapor and re-enters the
compressor, completing the cycle
• The area under the process curve 4-1 represents the heat
absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator, and the area
under the process curve 2-3 represents the heat rejected in
the condenser
Household Refrigerator
In a household
refrigerator, the
tubes in the freezer
compartment where
heat is absorbed by
the refrigerant serves
as the evaporator.
The coils behind the
refrigerator, where
heat is dissipated to
the kitchen air, serve
as the condenser
Compressor Condenser Evaporator
Capillary tube
Refrigerants
Working fluid used in refrigerators
Primary refrigerants : Directly take part in refrigeration
system
Secondary refrigerants : Refrigerants which are first cooled
by primary refrigerants, Eg. Brines(NaCI, CaCI2, ethylene
glycol, propylene glycol)
• Commonly used halo carbon refrigerants are chloro fluoro
derivatives of methane and ethane
• Fully halogenated with Cl atom in molecules are called CFC
refrigerants (Chloro Fluoro Carbon) E.g. R-11, R-12, R-13,
R-113 etc
• Hydrogen containing are called CFC refrigerants
• If no Cl atom present, HFC (eg: R134a R152a)
• If no Cl and F atom present, Then Hydro Carbon
refrigerants (HC) (eg: R 290, R600a)
• Create holes in ozone layer by releasing CI
• One Cl can destroy 10^5 ozone molecules
• Global warming effect
Desirable properties of refrigerants
• Both condensing and evaporating pressure should be above
atmosphere pressure to avoid leakage
• Enough high critical temperature to reduce power requirements
• High latent heat of vaporization
• Should have high thermal conductivity for higher efficiency
• Freezing temperature should be much below the operating
temperature to avoid solidification
• Specific heat should be lower to minimize the amount of vapor
formation
• Low specific volume to reduce the size of compressor
• Viscosity should be lower to reduce pressure drops, size of pipes etc
Desirable properties of refrigerants
• Leakage detection should be simple
• Should have high electrical resistance
• Should be easily available
• Flammability – ideally it should be inflammable
• Non corrosive – No reaction with metals
• Toxicity- Should be non toxic
• Should be chemically stable as long as it is inside the refrigeration
system
• Must be miscible with lubricating oils
Air Conditioning
• The science of air conditioning that deals with supplying
and maintaining a desired internal atmospheric condition
irrespective of external conditions.
• This involves the simultaneous control of air purity, air
motion, temperature and humidity of the air inside an
enclosed space.
Psychrometry
• Properties of moist air are psychrometric properties
• Subject which deals with behavior of moist air is called
psychrometry
• Moist air – dry air + water vapor
• The amount of water vapor in air plays important role in
both comfort and industrial air conditioning
Terms used in Psychrometry
Dry air: Air without water vapour. It is a mixture of O2, N2,
CO2, H2, Ar, Ne, He etc with O2 and N2 as its major
constituents.
Moist air: Mixture of dry air and water vapour
Saturated air: Air Which contains maximum amount of
water vapour which air can hold at a given temperature and
pressure
Dry bulb temperature: Temperature of air measured by
ordinary thermometer
Wet bulb temperature: Temperature Recorded by a
thermometer, when its bulb is covered by a wet cloth and is
exposed to current moving air
Specific humidity/ Absolute humidity/ Humidity ratio:
Ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air in a
given volume of moist air
Relative humidity: Ratio of mass of water vapour in a given
volume of moist air at a given temperature to the mass of
water vapour contained in the same volume of moist air at
the same temperature, when the air is saturated.
Dew point temperature: temperature at which
condensation of moisture begins when air is cooled at
constant pressure. Difference between dry bulb temperature
and dew point temperature is known as dew point
depression
Difference between dry bulb temperature and wet bulb
temperature is known as wet bulb depression and it
depends on the relative humidity of air
When relative humidity is high, rate of evaporation from the
wet cloth is less and therefore wet bulb depression will be
low
Psychrometric Chart
It is a graphical representations of various thermodynamic
properties of air.
Helps in understanding the properties of moist air directly.
AOB: Constant dew point temperature line
COD: Constant dry bulb temperature line
EOF: Constant relative humidity line
GOH: Constant wet bulb temperature line
IOJ: constant specific volume line
Dry bulb temperature: these are vertical lines drawn
parallel to the ordinate
Specific humidity line: horizontal lines drawn parallel to the
abscissa
Wet bulb temperature line: these are straight lines which
extend diagonally
Relative humidity line: curved lines parallel to the saturated
line. Saturated line represents 100% humidity
Specific volume line: straight inclined line and uniformly
spaced. Gives volume of dry air per kg
Dew point temperature lines: horizontal line, non uniformly
spaced and drawn up to saturation lines
Psychrometric Processes
• Sensible heating: Process OA
• Sensible cooling: Process OB
• Humidifying: Process OC
• Dehumidifying: Process OD
• Heating and Humidifying: Process OE
• Cooling and Dehumidifying: Process OF
• Cooling and humidifying: Process OH and OJ
• Heating and dehumidifying: Process OG and OI
• Sensible heating and cooling involve change in dry bulb
temperature
• Humidifying and dehumidifying involve change in specific
humidity
• O to A or B, no change in moisture content
• O to C or D, DBT remains constant
Process involved in Air conditioning
1. Air purification:
Natural air carries dust, bacteria etc which are harmful to
health
For safe guarding health removing all these harmful
ingredients
Purification done by air filtration, air sterilization, air
ionization, odour suspension
Dust removed by filters, bacteria killed by sterilization
2. Temperature Control - To regulate the DBT
Attained by simple heating or cooling or with a
humidification process
Cooling of air means lowering its DBT
Can be achieved by passing air over evaporator coils of a
refrigerating system
Heating of air is done by raising its DBT
Done by passing air over heated surface which is usually
located outside the room to be heated
Heated flows inside by fan action
Warm air heating system, hot water air heating system,
steam air heating system and electrical heating system
3. Humidity Control - (Humidification or dehumidification)
a. Dehumidification
• Process of reducing water vapour content of air
• By using air washer or air absorbents
• In absorption method air passed through drying agent
(H2SO4, NH3)-Chemical reaction
• Absorbents have the capacity to absorb moisture
• Common absorbents are alumina, calcium chloride,
silica gel
• Usually used in small air conditioners
b. Humidification- Done by addition of steam or hot water to air
Steam humidifier:
Direct injection of steam into air through a nozzle
Rarely used as temperature control is difficult
May carry unpleasant odours
Impact type air humidifier:
Uses fine jet of water directed against a hard target. Water
breaks into fine spray.
Air is forced into the chamber using fans which picks up water
by evaporation.
Eliminators are used to remove water droplets
Forced Evaporation Humidifier
Air is allowed to mix with water vapour formed by evaporation
of water
Atomization:
Compressed air is used to draw water by aspiration from a
supply tank and blow it in fine mist form to the room with
the help of a duct which carries air
4. Air distribution:
Objective is to create proper combination of temperature,
humidity and air motion in the conditioned room
Temperature variation in the room should not exceed 20 C
Desirable air movement is 7.5m/min (max 15 m/min)
Direction is preferred to the face of occupants
Downward flow of air preferred over upward flow
Summer Air Conditioning
• Air is cooled and dehumidified
• The atmospheric air flows through a damper to the air
filter where dirt, dust and other impurities are removed.
• Air now passes through a cooling coil whose temperature
is much below the required dry bulb temperature.
• Water is sprayed to the air. The temperature of water is
below the dew point temperature of air. Due to the
vapourisation of water the temperature of air further
decreases.
• An eliminator is placed in the path to remove water droplet
carried with air.
• Finally this conditioned air is supplied to the required
space using a blower.
Window/ Unit Air Conditioner
• Consists of two parts - Outdoor and indoor parts separated
by a partition.
• Outdoor parts consists of compressor, condenser and a fan.
• Indoor part has evaporator and a fan.
• Capillary tube is provided in between the condenser and
evaporator.
• Dampers are provided at the front of indoor potion for
changing the direction of air flow.
Window Air Conditioning
Central Air Conditioning
A Central AC system and is adopted when
• Higher cooling rate is required (25T or more)
• Higher air flow is there (more than 5m3 / hr)
• Different zones in a buildings are to be air conditioned
• These systems are designed to cool entire area efficiently
by circulating cooled air through a duct network.
• The duct system (Air distribution system) has an air
handler, air supply system, air return duct and the grills
and registers that circulates warm air from a furnace or
cooled air from an evaporator to the rooms. It returns the
air back to the system and starts again.
• A suitable refrigerant absorb heat from the indoor
evaporator coil and rejects that heat to the condenser coil.
• Supply ducts and registers (i.e., openings in the walls,
floors, or ceilings covered by grills) carry cooled air from
the air conditioner to the conditioned space .
• This cooled air becomes warmer as it circulates through
the area; then it flows back to the central air conditioner
through return ducts and registers
Split Systems
• Split systems are the most common type of central air
conditioning. They consist of an outdoor unit containing
the condenser and compressor and an indoor unit (Air
handler)housing the evaporator coil and blower. These
systems are ideal for homes with a furnace but no air
conditioning.
• Split cooling systems pull heat from the air conditioned
area with refrigerant that circulates between the
condenser and the air handler.
• Supply ducts distribute cool air from the air handler to the
rooms in the house, while return ducts carry warm air back
to the air handler to be filtered and cooled.
• When properly sized, ducts deliver conditioned air evenly
and quietly throughout the house.
Packaged Units
• Packaged units combine all components into a single
outdoor unit, typically installed on the roof or a concrete
slab near the home’s foundation. These systems are often
used when indoor space is limited or in regions with
milder climates.
Components
Out door unit-Placed outside the building near the foundation
• Includes condenser coil compressor and fan
• Condenser consist of series of tubes through which refrigerant flows,
with fins to enhance heat dissipation
• The fan aids in dissipating heat the refrigerant by moving air over the
condenser coil
Indoor unit-Absorbs heat from living spaces and distributes cool air
• Includes evaporator coil and air handler
• As the warm air passes through the cold evaporator coil placed in the
air handler, the refrigerant inside the coil absorbs heat causing it to
evaporate, consequently cooling the surrounding warm air
• The air handler which circulates the conditioned air throughout the
rooms, is usually placed in less visible locations like attics or
basements
• It comprises a fan or blower, heating and cooling systems filters and
dampers.
Working
• The refrigeration cycle starts with the evaporator coil inside the indoor
unit. Warm air from the room is drawn into the air handler, which then
passes over the cold evaporator coil.
• The refrigerant inside the coil absorbs the heat, causing it to evaporate
and travel to the compressor.
• The compressor increases the refrigerant's pressure and temperature
before sending it to the condenser coil in the outdoor unit.
• At the condenser coil, the heat is released into the outdoor air as the
refrigerant condenses back into a liquid state.
• The cooled refrigerant then returns to the evaporator coil, and the
cycle repeats itself.
• Throughout this process, the air handler continuously blows the cooled
air into the living spaces while drawing in warm air to be cooled by the
evaporator coil.
