Brutalist

architecture

Brutalist architecture is an architectural style that emerged during the

1950s in the United Kingdom, among the reconstruction projects of the
post-war era.[1][2][3][4][5] Brutalist buildings are characterised by
minimalist constructions that showcase the bare building materials and
structural elements over decorative design.[6][7] The style commonly
makes use of exposed, unpainted concrete or brick, angular geometric
shapes and a predominantly monochrome colour palette;[7][8] other
materials, such as steel, timber, and glass, are also featured.[9]

Brutalist architecture
:
 Top row: Park Hill flats in Sheffield,
England; Soviet-era housing in
Talnakh, Russia; Teresa Carreño
Cultural Complex in Caracas,
Venezuela. Middle row: Royal
National Theatre in London; Boston
City Hall; Soviet-era housing in
Saint Petersburg. Bottom row:
Robarts Library in Toronto, Canada;
Barbican Centre in the City of
London; Alexandra Road Estate in
London.

Years active 1950s – early

1980s

Location International
:
 Descending from the modernist movement, brutalism is said to be a
reaction against the nostalgia of architecture in the 1940s.[10] Derived
from the Swedish phrase nybrutalism, the term "new brutalism" was
first used by British architects Alison and Peter Smithson for their
pioneering approach to design.[8][11][12] The style was further
popularised in a 1955 essay by architectural critic Reyner Banham, who
also associated the movement with the French phrases béton brut ("raw
concrete") and art brut ("raw art").[13][14] The style, as developed by
architects such as the Smithsons, Hungarian-born Ernő Goldfinger, and
the British firm Chamberlin, Powell & Bon, was partly foreshadowed by
the modernist work of other architects such as French-Swiss Le
Corbusier, Estonian-American Louis Kahn, German-American Mies van
der Rohe, and Finnish Alvar Aalto.[7][15]

In the United Kingdom, brutalism was featured in the design of

utilitarian, low-cost social housing influenced by socialist principles and
soon spread to other regions around the world, while being echoed by
similar styles like in Eastern Europe.[16][6][7][17] Brutalist designs became
most commonly used in the design of institutional buildings, such as
provincial legislatures, public works projects, universities, libraries,
courts, and city halls. The popularity of the movement began to decline
in the late 1970s, with some associating the style with urban decay and
totalitarianism.[7] Brutalism's popularity in socialist and communist
nations owed to traditional styles being associated with the bourgeoisie,
whereas concrete emphasized equality.[18]

Brutalism has been polarising historically; specific buildings, as well as

the movement as a whole, have drawn a range of criticism (often being
described as "cold"). There are often public-led campaigns to demolish
brutalist buildings. Some people are favourable to the style and in the
United Kingdom some buildings have been preserved.
:
 History

Villa Göth (1950) in Kåbo, Uppsala,

Sweden. "New Brutalism" was used
for the first time to describe this
house.

The term nybrutalism (new brutalism)[19] was coined by the Swedish

architect Hans Asplund to describe Villa Göth, a modern brick home in
Uppsala, designed in January 1950[11] by his contemporaries Bengt
Edman and Lennart Holm.[12] Showcasing the 'as found' design
approach that would later be at the core of brutalism, the house
displays visible I-beams over windows, exposed brick inside and out,
and poured concrete in several rooms where the tongue-and-groove
pattern of the boards used to build the forms can be seen.[20][13] The
term was picked up in the summer of 1950 by a group of visiting English
architects, including Michael Ventris, Oliver Cox, and Graeme
Shankland, where it apparently "spread like wildfire, and [was]
subsequently adopted by a certain faction of young British
architects".[19][21][12]

The first published usage of the phrase "new brutalism" occurred in

1953, when Alison Smithson used it to describe a plan for their unbuilt
Soho house which appeared in the November issue of Architectural
Design.[13][9] She further stated: "It is our intention in this building to
have the structure exposed entirely, without interior finishes wherever
:
 practicable."[12][13] The Smithsons' Hunstanton School completed in
1954 in Norfolk, and the Sugden House completed in 1955 in Watford,
represent the earliest examples of new brutalism in the United
Kingdom.[4] Hunstanton school, likely inspired by Mies van der Rohe's
1946 Alumni Memorial Hall at the Illinois Institute of Technology in
Chicago, United States, is notable as the first completed building in the
world to carry the title of "new brutalist" by its architects.[22][23] At the
time, it was described as "the most truly modern building in
England".[24]

The term gained increasingly wider recognition when British

architectural historian Reyner Banham used it to identify both an ethic
and aesthetic style, in his 1955 essay The New Brutalism. In the essay,
Banham described Hunstanton and the Soho house as the "reference
by which The New Brutalism in architecture may be defined."[13] Reyner
Banham also associated the term "new brutalism" with art brut and
béton brut, meaning "raw concrete" in French, for the first
time.[19][25][26] The best-known béton brut architecture is the proto-
brutalist work of the Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier, in particular
his 1952 Unité d'habitation in Marseille, France; the 1951–1961
Chandigarh Capitol Complex in India; and the 1955 church of Notre
Dame du Haut in Ronchamp, France.

Banham further expanded his thoughts in the 1966 book, The New
Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic?, to characterise a somewhat recently
established cluster of architectural approaches, particularly in
Europe.[27] In the book, Banham says that Le Corbusier's concrete work
was a source of inspiration and helped popularise the movement,
suggesting "if there is one single verbal formula that has made the
concept of Brutalism admissible in most of the world's Western
languages, it is that Le Corbusier himself described that concrete work
as 'béton-brut'".[28] He further states that "the words 'The New
Brutalism' were already circulating, and had acquired some depth of
meaning through things said and done, over and above the widely
recognised connection with béton brut. The phrase still 'belonged' to
:
 the Smithsons, however, and it was their activities above all others that
were giving distinctive qualities to the concept of Brutalism."[29]

Motif

Student dormitory (1971) by

Georgi Konstantinovski in
Skopje, North Macedonia

"TV buildings" named for

the concrete window
frames that resemble TV
screens (Belgrade, Serbia)

New brutalism is not only an architectural style; it is also a philosophical

approach to architectural design, a striving to create simple, honest,
:
 and functional buildings that accommodate their purpose, inhabitants,
and location.[30][31] Stylistically, brutalism is a strict, modernistic design
language that has been said to be a reaction to the architecture of the
1940s, much of which was characterised by a retrospective
nostalgia.[32] Peter Smithson believed that the core of brutalism was a
reverence for materials, expressed honestly, stating "Brutalism is not
concerned with the material as such but rather the quality of
material",[33] and "the seeing of materials for what they were: the
woodness of the wood; the sandiness of sand."[34] Architect John
Voelcker explained that the "new brutalism" in architecture "cannot be
understood through stylistic analysis, although some day a
comprehensible style might emerge",[35] supporting the Smithsons'
description of the movement as "an ethic, not an aesthetic".[36] Reyner
Banham felt the phrase "the new brutalism" existed as both an attitude
toward design as well as a descriptive label for the architecture itself
and that it "eludes precise description, while remaining a living force".
He attempted to codify the movement in systematic language, insisting
that a brutalist structure must satisfy the following terms, "1, Formal
legibility of plan; 2, clear exhibition of structure, and 3, valuation of
materials for their inherent qualities 'as found'."[13] Also important was
the aesthetic "image", or "coherence of the building as a visual
entity".[13]

Brutalist buildings are usually constructed with reoccurring modular

elements representing specific functional zones, distinctly articulated
and grouped together into a unified whole. There is often an emphasis
on graphic expressions in the external elevations and in the whole-site
architectural plan in regard to the main functions and people-flows of
the buildings.[37] Buildings may use materials such as concrete, brick,
glass, steel, timber, rough-hewn stone, and gabions among others.[8]
However, due to its low cost, raw concrete is often used and left to
reveal the basic nature of its construction with rough surfaces featuring
wood "shuttering" produced when the forms were cast in situ.[8]
Examples are frequently massive in character (even when not large) and
challenge traditional notions of what a building should look like with
:
 focus given to interior spaces as much as exterior.[13][8]

A common theme in brutalist designs is the exposure of the building's

inner-workings—ranging from their structure and services to their
human use—in the exterior of the building. In the Boston City Hall,
designed in 1962, the strikingly different and projected portions of the
building indicate the special nature of the rooms behind those walls,
such as the mayor's office or the city council chambers. From another
perspective, the design of the Hunstanton School included placing the
facility's water tank, normally a hidden service feature, in a prominent,
visible tower. Rather than being hidden in the walls, Hunstanton's water
and electric utilities were delivered via readily visible pipes and
conduits.[13]

Brutalism as an architectural philosophy was often associated with a

socialist utopian ideology, which tended to be supported by its
designers, especially by Alison and Peter Smithson, near the height of
the style. Indeed, their work sought to emphasize functionality and to
connect architecture with what they viewed as the realities of modern
life.[30] Among their early contributions were "streets in the sky" in
which traffic and pedestrian circulation were rigorously separated,
another theme popular in the 1960s.[37] This style had a strong position
in the architecture of European communist countries from the mid-
1960s to the late 1980s (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany,
USSR, Yugoslavia).[38] In Czechoslovakia, Brutalism was presented as
an attempt to create a "national" but also "modern socialist"
architectural style. Such prefabricated socialist era buildings are called
panelaky.

A sub-genre of brutalism is "brick brutalism" or "brickalism", where the

dominant structural material is brick rather than concrete. Examples
range from the Smithson's house in Soho (1952) to Colin St John
Wilson's British Library (1982–98).[39][40][41]
:
 Designers

Habitat 67 (1967) in Montreal,

Quebec, Canada, is a Brutalist
building.[42]

The Bayamón City Hall (1980) is an

example of Brutalist architecture in
Puerto Rico

In the United Kingdom, architects associated with the brutalist style

include Ernő Goldfinger, wife-and-husband pairing Alison and Peter
Smithson, some of the work of Sir Basil Spence, the London County
Council/Greater London Council Architects Department, Owen Luder,
John Bancroft, and, arguably perhaps, Sir Denys Lasdun, Sir Leslie
Martin, Sir James Stirling and James Gowan with their early works.
Some well-known examples of brutalist-influenced architecture in the
British capital include the Barbican Centre (Chamberlin, Powell and Bon)
and the National Theatre (Denys Lasdun).

In the United States, Paul Rudolph and Ralph Rapson were both noted
:
 brutalists.[43] Evans Woollen III, a pacesetter among architects in the
Midwest, is credited for introducing the Brutalist and Modernist
architecture styles to Indianapolis, Indiana.[44] Walter Netsch is known
for his brutalist academic buildings. Marcel Breuer was known for his
"soft" approach to the style, often using curves rather than corners. In
Atlanta, Georgia, the architectural style was introduced to Buckhead's
affluent Peachtree Road with the Ted Levy-designed Plaza Towers and
Park Place on Peachtree condominiums. Many of the stations of the
Washington Metro, particularly older stations, were constructed in the
brutalist style. Architectural historian William Jordy says that although
Louis Kahn was "[o]pposed to what he regarded as the muscular
posturing of most Brutalism", some of his work "was surely informed by
some of the same ideas that came to momentary focus in the brutalist
position."[45]

The interior ceilings of the

Washington Metro stations are
Brutalist.

In Australia, examples of the brutalist style are Robin Gibson's

Queensland Art Gallery, Ken Woolley's Fisher Library at the University of
Sydney (his State Office Block is another), the High Court of Australia
and Warringah Civic Centre by Christopher Kringas, the MUSE building
(also referred to as C7A MUSE) which was the original Library at
Macquarie University before the new library replaced it, and WTC Wharf
(World Trade Centre in Melbourne).[46] John Andrews's government
and institutional structures in Australia also exhibit the style. One of the
first brutalist buildings in Melbourne was the Harold Holt Memorial
Swimming Centre in Malvern, designed by Daryl Jackson and Kevin
:
 Borland in 1967. It has been nominated for heritage protection.

Canada possesses numerous examples of brutalist architecture. In the

years leading to the 100th anniversary of the Confederation in 1967, the
Federal Government financed the construction of many public
buildings.[47] Major brutalist examples, not all built as part of the
Canadian Centennial, include the Grand Théâtre de Québec, the Édifice
Marie-Guyart (formerly Complex-G), Hôtel Le Concorde, and much of
the Laval University campus in Quebec City; Habitat 67, Place
Bonaventure, the Maison de Radio-Canada, and several metro stations
on the Montreal Metro's Green Line; the Confederation Centre of the
Arts in Charlottetown;[47] the National Arts Centre in Ottawa; the Hotel
Dieu Hospital in Kingston; the Ontario Science Centre, Robarts Library,
Rochdale College in Toronto; Royal Manitoba Theatre Centre and
Canadian Grain Commission building in Winnipeg;[48] and the church of
the Westminster Abbey in British Columbia.[49] Prominent Vancouver-
based architect, Arthur Erickson was responsible for several notable
brutalist developments including Simon Fraser University's main
campus building, the MacMillan Bloedel Building, Vancouver's
Evergreen Building, the Museum of Anthropology and Vancouver Law
Courts.[50]

In Serbia, Božidar Janković was a representative of the so-called

"Belgrade School of residence", identifiable by its functionalist relations
on the basis of the flat[51][52] and elaborated in detail the architecture.
Known example, Western City Gate also known as the Genex Tower is a
36-storey skyscraper in Belgrade, Serbia, which was designed in 1977
by Mihajlo Mitrović.[53] It is formed by two towers connected with a two-
storey bridge and revolving restaurant at the top. It is 117 m (384 ft)
tall[54] (with restaurant 135–140 m (443–459 ft)) and is the second-
tallest high-rise in Belgrade after Ušće Tower. The building was
designed in the brutalist style with some elements of structuralism and
constructivism. It is considered a prime representative of the brutalist
architecture in Serbia and one of the best of its style built in the 1960s
and the 1970s in the world. The treatment of the form and details is
:
 slightly associating the building with postmodernism and is today one of
the rare surviving representatives of this style's early period in Serbia.
The artistic expression of the gate marked an entire era in Serbian
architecture.[54]

In Vietnam, brutalist architecture is particularly popular among old

public buildings and has been associated with the bao cấp era (lit:
subsidizing), the period during which the country followed Soviet-type
economic planning. Many Soviet architects, most notably Garol
Isakovich, were sent to Vietnam during that time to help train new
architects and played an influential role in shaping the country's
architectural styles for decades.[55] Isakovich himself also designed
some of the most notable brutalist buildings in Vietnam, including the
Vietnam-Soviet Friendship Palace of Culture and Labour (1985).[56] In
his later years, Isakovich, who was awarded the Hero of Labor by the
Vietnamese government in 1976, is said to have deviated from the
brutalist style and adopted Vietnamese traditional styles in his design,
which has been referred to by some Vietnamese architects as Chủ
nghĩa hiện đại địa phương (lit: local modernism) and hậu hiện đại
(postmodernism).[55] In the former South Vietnam, notable buildings
that are said to carry brutalist elements include the Independence
Palace (1966)[57] designed by Ngô Viết Thụ, the first Asian architect to
become an Honorary Fellow of the American Institute of
Architects.[58][59] However, whether South Vietnamese architecture
prior to 1975 was brutalism or not remains a matter of dispute, with
some architects argued it was actually modernism.[60] In recent years,
public sentiments in Vietnam towards brutalist architecture has shifted
negatively, but the style is said to have made a comeback recently.[61]

On university campuses
:
 James Stirling's History Faculty
Building (1968), University of
Cambridge

Early examples of brutalist architecture in British universities include the

'beehives' at St John's College, Oxford, (Michael Powers of the
Architects' Co-Partnership; 1958–60)[62][63] and the extension to the
department of architecture at the University of Cambridge in 1959
under the influence of Leslie Martin, the head of the department, and
designed by Colin St John Wilson and Alex Hardy, with participation by
students at the university.[64] This inspired further brutalist buildings in
Cambridge, including the Grade II listed University Centre and the
Grade II listed Churchill College. The Grade II* listed History Faculty
Building (1964–67) is described in its listing as "a distinctive example of
a new approach to education buildings, from a period when the
universities were at the forefront of architectural
patronage".[65][66][67][68] It was the second building in architect James
Stirling's Red Trilogy, which started with the University of Leicester
Engineering Building (with James Gowan; 1959–63),[69] designed to
reflect the vernacular architecture of Leicester's factories[63] and
sometimes regarded as the first post modern building in Britain,[70] and
concluded with the Florey Building at Queen's College, Oxford (1966–
71).[71]
:
 Denys Lasdun's 'ziggurats' (1968),
University of East Anglia

The building of new universities in the UK in the 1960s led to

opportunities for brutalist architects. The first to be built was the
University of Sussex, designed by Basil Spence, with the Grade I listed
Falmer House (1960–62) as its centerpiece. The building has been
described as a "meeting of Arts and Crafts with modernism", with
features such as hand-made bricks that contrast with the pre-
fabricated construction of other 1960s campuses, and colonnades of
bare, board-marked concrete arches on brick piers inspired by the
Colosseum.[72] It is also considered one of the "key Brutalist buildings"
by the Royal Institute of British Architects.[73][74] It has, in a reversal of
the usual situation for brutalist architecture, received popular acclaim
while being less liked by professional critics and is sometimes described
as picturesque rather than brutalist.[75] Denys Lasdun's work at the
University of East Anglia, including six linked halls of residence in
Norfolk Terrace and four linked halls of residence in Suffolk Terrace
(commonly referred to as the 'ziggurats') and the library and 'teaching
wall' between them, is considered one of the finest examples of a 1960s
brutalist university campus.[19][76] The ziggurats were closed in 2023 as
part of the reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete crisis, with no date
set for their refurbishment as of February 2025.[77][78] Another notable
example is the Central Hall of the University of York (1966–68) with its
surrounding colleges (1963–65) designed by Stirrat Johnson-Marshall
and Andrew Derbyshire of Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshall &
Partners. The reinforced concrete of the Central Hall gives a contrast to
the colleges, which were the first university buildings built using the
CLASP prefabricated system originally developed for school buildings.
:
 The same architectural practice would go on to build the universities of
Bath, Stirling and Ulster.[79] The Grade II listed lecture block at Brunel
University (John Heywood of Richard Sheppard, Robson and Partners;
1965–68) was used as a location in Stanley Kubrick's 1971 film A
Clockwork Orange.[80] The central campus complex of the University of
Essex (1964) was designed by Kenneth Capon of the Architects' Co-
Partnership, with complementary concrete extensions by Patel Taylor
matching the brutalist aesthetic in 2015.[81]

Kingsgate Bridge (1963) and

Dunelm House (1966), Durham
University

A notable pairing of brutalist campus buildings is found at Durham

University, with Ove Arup's Grade I-listed Kingsgate Bridge (1963), one
of only six post-1961 buildings to have been listed as Grade I by
2017,[82][83] and the Grade II-listed Dunelm House (Richard Raines of
the Architects' Co-Partnership with Michael Powers as the partner-in-
charge; 1964–66), described in its listing as "the foremost students'
union building of the post-war era in England" but only saved from
demolition in 2021 following a five-year campaign by the Twentieth
Century Society.[84][85][86][87] Dunelm House was designed to reflect
the vernacular architecture of the city in the way its multiple levels
cascade down the river bank, breaking up the bulk of the
building.[63][88][89][90] This lead Pevsner to describe it as "Brutal by
tradition but not brutal to the landscape"[91] and to it being praised as a
brutalist building that works well in its setting even by opponents of the
style.[92]

One of the earliest brutalist buildings in the US was Paul Rudolph's 1963
:
 Art and Architecture Building at Yale University where, as department
chair, he was both client and architect, giving him a unique freedom to
explore new directions.[93] Rudolph's 1964 design for the University of
Massachusetts Dartmouth is a rare example of an entire campus
designed in the brutalist style,[94] and was considered by him to be "the
most complete realisation of his experiments with urbanism and
monumentality".[95] Walter Netsch similarly designed the entire
University of Illinois-Chicago Circle Campus (now the East Campus of
the University of Illinois at Chicago) under a single, unified brutalist
design.[96] Netsch also designed the brutalist Joseph Regenstein
Library for the University of Chicago[97] and the Northwestern
University Library.[98] Crafton Hills College in California was designed
by desert modern architect E. Stewart Williams in 1965 and built
between 1966 and 1976. Williams' brutalist design contrasts with the
steep terrain of the area and was chosen in part because it provided a
firebreak from the surrounding environment.[99]

William Pereira's Geisel Library

(1970), University of California, San
Diego

One of the most famous brutalist buildings in the United States is Geisel
Library at the University of California, San Diego.[100][101] Designed by
William Pereira and built 1969–70, it is said to "occup[y] a fascinating
nexus between brutalism and futurism" but was originally intended as a
modernist building in steel and glass before cost considerations meant
the structural elements were redesigned in concrete and moved to the
outside of the building.[102] Evans Woollen III's brutalist Clowes
Memorial Hall, a performing arts facility that opened in 1963 on the
:
 campus of Butler University in Indianapolis, was praised for its bold and
dramatic design.[103] The University of Minnesota's West Bank campus
features the Rarig Center, a performing arts venue by Ralph Rapson
from 1971 that has been called "the best example in the Twin Cities of
the style called Brutalism".[104] Faner Hall at Southern Illinois University
Carbondale has long been controversial for its use of brutalism and has
been considered an eyesore on campus,[105] deemed to have a "facade
only a mother could love" by the university itself.[106]

The Joseph Mark Lauinger Library, the main library of the Georgetown
University Library System, was designed by John Carl Warnecke and
opened in 1970. Originally conceived with a traditional design similar to
other buildings at Georgetown University,[107] the final design of the
Lauinger Library embraces brutalism and was intended as a modern
interpretation of the nearby Healy Hall, a Flemish Romanesque
building.[108] The building once received the Award of Merit by the
American Institute of Architects in 1976 for distinguished
accomplishment in library architecture.[107] However, in recent years, as
public attitudes towards brutalism have shifted, the library has been
referred to as one of the "ugliest" buildings in Georgetown and
Washington, D.C.[109][110][111]

The Robarts Library (1974),

University of Toronto

Examples of brutalist university campuses can be found in other

countries as well. The Robarts Library at the University of Toronto was
designed by Warner, Burns, Toan & Lunde and built between 1968 and
1973. Although it has been called "a crowning achievement of the
:
 brutalist movement", its opening in 1974 came after public sentiment
had turned against brutalism, leading to it being condemned as "a
blunder on the grandest scale".[112] Rand Afrikaans University in
Johannesburg, South Africa (now Kingsway Campus Auckland Park,
University of Johannesburg) is largely brutalist, designed as an
expression of Afrikaans identity.[113][114] Several universities in
Southeast Asia also feature brutalist designs, including those at the Ho
Chi Minh City Medicine and Pharmaceutical University, the Royal
University of Phnom Penh, and the Industrial College of Hue.[115]

Reception

The Queen Elizabeth Square flats

(1962) in Glasgow were demolished
in 1993.

A 2014 article in The Economist noted its unpopularity with the public,
observing that a campaign to demolish a building will usually be
directed against a brutalist one.[116] According to Simon Jenkins, "Few
styles in history can have been met with so many pleas from its users to
see it destroyed."[117] In 2005, the British TV programme Demolition ran
a public vote to select twelve buildings that ought to be demolished,
and eight of those selected were brutalist buildings.[117]

One argument is that this criticism exists in part because concrete

façades do not age well in damp, cloudy maritime climates such as
those of northwestern Europe and New England. In these climates, the
:
 concrete becomes streaked with water stains and sometimes with moss
and lichen, and rust stains from the steel reinforcing bars.[118]

Critics of the style find it unappealing due to its "cold" appearance,

projecting an atmosphere of totalitarianism, as well as the association of
the buildings with urban decay due to materials weathering poorly in
certain climates and the surfaces being prone to vandalism by graffiti.
Despite this, the style is appreciated by others, and preservation efforts
are taking place in the United Kingdom.[26][119]

In the 21st century

After two unsuccessful proposals to

demolish Preston bus station (1969,
Lancashire, UK), it gained Grade II
listed building status in September
2013.

Although the Brutalist movement was largely over by the late 1970s and
early 1980s, having largely given way to Structural Expressionism and
Deconstructivism, it has experienced a resurgence of interest since
2015 with the publication of a variety of guides and books, including
Brutal London (Zupagrafika, 2015), Brutalist London Map (2015), This
Brutal World (2016), SOS Brutalism: A Global Survey (2017), and the
lavish Atlas of Brutalist Architecture (Phaidon, 2018).

Many of the defining aspects of the style have been softened in newer
buildings, with concrete façades often being sandblasted to create a
stone-like surface, covered in stucco, or composed of patterned,
:
 precast elements. These elements are also found in renovations of older
Brutalist buildings, such as the redevelopment of Sheffield's Park Hill.
However, board-marked concrete in the brutalist tradition is still used in
some developments, such as the neobrutalist Silberrad Student Centre
and library extension at the University of Essex, designed to be
sympathetic to the existing 1960s brutalist campus buildings and taking
"the opportunity to use in-situ brutalist concrete as a sensitive
contextual material".[120][121]

The neobrutalist Silberrad Student

Centre (2015) at the University of
Essex

Villa Göth was listed as historically significant by the Uppsala county

administrative board on 3 March 1995.[122] Several brutalist buildings in
the United Kingdom have been granted listed status as historic, and
others, such as Gillespie, Kidd & Coia's St. Peter's Seminary, named by
Prospect magazine's survey of architects as Scotland's greatest post-
war building, have been the subject of conservation campaigns. Similar
buildings in the United States have been recognized, such as the Pirelli
Tire Building in New Haven's Long Wharf.[123] The Twentieth Century
Society has unsuccessfully campaigned against the demolition of
British buildings such as the Tricorn Centre and Trinity Square multi-
storey car park, made famous by its prominent role in the film Get
Carter, but successfully in the case of Preston bus station garage,
London's Hayward Gallery, and others.

Notable buildings that have been demolished include the Smithsons'

Robin Hood Gardens (2017) in East London, John Madin's Birmingham
:
 Central Library (2016), Marcel Breuer's American Press Institute
Building in Reston, Virginia, Araldo Cossutta's Third Church of Christ,
Scientist in Washington, D.C. (2014), and the Welbeck Street car park in
London (2019).

See also

Utopian architecture
List of Brutalist structures

References

1. "Reclaiming Polish
Brutalism: Discover the
Emblems of Communism" (
https://www.archdaily.com/
904788/reclaiming-polish-
brutalism-discover-the-emb
lems-of-communism) .
:
 lems-of-communism) .
ArchDaily. 28 October
2018. Retrieved 18 October
2023.
2. Larsson, Naomi (6 August
2023). "Socialist
modernism: remembering
the architecture of the
eastern bloc" (https://www.t
heguardian.com/cities/2018
/aug/06/socialist-modernis
m-remembering-the-archite
cture-of-the-eastern-bloc) .
The Guardian. ISSN 0261-
3077 (https://search.worldc
at.org/issn/0261-3077) .
:
 at.org/issn/0261-3077) .
Retrieved 18 October 2023.
3. "Definition of BRUTALISM"
(https://www.merriam-webs
ter.com/dictionary/brutalism
) . www.merriam-
webster.com. Retrieved
11 July 2019.
4. Bull, Alun (8 November
2013), What is Brutalism? (
https://vimeo.com/7893126
8) , retrieved 10 October
2018
5. Đorđe, Alfirević &
Simonović Alfirević, Sanja:
Brutalism in Serbian
:
 Brutalism in Serbian
Architecture: Style or
Necessity? (https://www.ac
ademia.edu/31574816/Brut
alism_in_Serbian_Architect
ure_Style_or_Necessity_Bru
talizam_u_srpskoj_arhitektu
ri_stil_ili_nu%C5%BEnost_
) Facta Universitatis:
Architecture and Civil
Engineering (Niš), Vol. 15,
No. 3 (2017), pp. 317–331.
6. Hopkins, Owen (10
September 2014). "The
Dezeen guide to Brutalist
architecture" (https://www.d
:
 ezeen.com/2014/09/10/dez
een-guide-to-brutalist-archi
tecture-owen-hopkins/) .
Dezeen. Retrieved 19 April
2020.
7. Editorial Staff. "Brutalist
architecture – a
retrospective" (https://www.
architectureanddesign.com.
au/features/list/a-look-at-br
utalist-architecture) .
Architecture and Design.
Retrieved 19 April 2020.
8. "Brutalist Architecture
London | A Guide To
:
 Brutalism" (https://20bedfor
dway.com/news/guide-to-b
rutalist-architecture-london
/) . 20 Bedford Way. 23
June 2014. Retrieved
11 May 2020.
9. Harwood, Elain. "The
concrete truth? Brutalism
can be beautiful" (https://w
ww.bbc.co.uk/programmes/
articles/2KYNVdPBLTYC99
f18wsZPQy/the-concrete-tr
uth-brutalism-can-be-beaut
iful) . BBC Arts. Retrieved
11 May 2020.
:
 10. Rasmus Wærn (2001).
Guide till Sveriges
Arkitektur : Byggnadskonst
Under 1000 År. Stockholm:
Arkitektur Förlag.
ISBN 9789186050559.
11. Hans Asplund's letter to
Eric De Mare, Architectural
Review, August 1956
12. The New Brutalism, Reyner
Banham, Architectural
Press, London 1966, p10
13. Banham, Reyner (9
December 1955). "The New
Brutalism" (https://medium.
:
 com/on-architecture-1/the-
new-brutalism-660146333
6e8) . Architectural Review.
Retrieved 10 October 2018
– via On Architecture.
14. Snyder, Michael (15 August
2019). "The Unexpectedly
Tropical History of
Brutalism" (https://www.nyti
mes.com/2019/08/15/t-ma
gazine/tropical-brutalism.ht
ml) . The New York Times.
Retrieved 11 May 2020.
15. "A Movement in a Moment:
Brutalism | Architecture |
:
 Agenda" (https://www.phaid
on.com/agenda/architectur
e/articles/2016/march/23/a
-movement-in-a-moment-b
rutalism/) . Phaidon.
Retrieved 11 May 2020.
16. Andrei, Mihai (15 May
2022). "Brutalist
architecture and its unusual,
raw appeal" (https://www.z
mescience.com/feature-pos
t/culture/culture-society/br
utalist-architecture-and-its-
unusual-raw-appeal/) . ZME
Science. Retrieved
18 October 2023.
:
 18 October 2023.
17. Plitt, Amy (11 November
2019). "The history of
Brutalist architecture in
NYC affordable housing" (ht
tps://ny.curbed.com/2019/1
1/11/20959515/nyc-archite
cture-brutalism-affordable-
housing-mitchell-lama) .
Curbed NY. Retrieved
30 April 2020.
18. Levanier, Johnny (30 June
2021). "Brutalism in design:
its history and evolution in
modern websites" (https://9
9designs.com/blog/design-
:
 9designs.com/blog/design-
history-movements/brutalis
m/) . 99designs.
19. Meades, Jonathan (13
February 2014). "The
incredible hulks: Jonathan
Meades' A-Z of brutalism" (
https://www.theguardian.co
m/artanddesign/2014/feb/1
3/jonathan-meades-brutalis
m-a-z) . The Guardian.
Retrieved 10 October 2018.
20. "Edman, Bengt (1921–
2000)" (https://digitaltmus
eum.org/011034076087/e
dman-bengt-1921-2000) .
:
 dman-bengt-1921-2000) .
digitaltmuseum.org.
Retrieved 27 April 2020.
21. Vidler, Anthony (October
2011). "Another Brick in the
Wall" (https://www.jstor.org
/stable/23014873) .
October. 136: 105–132.
doi:10.1162/OCTO_a_0004
4 (https://doi.org/10.1162%
2FOCTO_a_00044) .
JSTOR 23014873 (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/23014
873) . S2CID 57560154 (ht
tps://api.semanticscholar.or
g/CorpusID:57560154) .
:
 g/CorpusID:57560154) .
22. The New Brutalism, Reyner
Banham, Architectural
Press, London 1966, p. 19
23. Brutalism: Post-War British
Architecture, Alexander
Clement, Second Edition,
Chapter 3
24. Johnson, Philip (19 August
1954). "School at
Hunstanton, Norfolk, by
Alison and Peter Smithson"
(https://www.architectural-r
eview.com/buildings/1954-
august-school-at-hunstanto
n-norfolk-by-alison-and-pet
:
 n-norfolk-by-alison-and-pet
er-smithson/8625095.articl
e) . Architectural Review.
Retrieved 24 September
2019.
25. McClelland, Michael, and
Graeme Stewart, "Concrete
Toronto (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=GQwx1So
rMocC&q=beton) : A Guide
to Concrete Architecture
from the Fifties to the
Seventies, Coach House
Books, 2007, p. 12.
26. British Brutalism. (http://ww
w.wmf.org/project/british-br
:
 w.wmf.org/project/british-br
utalism) World Monument
Fund.
27. "Historian of the Immediate
Future: Reyner Banham –
Book Review Art Bulletin,
The – Find Articles" (https://
web.archive.org/web/2007
0830232044/http://findarti
cles.com/p/articles/mi_m04
22/is_2_85/ai_104208984/
pg_3) . 30 August 2007.
Archived from the original (
http://findarticles.com/p/arti
cles/mi_m0422/is_2_85/ai_
104208984/pg_3) on 30
:
 104208984/pg_3) on 30
August 2007. Retrieved
4 July 2019.
28. The New Brutalism, Reyner
Banham, Architectural
Press, London 1966 p. 16
29. Banham, Reyner (1966).
The New Brutalism. London:
Architectural Press. p. 41.
30. Goodwin, Dario (22 June
2017). "Spotlight: Alison
and Peter Smithson" (https:
//www.archdaily.com/64512
8/spotlight-alison-and-pete
r-smithson) .
www.archdaily.com.
:
 www.archdaily.com.
31. Heuvel, Dirk van den (4
March 2015). "Between
Brutalists. The Banham
Hypothesis and the
Smithson Way of Life" (http:
//resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:06
2a1bed-804e-4af6-8a30-5
e5a9122002d) . The
Journal of Architecture. 20
(2): 293–308.
doi:10.1080/13602365.201
5.1027721 (https://doi.org/1
0.1080%2F13602365.201
5.1027721) . ISSN 1360-
2365 (https://search.worldc
:
 2365 (https://search.worldc
at.org/issn/1360-2365) .
S2CID 219641726 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/Cor
pusID:219641726) .
32. Rasmus Wærn (2001).
Guide till Sveriges
Arkitektur: Byggnadskonst
Under 1000 År. Stockholm:
Arkitektur Förlag.
ISBN 9789186050559.
33. Hans Ulrich Obrist,
Smithson Time (Cologne,
Verlag der Buch- handlung
Walther König, 2004), p. 17
34. A. and P. Smithson, 'The "As
:
 34. A. and P. Smithson, 'The "As
Found" and the "Found", in,
D. Robbins, ed., The
Independent Group, op. cit.,
p. 201.
35. Published Letter, John
Voelcker, Architectural
Design, June 1957
36. Davies, Colin (2017). A New
History of Modern
Architecture. London:
Laurence King Publishing.
p. 277. ISBN 978-1-78627-
056-6.
37. Dutton, John (26 July
2013). "Featured Plan:
:
 2013). "Featured Plan:
Smithsons' Golden Lane
Project (1952) – GRIDS
blog" (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20210613101420/h
ttp://www.grids-blog.com/w
ordpress/plan-of-the-mont
h-smithsons-golden-lane-p
roject-1952/) . GRIDS blog.
USC School of Architecture.
Archived from the original (
http://www.grids-blog.com/
wordpress/plan-of-the-mon
th-smithsons-golden-lane-
project-1952/) on 13 June
2021. Retrieved
:
 11 November 2017.
38. Kulić, Vladimir; Mrduljaš,
Maroje; Thaler, Wolfgang
(2012). Modernism In-
Between: The Mediatory
Architectures of Socialist
Yugoslavia. Berlin: Jovis.
ISBN 978-3-86859-147-7.
39. Simon Henley (18 October
2019). "Brickalism" (https://
books.google.com/books?id
=icO3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT9
6) . Redefining Brutalism.
Routledge. pp. 96 et seq.
ISBN 978-1-000-70138-8.
:
 40. James Taylor-Foster (3
August 2015). "London's
Brutalist British Library
Given 'Listed' Status" (https
://www.archdaily.com/7712
30/londons-brutalist-british
-library-given-listed-
status) . Arch Daily.
41. The Rough Guide to London
(https://books.google.com/
books?id=ohDfCgAAQBAJ
&pg=PT192) . Penguin.
2016. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-
241-25841-5.
42. Paiement, Genevieve:
:
 42. Paiement, Genevieve:
Habitat 67, Montreal's
'failed dream' – a history of
cities in 50 buildings, day
35. (https://www.theguardia
n.com/cities/2015/may/13/
habitat-67-montreal-expo-
moshe-safdie-history-cities
-50-buildings-day-35) The
Guardian, 13 May 2015.
Retrieved 3 June 2017.
43. "Architects: Brutalism" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20
160911004502/http://www
.circadesign.net/brutalism/
) . Circa Design. Archived
:
 from the original on 11
September 2016. Retrieved
28 August 2016.
44. Trounstine, Philip J. (9 May
1976). "Evans Woollen".
[Indianapolis] Star
Magazine. Indianapolis,
Indiana: 18. See also:
"Prominent local architect
Woollen Dies at 88" (https:/
/www.ibj.com/articles/5867
3) . Indianapolis Business
Journal. Indianapolis. 19
May 2016. Retrieved
18 December 2017.
:
 45. Jordy, William (1972). The
Impact of European
Modernism in the Mid-
twentieth Century (https://a
rchive.org/details/american
building00will/page/363) .
American Buildings and
Their Architects. Vol. 5.
New York, Oxford: Oxford
University Press. p. 363 (htt
ps://archive.org/details/ame
ricanbuilding00will/page/3
63) . ISBN 0-19-504219-0.
46. Farrelly, Elizabeth (9
October 2010). "Watch this
space – Brutalism meets
:
 space – Brutalism meets
beauty in the National
Gallery's new wing". The
Sydney Morning Herald,
Spectrum supplement.
pp. 16–17.
47. "50 years on, nearly 900
centennial buildings still a
symbol of national unity |
CBC News" (https://www.cb
c.ca/news/canada/centenni
al-buildings-50th-anniversa
ry-1.3654283) . CBC.
Retrieved 31 March 2021.
48. "Brutalist Architecture in
Winnipeg" (http://www.winn
:
 Winnipeg" (http://www.winn
ipegarchitecture.ca/wp-con
tent/uploads/2012/08/WAF
_BrutalistArchitectureInWin
nipeg.pdf) (PDF). Winnipeg
Architecture Foundation.
49. Waldron, Andrew (2010).
"Manitoba Theatre Centre,
174 Market Avenue,
Winnipeg, Manitoba" (https:
//dalspace.library.dal.ca/bits
tream/handle/10222/6532
9/vol35_no2_63_80.pdf?se
quence=1) (PDF). The
Journal of the Society for
the Study of Architecture in
:
 the Study of Architecture in
Canada. 35 (2): 63–80.
50. Sciarpelletti, Laura (29 June
2019). "Reflecting on the
designs and legacy of
architect and urban planner
Arthur Erickson" (https://ww
w.cbc.ca/news/canada/briti
sh-columbia/reflecting-on-t
he-designs-and-legacy-of-
architect-and-urban-planne
r-arthur-erickson-1.519213
3) . CBC.
51. "Centar za stanovanje –
Center for Housing" (http://
stanovanje.yolasite.com/kat
:
 stanovanje.yolasite.com/kat
alog-stanova.php) .
stanovanje.yolasite.com.
Retrieved 14 July 2017.
52. "Centar za stanovanje –
Center for Housing" (http://
stanovanje.yolasite.com/beo
gradski-stan.php) .
stanovanje.yolasite.com.
Retrieved 14 July 2017.
53. "Genex Tower, Belgrade" (ht
tps://www.emporis.com/buil
dings/110978/genex-tower-
belgrade-serbia) .
EMPORIS. Retrieved
22 July 2017.
:
 22 July 2017.
54. Daliborka Mučibabić (8 May
2019). "Архитеĸте траже
заштиту Западне ĸапије" (
http://www.politika.rs/sr/cla
nak/429066/Beograd/Arhit
ekte-traze-zastitu)
[Architects ask for the
protection of the Western
Gate]. Politika (in Serbian).
p. 15.
55. Vũ, Hiệp (19 October
2021). "Isakovich và sự biến
đổi kiến trúc Liên Xô ở Việt
Nam" (http://tapchisonghuo
ng.com.vn/tap-chi/c455/n3
:
 ng.com.vn/tap-chi/c455/n3
0813/Isakovich-va-su-bien-
doi-kien-truc-Lien-Xo-o-Vie
t-Nam.html) [Isakovich and
the evolution of Soviet
architecture in Vietnam].
Tạp chí Sông Hương.
Retrieved 13 May 2023.
56. Vũ, Hiệp (13 September
2021). "KTS Garol Isakovich
và những công trình thời
bao cấp ở Hà Nội – Hội Kiến
Trúc Sư Việt Nam" (https://k
ienviet.net/2021/09/13/kts-
garol-isakovich-va-nhung-c
ong-trinh-thoi-bao-cap-o-h
:
 a-noi/) . Kiến Việt (in
Vietnamese). Retrieved
13 May 2023.
57. Jain, Kripa (13 December
2020). "10 Reasons why
architects must visit
Vietnam" (https://www.re-th
inkingthefuture.com/2020/1
2/13/a2375-10-reasons-wh
y-architects-must-visit-viet
nam/) . Rethinking The
Future. Retrieved 14 May
2023.
58. Paul, Suneet (3 February
2023). "Vietnam: People
:
 with Resilience and Grit" (ht
tps://architecture.live/vietna
m-people-with-resilience-a
nd-grit-from-architect-sune
et-pauls-travelogue/) .
ArchitectureLive. Retrieved
14 May 2023.
59. Thuan, Nguyen (23 June
2016). "Ngô Viết Thụ -
Người tạo nên biểu tượng
Dinh Độc Lập cho Sài Gòn"
(https://designs.vn/ngo-viet
-thu-nguoi-tao-nen-bieu-tu
ong-dinh-doc-lap-cho-sai-
gon/) . designs.vn (in
Vietnamese). Retrieved
:
 Vietnamese). Retrieved
14 May 2023.
60. "Southern Vietnamese
Modernist Architecture is
the Antithesis of Brutalism"
(https://blog.architecturevie
tnam.com/2019/05/souther
n-vietnamese-modernist-ar
chitecture-is-the-antithesis-
of-brutalism.html) .
Architecture Vietnam. 12
May 2019. Retrieved
14 May 2023.
61. "Phong cách nhà 'như lô
cốt' trở lại" (https://zingnew
s.vn/zingnews-post140846
:
 s.vn/zingnews-post140846
2.html) . ZingNews.vn (in
Vietnamese). 7 March
2023. Retrieved 14 May
2023.
62. Historic England. "ST
JOHNS COLLEGE, THE
BEEHIVES (Grade II)
(1278860)" (https://Historic
England.org.uk/listing/the-li
st/list-entry/1278860?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
15 February 2023.
63. Adrian Green. "Durham's
:
 63. Adrian Green. "Durham's
Modern Moment – Creating
Human Community in
Dunelm House and on
Kingsgate Bridge" (https://
www.durham.ac.uk/media/d
urham-university/research-/
research-centres/visual-art
s-and-cultures-centre-for-c
vac/Durhams-Modern-Mom
ent-%C3%A2%C2%80%C
2%93-Creating-Human-Co
mmunity-in-Dunelm-House
-and-on-Kingsgate-Bridge.
pdf) (PDF). Durham
University. Retrieved
:
 University. Retrieved
25 February 2025.
64. Historic England. "Nos. 1-12
Scroope Terrace, the 1959
rear extension to no. 1
Scroope Terrace and the
railings to the front. (Grade
II) (1049092)" (https://Hist
oricEngland.org.uk/listing/th
e-list/list-entry/1049092?s
ection=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
15 February 2023.
65. "Cambridge in Concrete:
the boom years of
:
 the boom years of
Brutalism" (https://www.ca
m.ac.uk/research/news/cam
bridge-in-concrete-the-boo
m-years-of-brutalism) .
University of Cambridge. 3
May 2012. Retrieved
13 February 2023.
66. Historic England.
"Cambridge University
Centre (Grade II)
(1407952)" (https://Historic
England.org.uk/listing/the-li
st/list-entry/1407952?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
:
 England. Retrieved
13 February 2023.
67. Historic England. "Central
buildings Churchill
College (Grade II)
(1227706)" (https://Historic
England.org.uk/listing/the-li
st/list-entry/1227706?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
13 February 2023.
68. Historic England. "History
Faculty Building (Grade II*)
(1380217)" (https://Historic
:
 England.org.uk/listing/the-li
st/list-entry/1380217?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
13 February 2023.
69. Historic England.
"ENGINEERING BUILDING,
UNIVERSITY OF
LEICESTER (Grade II*)
(1074756)" (https://Historic
England.org.uk/listing/the-li
st/list-entry/1074756?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
:
 England. Retrieved
15 February 2023.
70. "University of Leicester
Engineering Building" (https
://www.storyofleicester.info/
leisure-entertainment/unive
rsity-of-leicester-engineerin
g-building/) . Story of
Leicester. Leicester City
Council. Retrieved
25 February 2024.
71. Historic England. "Florey
Building with attached walls
and abutments (Grade II*)
(1393211)" (https://Historic
England.org.uk/listing/the-li
:
 England.org.uk/listing/the-li
st/list-entry/1393211?sectio
n=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
15 February 2023.
72. Christopher Breward; Fiona
Fisher; Ghislaine Wood (22
October 2015). British
Design: Tradition and
Modernity after 1948 (https
://books.google.com/books
?id=93MpCgAAQBAJ&pg=
PA106) . Bloomsbury
Publishing. pp. 106–107.
ISBN 978-1-4742-5622-3.
:
 ISBN 978-1-4742-5622-3.
73. "Brutalism" (https://www.ar
chitecture.com/explore-arc
hitecture/brutalism) . RIBA.
Retrieved 16 February
2023.
74. Historic England. "FALMER
HOUSE INCLUDING MOAT
WITHIN
COURTYARD (Grade II*)
(1381044)" (https://Historic
England.org.uk/listing/the-li
st/list-entry/1381044?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
:
 England. Retrieved
13 February 2023.
75. John Allan (2022).
Revaluing Modern
Architecture: Changing
conservation culture (https:/
/books.google.com/books?i
d=pp9hEAAAQBAJ&pg=SA
1-PA111) . RIBA Publishing.
p. 111. ISBN 978-1-000-
56466-2.
76. Historic England. "Norfolk
Terrace and attached
walkways, at the University
of East Anglia (Grade II*)
(1390647)" (https://Historic
:
 (1390647)" (https://Historic
England.org.uk/listing/the-li
st/list-entry/1390647?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
13 February 2023. –
Historic England. "Suffolk
Terrace and adjoining
walkway and stairs to rear,
at the University of East
Anglia (Grade II*)
(1390646)" (https://Histori
cEngland.org.uk/listing/the-l
ist/list-entry/1390646?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
:
 National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
25 February 2025. –
Historic England. "LIBRARY
AND ATTACHED STAIRS
TO GROUNDS AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF EAST
ANGLIA (Grade II)
(1390649)" (https://Histori
cEngland.org.uk/listing/the-l
ist/list-entry/1390649?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
25 February 2025. –
Historic England. "Teaching
:
 Historic England. "Teaching
Wall and raised concourse,
with attached walkways, at
University of East Anglia,
Earlham Road (Grade II)
(1390648)" (https://Histori
cEngland.org.uk/listing/the-l
ist/list-entry/1390648?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
25 February 2025.
77. Andy Trigg (3 June 2024).
"Uni spends £2m fixing
Raac but some halls stay
shut" (https://www.bbc.com
:
 shut" (https://www.bbc.com
/news/articles/c2559k27ylq
o) . BBC News.
78. David Hannant (15 February
2025). "What next for the
University of East Anglia's
ziggurats?" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/2025021617
3709/https://www.eveningn
ews24.co.uk/news/249267
99.next-university-east-ang
lias-ziggurats/) . Norwich
Evening News. Archived
from the original (https://ww
w.eveningnews24.co.uk/ne
ws/24926799.next-universi
:
 ty-east-anglias-ziggurats/)
on 16 February 2025.
79. Historic England. "Central
Hall, University of
York (Grade II) (1456551)" (
https://HistoricEngland.org.
uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1
456551?section=official-list
-entry) . National Heritage
List for England. Retrieved
13 February 2023. –
Historic England. "Former
Langwith College,
University of York (Grade II)
(1457043)" (https://Historic
:
 England.org.uk/listing/the-li
st/list-entry/1457043?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
13 February 2023. –
Historic England. "Derwent
College, University of
York (Grade II) (1457040)" (
https://HistoricEngland.org.
uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1
457040?section=official-lis
t-entry) . National Heritage
List for England. Retrieved
13 February 2023.
80. Historic England. "Lecture
:
 80. Historic England. "Lecture
Theatre Block, Brunel
University (Grade II)
(1400162)" (https://Historic
England.org.uk/listing/the-li
st/list-entry/1400162?secti
on=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
13 February 2023.
81. Jan-Carlos Kucharek (7
September 2016).
"University of Essex" (https:
//www.ribaj.com/products/u
niversity-of-essex) . RIBA
Journal.
:
 Journal.
82. "England's youngest Grade
I listed structures" (https://
www.bbc.com/news/uk-40
628918) . BBC News. 17
July 2017.
83. Historic England.
"Kingsgate Bridge (Grade I)
(1119766)" (https://Historic
England.org.uk/listing/the-li
st/list-entry/1119766?sectio
n=official-list-entry) .
National Heritage List for
England. Retrieved
13 February 2023.
84. Peter Watts (17 October
:
 84. Peter Watts (17 October
2018). " 'No other Grade I
listed buildings would be
treated with such disdain':
why Britain's brutalist gems
are under threat" (https://w
ww.telegraph.co.uk/propert
y/uk/no-grade-listed-buildin
gs-would-treated-disdain-b
ritains-brutalist/) . The
Telegraph.
85. Engelbrecht, Gavin (9 July
2021). "Durham
University's Brutalist
student building gets Grade
II listed status" (https://www
:
 II listed status" (https://www
.thenorthernecho.co.uk/new
s/19431610.durham-univer
sitys-brutalist-student-build
ing-gets-grade-ii-listed-stat
us/) . The Northern Echo.
86. Rowan Moore (12 February
2017). "Save Dunelm House
from the wrecking ball" (htt
ps://www.theguardian.com/
artanddesign/2017/feb/12/d
urham-university-dunelm-h
ouse-threat-of-demolition-b
rutalism) . The Guardian.
87. Historic England. "Dunelm
House including landing
:
 House including landing
stage, steps and attached
walls (Grade II) (1477064)"
(https://HistoricEngland.org
.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/
1477064?section=official-li
st-entry) . National Heritage
List for England. Retrieved
13 February 2023.
88. "About Town" (https://durha
mcity.org/wp-content/uploa
ds/2020/05/Bulletin-82.pd
f) (PDF). Bulletin. No. 82.
City of Durham Trust.
Spring 2017. p. 4.
89. Douglas Pocock (2013).
:
 89. Douglas Pocock (2013).
The Story of Durham (https:
//books.google.com/books?i
d=cScTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA
101-IA3) . The History
Press. pp. 101–102.
ISBN 978-0-7509-5300-9.
90. John Allan (2022). "Case
Study 4: Dunelm House,
Durham" (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=pp9hEA
AAQBAJ&pg=SA1-PA113) .
Revaluing Modern
Architecture: Changing
conservation culture. RIBA
Publishing. pp. 113–122.
:
 ISBN 978-1-000-56466-2.
91. Nikolaus Pevsner; Elizabeth
Williamson (1983). County
Durham (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=ZjHcM_L
XhjEC&pg=PA233) . Yale
University Press. p. 233.
ISBN 0-300-09599-6.
92. Niall Gooch (1 April 2022).
"Good Riddance to Britain's
Brutalist Architecture" (http
s://unherd.com/newsroom/
good-riddance-to-britains-
brutalist-architecture/) .
UnHerd.
:
 93. Jessica Mairs (26
September 2014). "Brutalist
buildings: Yale Art and
Architecture Building,
Connecticut by Paul
Rudolph" (https://www.deze
en.com/2014/09/26/yale-a
rt-and-architecture-building
-paul-rudolph-brutalism/) .
Dezeen.
94. Eric Sousa (2 November
2018). "UMass Dartmouth's
Brutalist Style is brutal" (htt
ps://umassdtorch.com/201
8/11/02/umass-dartmouths
:
 -brutalist-style-is-brutal/) .
The Torch.
95. Paul Rohan (10 July 2014).
The Architecture of Paul
Rudolph (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=MkmPAw
AAQBAJ) . Yale University
Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-
300-14939-5.
96. "Historic Netsch Campus at
UIC" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20100527164432/h
ttp://www.uic.edu/depts/oa
a/walkingtour/Netsch_Walki
ng_Tour_03.pdf) (PDF).
:
 Archived from the original (
http://www.uic.edu/depts/o
aa/walkingtour/Netsch_Wal
king_Tour_03.pdf) (PDF)
on 27 May 2010. Retrieved
31 December 2010.
97. "Joseph Regenstein
Library" (https://architectur
e.uchicago.edu/locations/jo
seph_regenstein_library/) .
Architecture at the
University of Chicago.
Retrieved 14 February
2023.
98. "University Library" (https://
www.library.northwestern.e
:
 www.library.northwestern.e
du/libraries-collections/univ
ersity-library/) .
Northwestern. Retrieved
14 February 2023.
99. Kopelk, William (2005). E.
Stewart Williams: A Tribute
to His Work and Life. Palm
Springs, CA: Palm Springs
Preservation Foundation.
100. Brad Dunning (29 August
2019). "The 9 Brutalist
Wonders of the
Architecture World" (https:/
/www.gq.com/story/9-bruta
list-wonders-of-the-archite
:
 list-wonders-of-the-archite
cture-world) . GQ.
101. Jessica Cherner (6 April
2022). "The 17 Most
Beautiful Brutalist Buildings
in the World" (https://www.a
rchitecturaldigest.com/galle
ry/most-beautiful-brutalist-
buildings-world) .
Architectural Digest.
102. David Langdon (11
November 2014). "AD
Classics: Geisel Library /
William L. Pereira &
Associates" (https://www.ar
chdaily.com/566563/ad-cla
:
 chdaily.com/566563/ad-cla
ssics-geisel-library-william-l
-pereira-and-associates) .
Arch Daily. Retrieved
15 February 2023.
103. Megan Fernandez (June
2010). "The Pillar: Evans
Woollen" (https://www.india
napolismonthly.com/feature
s/the-pillar-evans-
woollen/) . Indianapolis
Monthly. Indianapolis,
Indiana: 68. Retrieved
18 December 2017. See
also: Philip J. Trounstine (9
May 1976). "Evans Woollen:
:
 May 1976). "Evans Woollen:
Struggles of a 'Good
Architect' ". [Indianapolis]
Star Magazine. Indianapolis,
Indiana: 23.
104. Millett, Larry (2007). AIA
Guide to the Twin Cities (htt
ps://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=T9axsT5T8fcC&pg=
PA148) . Saint Paul,
Minnesota: Minnesota
Historical Society. p. 148.
ISBN 978-0-87351-540-5.
105. O'Dell, Les (18 March
2022). "SIU's Faner Hall
myths and mystique" (https:
:
 myths and mystique" (https:
//thesouthern.com/news/loc
al/siu/sius-faner-hall-myths
-and-mystique/article_a57d
9678-42e5-5f31-936f-80c
dd3a8efe3.html) . Southern
Illinoisan. Retrieved 9 April
2024.
106. "About Faner Hall | College
of Liberal Arts | SIU" (https:
//cola.siu.edu//about/faner-
hall.php) . College of Liberal
Arts. Retrieved 9 April
2024.
107. "Eight Things You May (or
May Not) Know about
:
 May Not) Know about
Lauinger Library" (https://lib
rary.georgetown.edu/exhibit
ion/eight-things-you-may-o
r-may-not-know-about-laui
nger-library) . Georgetown
University Library. 3
February 2020. Retrieved
13 May 2023.
108. Giesemann, Suzanne R.
(2009). The Priest and the
Medium. Hay House Inc.
p. 73. ISBN 978-1-4019-
2615-1.
109. Curran, Pat (29 August
2014). "Lauinger: The Past,
:
 2014). "Lauinger: The Past,
Present and Future of
Georgetown's 'Ugly'
Library" (https://thehoya.co
m/lauinger/) . The Hoya.
Retrieved 13 May 2023.
110. "Love for Lau" (https://librar
y.georgetown.edu/showcas
e/entries/love-lau) .
Georgetown University
Library. Retrieved 13 May
2023.
111. Garfield, Leanna. "The
ugliest building in every US
state, according to people
who live there" (https://ww
:
 who live there" (https://ww
w.businessinsider.com/uglie
st-buildings-in-the-us-2018
-1) . Business Insider.
Retrieved 13 May 2023.
112. David Langdon (9 March
2015). "AD Classics:
Robarts Library / Warner,
Burns, Toan & Lunde" (https
://www.archdaily.com/6053
38/ad-classics-robarts-libra
ry-warner-burns-toan-and-l
unde) . Arch Daily.
Retrieved 15 February
2023.
113. Kathy Munro (5 February
:
 113. Kathy Munro (5 February
2022). "First
comprehensive review of
the architecture of early
apartheid in Pretoria" (https:
//www.theheritageportal.co.
za/review/first-comprehensi
ve-review-architecture-earl
y-apartheid-pretoria) . The
Heritage Portal.
114. "Johannesburg the
Segregated city" (https://w
ww.sahistory.org.za/article/j
ohannesburg-segregated-ci
ty) . South African History
Online. Retrieved
:
 14 February 2023.
115. Mark (5 May 2018).
"Brutalist and Modernist
architecture in Southeast
Asia" (https://www.kathman
duandbeyond.com/brutalist-
modernist-architecture-sout
heast-asia/) . Kathmandu &
Beyond. Retrieved 13 May
2023.
116. "Nasty, brutish and tall –
Architecture" (https://www.
economist.com/britain/201
4/08/29/nasty-brutish-and
-tall) . The Economist. 29
:
 August 2014. Retrieved
13 August 2019.
117. Jenkins, Simon (2024). A
Short History of British
Architecture. London:
Viking. pp. 217–8.
118. "CIP 25 – Corrosion of Steel
in Concrete" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/202004070
25516/https://www.nrmca.o
rg/aboutconcrete/cips/25p.
pdf) (PDF). nrmca. National
Ready Mixed Concrete
Association. Archived from
the original (https://www.nr
:
 mca.org/aboutconcrete/cip
s/25p.pdf) (PDF) on 7 April
2020. Retrieved 7 May
2017.
119. Winston, Anna: Five
architectural treasures we
must save from the UK's
heritage war. (https://www.t
heguardian.com/commentis
free/2015/jun/18/five-archit
ectural-treasures-we-must-
save-uk-heritage-war-histor
ic-england) The Guardian,
18 June 2015.
120. "The University of Essex -
:
 Silberrad Student Centre
and Library Extension" (http
s://www.concretecentre.co
m/Case-Studies/The-Unive
rsity-of-Essex-Silberrad-Stu
dent-Centre.aspx) . The
Concrete Centre. Retrieved
27 February 2025.
121. "Silberrad Student Centre,
University of Essex" (https:/
/www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.u
k/projects/display/id/7888)
. Archtect's Journal.
Retrieved 27 February
2025.
122. "Villa Göth" (https://www.la
:
 122. "Villa Göth" (https://www.la
nsstyrelsen.se/uppsala/bes
oksmal/kulturmiljoer/byggna
dsminnen/villa-goth.html) .
www.lansstyrelsen.se (in
Swedish). Retrieved
23 April 2020.
123. "Historical Resources
Inventory: Buildings and
Structures: The Pirelli
Building, New Haven" (http:/
/newhavenmodern.org/syst
em/dragonfly/production/2
014/01/16/5yl3lsp3d9_SRN
_NewHaven_Sargent_500.p
df) (PDF). Connecticut
:
 df) (PDF). Connecticut
Historical Commission.
Retrieved 24 September
2019.

Further reading

Highmore, Ben (2017). The Art

of Brutalism: Rescuing Hope
from Catastrophe in 1950s
Britain. New Haven: Yale
University Press. ISBN 978-0-
300-22274-6.
Kapur, Akash (October 18,
2018). "Can Poland's Faded
:
 Brutalist Architecture Be
Redeemed?" (https://www.nyti
mes.com/2018/10/10/t-magazi
ne/poland-brutalism-architectu
re.html) . The New York Times.
ISSN 0362-4331 (https://searc
h.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331
).

Golan, Romy (June 2003).

"Historian of the Immediate
Future: Reyner Banham" (https:
//web.archive.org/web/201412
30081624/https://www.questia
.com/library/journal/1P3-35763
2951/historian-of-the-immedia
:
 te-future-reyner-banham) .
The Art Bulletin (Book Review).
85 (2). doi:10.2307/3177354 (
https://doi.org/10.2307%2F317
7354) . JSTOR 3177354 (https
://www.jstor.org/stable/317735
4) . Archived from the original (
https://www.questia.com/library
/journal/1P3-357632951/histor
ian-of-the-immediate-future-re
yner-banham) on 30
December 2014. Retrieved
30 December 2014.
Monzo, Luigi: Plädoyer für
herbe Schönheiten. Gastbeitrag
:
 im Rahmen der Austellung
"SOS Brutalismus – Rettet die
Betonmonster". Pforzheimer
Zeitung, 27 February 2018, p. 6.
(in German)
Anna Rita Emili, Pure and
simple, the architecture of New
Brutalism, Ed.Kappa Rome
2008
Anna Rita Emili, Architettura
estrema, il Neobrutalismo alla
prova della contemporaneità,
Quodlibet, Macerata 2011
Anna Rita Emili, Il Brutalismo
:
 paulista, L'architettura
brasiliana tra teoria e progetto,
Manifesto Libri, Roma ISBN
978872859759, pp. 335
Silvia Groaz, New Brutalism.
The Invention of a Style, EPFL
Press, Lausanne, 2023, ISBN
978-2-88915-510-1

External links

"The incredible hulks: Jonathan

Meades' A-Z of Brutalism" (htt
ps://www.theguardian.com/arta
nddesign/2014/feb/13/jonatha
:
 n-meades-brutalism-a-z)

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Brutalist_architecture&oldid=1278
264881"

This page was last edited on 1 March

2025, at 12:46 (UTC). •

Content is available under CC BY-SA

4.0 unless otherwise noted.

: