Basic Concepts

STATISTICS
1.​ Set: A group or collection of objects
What is Statistics? or numbers considered as a single
from a Latin word “status” which means entity.
state 2.​ Universe (Target Population): The
set of all entities under study;
A science (branch of Mathematics) that 3.​ Population (Accessible
deals with collection, presentation, analysis, Population): The complete
and interpretation of data. collection of all possible values of
the variables;
BRANCHES OF STATISTICS 4.​ Sample drawn from a population.
1.​ Descriptive Statistics
POPULATION AND SAMPLE
Summarizes or describes important
characteristics of a data set. ●​ Parameter: Describes the
population;
Involves collection, organization, ●​ Statistic: Describes the sample;
summarization, and presentation of data.
Statistical Data
Examples:
Data: Results from experimentation,
The monthly income of a nurse in the observation, or investigation, often
Philippines is ₱22,500. appearing as numerical figures.

2.​ Inferential Statistics Refers to any information concerning a

population or sample.
Provides information about a population by
studying a sample.
Classification (Nature) of Data
Interprets and draws conclusions from data.
1.​ Types of Data According to
Uses hypothesis testing. Source

Example: Primary Data: Information gathered directly

from the original source.
90% of married men were alive at age 65.
Secondary Data: Information taken from a
Inference: Being married is associated with secondary source.
a longer life for men.
Examples:

Data gathered by an interviewer from an

interviewee.

Information from newspapers, books,

theses, etc.
 2.​ Types of Data According to ●​ Values obtained by measuring.
Functional Relationship

Independent Data: Data not affected by 4. Classification of Data According to

other data. Scales of Measurement
Four Levels of Measurement
Dependent Data: Data affected by
controlling data. 1.​ Nominal
○​ Data consists of names,
Examples of Independent and Dependent labels, or categories only.
Variables 2.​ Ordinal
○​ Measurements deal with
●​ How does the amount of sleep order or rank
impact test scores? 3.​ Interval
○​ Independent Variable: Time ○​ Shows likeness, differences,
spent sleeping before the and gives meaningful
exam. amounts between data
○​ Dependent Variable: Test 4.​ Ratio
Score. ○​ Modified interval level to
include zero as a starting
3. Types or Categories of Data point.

1.​ Qualitative Data: Uses categories Important Notes

or attributes distinguished by
non-numeric characteristics. ●​ No addition involved in interval data
2.​ Quantitative Data: Consists of (e.g., temperature).
numbers representing counts or ●​ Can be added in ratio data (e.g.,
measurements. weight).

Examples:
Steps in Statistical Investigation
Qualitative: Gender, religion, race/ethnicity.
1.​ Identification of the Problem
○​ Formulate a problem or
Types of Quantitative Data concept worth studying.
Discrete Data 2.​ Collection of Data
○​ Different methods and
●​ Can assume a finite or countable
techniques for gathering
number of values.
data.
●​ Values obtained by counting.
3.​ Presentation of Data
Continuous Data ○​ Tabulation and organization
of data in tables, graphs, and
●​ Can assume an infinite number of charts.
possible values corresponding to 4.​ Analysis of Data
points on a line interval.
 ○​ Deriving relevant information
from gathered data using
Random Variables
statistical tools.
5.​ Interpretation of Data
Discussion
○​ Drawing conclusions or
●​ Random Variable
inferences from analyzed
○​ Also called a stochastic
data.
variable.
○​ A set of possible values from
Methods of Collecting Data a random experiment.
○​ Denoted as X or any capital
1.​ Direct or Interview Method letter because its value is not
2.​ Indirect or Questionnaire Method constant.
3.​ Registration Method ○​ Assumes different values due
4.​ Observation Method to chance.
5.​ Experiment Method ●​ Definition
○​ A numerical description of
the outcome of a statistical
Methods of Presenting Data experiment.
●​ Types of Random Variables
1.​ Textual Form
○​ Discrete Random Variable:
○​ Data is presented in
■​ Obtained from a
paragraph form.
counting process.
2.​ Tabular Form
○​ Continuous Random
○​ Data presented in tables
Variable:
(rows and columns).
■​ Obtained from a
○​ Parts of the table: Title,
measurement.
Row’s name, Column’s
name, cell description. Random Variables Remember
3.​ Graphical Form
○​ Data presented in visual ●​ A random variable is discrete if its
forms. set of possible outcomes is
○​ Common Graphical countable.
Presentations: ○​ Examples: Number of soda
■​ Bar Chart cans, number of chairs,
■​ Pie Chart number of students in a
■​ Pareto Chart class.
■​ Pictograph ●​ A random variable is continuous if it
■​ Line Chart takes on values on a continuous
■​ Map Graph or Map scale.
Chart ○​ Examples: Height, weight,
volume of water, amount of
solution in alcohol, time
required to run a mile.
 ■​ FINITE Sample
Space: Finite or
●​ Probability Distribution definite number of
○​ Also known as probability outcomes.
mass function or discrete ■​ NULL Sample
probability distribution. Space: No elements
○​ A table that lists probability in the sample space.
values with their associated 4.​ Event (E)
values in the range of a ○​ A subset of the sample
discrete random variable. space; set of all expected
outcomes.
Properties of Probability Distribution ○​ SIMPLE Event: Contains
only one sample point.
1.​ The sum of all probabilities must
5.​ Experiment
equal 1.
○​ A simple process of noting
2.​ Each probability must be between 0
an outcome.
and 1.
○​ Outcome: A direct
measurement or answer
obtained after an experiment.
Random Variables & 6.​ n(S)
○​ Total number of events in the
Probability sample space.
Distributions Sample Space and Events
Definition of Terms
●​ Finite Sample Space:
1.​ Probability ○​ Example: Set A = {0, 1, 2, 3,
○​ Describes the level of 4, 5}.
certainty (likelihood, chance, ●​ Infinite Sample Space:
or possibility). ○​ Example:
○​ Can be expressed in ○​
decimal, fraction, or ●​ Simple Event:
percentage. ○​ Example: Set B showing the
2.​ Probability Distribution Philippine National Fish.
○​ A table, graph, formula, or ●​ Null Sample Space:
notation that supplies the ○​ Example:
probability of a given ●​ Sets can be described using:
outcome’s occurrence. ○​ SEMANTIC Form:
3.​ Sample Space (S) Statement describing
○​ Set of all possible outcomes elements.
of an experiment. ○​ ROSTER Form: Listing
○​ Types of Sample Space: method.
■​ INFINITE Sample ○​ SET BUILDER Notation:
Space: Not finite. Rule method.
Random Variables Tossing Three Fair Coins

●​ A variable determined by chance, ●​ Sample Space: S = { HHH, HHT,

denoted by x THH, THT, TTH, HTT, HTH, TTT }
●​ Types of Random Variables: ●​ Number of Outcomes: n(S) = 2^3 =8
○​ Discrete Random Variable:
Countable possible Histogram for the Probability Distribution of
outcomes. the Discrete Random Variable
○​ Continuous Random
Variable: Takes values on a ●​ Probability P(X) vs. Number of
continuous scale. Tails (X).

Probability Distributions of
Discrete Random Variable Discrete Probability Distributions:

●​ A probability distribution provides the Mean, Variance, & Standard Deviation

probability for each value of the
Mean of Discrete Probability Distribution
random variable, denoted by P(X)
Formula: μ = ΣX· P(X)
●​ Conditions:
1.​ The probability of each value
Mean of Discrete
is between 0 and 1, inclusive.
■​ 1 means the event is
very likely (100%).
■​ 0 means it is not likely
(0%).
2.​ The sum of all probabilities is
equal to one.

Constructing a Discrete Probability

Distribution Random Variable Formula:

Let x be a discrete random variable with

possible outcomes

1.​ Make a frequency distribution for the

possible outcomes.
2.​ Find the sum of the frequencies.
3.​ Find the probability of each possible
outcome by dividing its frequency by
the sum of the frequencies.
4.​ Check that each probability is
between 0 and 1 and that the sum is
1. μ = X •P(X )+X •P(X) +.. + XP(X) Where: 1 1
2 2 ο X1, X2,..., Xn are values of the
Examples of Probability of a Simple Event random variable X.
P(X1), P(X2),..., P(Xn) are corresponding Characteristics of Normal Curve
probabilities.
1.​ Its highest point is directly above the
Steps to Calculate Mean: mean.
2.​ The distribution curve is bell-shaped,
1. Construct the probability distribution. varying in shape based on the mean
[Link] the value of the random variable and standard deviation.
X by the corresponding probability P(X) 3.​ The tails of the curve are asymptotic
to the horizontal axis.
3. Get the sum of the results obtained in 4.​ The curve is symmetric with respect
step 2. to the vertical line passing through
the mean.
Finding the Probability of Getting TAILS
5.​ The area under the normal curve
Using 4 Fair Coins
represents probability and equals 1
●​ n(S) = 2^4 = 16. or 100%.
6.​ The mean, median, and mode have
the same value and are located at
Statistics and Probability the same point (center).

Standard Scores (Z-scores)

Introduction to Normal Curve
●​ The areas under the normal curve
●​ A normal probability distribution is a are expressed in terms of z-values
bell-shaped frequency distribution or scores.
curve. ●​ The z-score indicates the position of
●​ Most data values cluster around the a single score under the normal
mean. curve, measured in standard
●​ The bell curve has a small deviations relative to the mean.
percentage of points on both tails
and a larger percentage in the
center.
●​ In graph form, normal distribution
appears as a bell curve.

Normal Probability Distributions

●​ The normal curve is often called the

Gaussian distribution, named after
Carl Friedrich Gauss.
●​ Gauss is recognized as one of the
greatest mathematicians and is
honored on Germany's 10
Deutschmark bill. Areas Under the Normal Curve

Properties of Normal Curve Example 2

To find the area under the normal curve: 2.​ Non-probability Sampling:
Non-equal chances (biased),
1.​ Compute the z-value. non-random sampling.
2.​ Graph the z-value.
3.​ Identify the shaded region/area.
4.​ Find the corresponding area of the Types of Probability
z-value in the Z-table. Sampling Techniques
5.​ Compute the shaded region/area.
1.​ Simple Random Sampling:
○​ Elements are selected
SAMPLING & SAMPLING
through methods like "lottery"
DISTRIBUTION or "fish bowl".
○​ Examples:
■​ In a beauty contest,
Introduction to Random questions are
Sampling randomly selected
using a fish bowl.
●​ What is sampling? ■​ A teacher picks a
1.​ A technique of drawing a name for recitation
sample from a population. using index cards.
2.​ Used when the entire 2.​ Systematic Random Sampling:
population is not available or ○​ Adopts a skipping pattern in
is too large. selection.
●​ How to determine the number of ○​ Better cross-section if the
samples? listing is linear but risks bias
1.​ By percentage: if periodicity exists.
■​ 10% - 20% based on 3.​ Stratified Random Sampling:
the researcher's ○​ Population is divided into at
discretion. least 2 subpopulations
■​ At least 10% for large (strata).
populations, 20% for ○​ Samples are drawn
small populations. proportionately from each
stratum.
○​ Example: Determine the
number of students from
each college with a 5%
margin of error.
4.​ Cluster Sampling:
○​ Population is divided into
●​ How to select a sample? clusters.
1.​ Probability Sampling: Equal ○​ All elements of selected
chances (unbiased), random clusters are included in the
sampling. sample.
 ○​ Example: A medical student ○​ Mean, Variance, Standard
interviews all dengue Deviation.
patients in 10 randomly
selected barangays. Sampling Distribution of the
5.​ Multi-Stage Sampling: Population Mean
○​ Selection of samples occurs
in several stages. ●​ Data: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
○​ Example: Monthly surveys ●​ Sample Mean and Standard
before a presidential election Deviation:
for 5 months. ○​ Example calculations for
sample mean and standard
deviation.
Types of Non-Probability
Sampling Techniques Properties of the Sampling
Distributions of Sample Mean
1.​ Purposive / Judgmental Sampling:
○​ Samples are selected based
on specific criteria set by the
researcher.
2.​ Quota Sampling:
●​ Standard Error of the Mean:
○​ Sample size is limited to a
○​ where o is the population
required number of subjects.
standard deviation and n$is
3.​ Convenience Sampling:
the sample size.
○​ Samples are selected from a
○​ Measures accuracy of
specific place at a preferred
sample mean as an estimate
time.
of population mean.
4.​ Snowball Sampling:
○​ Interpretation:
○​ Samples are drawn from
■​ Good estimate: small
different stages, useful in
standard error.
deviant studies and
■​ Poor estimate: large
subcultures.
standard error.

SAMPLING Parameter vs Statistic

DISTRIBUTIONS: Mean, ●​ Definitions:
Variance, & Standard 1.​ Parameters: Descriptive
measures from a population.
Deviation 2.​ Statistics: Descriptive
measures from a sample.
Formulas for Sampling ●​ Examples:
Distributions 1.​ 60% of 550 churchgoers
preferred a barangay hall for
●​ Population vs Sample: Christmas.
 2.​ 100% of 2,140 marathon
runners drank at least 3
bottles of water.
3.​ 30 students had a mean
score of 82% in a diagnostic
test.
4.​ 10 basketball games had a
mean total score of 152.
5.​ Average height of 25
students was 5’2”.

Sampling Distributions for

the Variance and Standard
Deviation
●​ Statisticians analyze variation of
individual data values about the
population mean.