NAME: EZEMONYE BENEDICT MATRIC NO: SS/PP/3344

COURSE CODE: SS/RCS/218 LECTURER: FR. FRANCIS

ADELABU

COURSE: HISTORY OF ISRAEL

TOPIC: THE EARLY AND MIDDLE BRONZE AGE: MESOPOTAMIA

INTRODUCTION
Historically, the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BCE) was a turning point in human history,
marked by the universal use of bronze tools, urbanization, and complex societies. It was the
middle stage of the three-age system, following the Stone Age and preceding the Iron Age. 1 This
era saw the development of writing, institutionalized long-distance trade, and advancements in
agriculture and weaving.2 Initially, many people lived as nomadic hunters, but as farming
practices improved, permanent settlements emerged, allowing for more stable communities.
Fields were cultivated with wheat and barley, ensuring a sustainable food supply.
The Bronze Age is traditionally divided into the Early Bronze Age (c. 3100–2000 BCE)
and the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2000–1600 BCE). In Mesopotamia, this period saw the rise of
powerful city-states, centralized kingdoms, and major technological innovations. The Early
Bronze Age was characterized by the establishment of urban centers and independent political
entities, while the Middle Bronze Age witnessed the emergence of larger states and codified
legal systems. These developments shaped the course of Mesopotamian civilization and left a
lasting impact on history.

 THE EARLY BRONZE AGE (C. 3100–2000 BCE)

Obviously, Mesopotamian civilization flourished as cities like Ur, Uruk, Lagash, and
Eridu became dominant centers of power. Each city was governed by priest-kings, who
combined religious and political authority. However, the titles “ensi” and “lugal” differentiated
1

¹ Barzun, J., et al. “History of Europe.” Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified January 17, 2025.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe, (Accessed, 20/ 03/ 2025).

2
Marc Van De Mieroop, A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC, 3rd ed. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-
Blackwell, 2016), 25.

1
rulers based on their level of control; some ruled mainly as temple administrators, while others
exercised greater military and political power.3
More importantly, this period is noted for the invention of cuneiform writing, which
revolutionized administration, trade, and governance. 4 Initially, it was used for record-keeping,
but over time, it became a tool for literature, law, and diplomacy. Accordingly, the expansion of
bureaucratic systems made scribes essential figures in Mesopotamian society.
Economically, Mesopotamia thrived due to irrigation-based agriculture and extensive
trade networks. On the one hand, farmers cultivated crops such as wheat and barley, while on the
other hand, trade connected Mesopotamian cities to distant regions like Anatolia, the Persian
Gulf, and the Indus Valley.5 Goods such as copper, tin, timber, and precious stones were
exchanged, fueling advancements in bronze metallurgy, which, in turn, improved tools and
weaponry.
Also, warfare played a crucial role in shaping political landscapes, as city-states often
engaged in conflicts over territory and resources, leading to military innovations such as bronze
weaponry and early chariots. From the foregoing, toward the end of the Early Bronze Age,
Sargon of Akkad (c. 2334–2279 BCE) established the Akkadian Empire, uniting much of
Mesopotamia under a single rule for the first time. 6 This marked a transition from independent
city-states to larger territorial states, laying the foundation for future empires.

 THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE (C. 2000–1600 BCE)

Following the fall of the Akkadian Empire, Mesopotamia experienced significant cultural
and linguistic transformations. The migration of the Amorites around 2004 BCE led to the
gradual decline of Sumerian as a spoken language. However, Sumerian continued to be

3
Ann Kordas et al., World History Volume 1, to 1500 (Houston, TX: OpenStax, April 19, 2023),
https://openstax.org/books/world-history-volume-1/pages/3-2-ancient-mesopotamia, (Accessed, 20/ 03/ 2025).

4
Dominique Charpin, Writing, Law, and Kingship in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2010), 14.

5
Marc Van De Mieroop, “Mesopotamia’s Bronze Age as a Cosmopolitan Age,” Old World: Journal of Ancient
Africa and Eurasia 3, no. 1 (2023): 1–12, https://www.sciencedirect.com/org/journal/old-world-journal-of-ancient-
africa-and-eurasia, (Accessed, 20/ 03/ 2025).

6
Paul Kriwaczek, Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2010), 102.

2
preserved in religious texts, hymns, and literature, ensuring its legacy. Akkadian and Amorite
dialects became dominant, reflecting the region’s evolving identity.
Furthermore, the Amorites settled in cities such as Mari, Asshur, and Babylon, where
they adopted many elements of Mesopotamian culture. 7 Even the ancient Sumerian cities of
Larsa and Isin maintained earlier traditions, despite coming under Amorite rule. Among these
new kingdoms, Babylon emerged as the most powerful under the leadership of Hammurabi
(1792–1750 BCE). Through strategic military campaigns, Hammurabi conquered rival cities,
including Mari and Larsa, ultimately establishing the Babylonian Empire.
Of course, Hammurabi is best known for his Code of Laws, which was inscribed on stone
pillars throughout his empire. These laws addressed property rights, family disputes, and
criminal justice, offering a structured legal system that remained influential long after his reign.
The clarity and comprehensiveness of the Code of Hammurabi provide valuable insight into how
Mesopotamian society functioned at the time.8
Nevertheless, Babylon’s empire lasted only about 150 years before beginning to
fragment, despite its strength under Hammurabi. By 1595 BCE, the city faced a major invasion
by the Hittites, an Anatolian power. However, the Hittites did not establish rule over Babylon;
instead, they looted the city and withdrew. Soon after, the Kassites from the Zagros Mountains
took control, founding a dynasty that ruled Babylon for nearly 500 years. Like the Guti and
Amorites before them, the Kassites eventually assimilated into Mesopotamian culture,
maintaining political continuity in the region.
Meanwhile, the Middle Bronze Age saw increasing evidence of settlements and
metalwork, although funerary practices became less prominent compared to earlier periods.
Archaeological sites such as Lintshie Gutter, Blairhall Burn, and Green Knowe provide insight
into evolving settlement patterns, as many roundhouses from this period have been discovered,
showing how communities adapted to their changing environment.

 RELIGION AND SOCIETY

Indeed, it is pertinent to state that religion played a central role in Mesopotamian life,
influencing both governance and daily activities. The pantheon of gods, including Enlil, Anu,
and Marduk, was believed to control all aspects of existence. Each city had its patron deity, and
7
Van De Mieroop, “Mesopotamia’s Bronze Age.”
8
Kordas et al., World History Volume 1

3
rulers built ziggurats—monumental temple structures—as places of worship. Priests held
significant power, acting as intermediaries between the gods and the people.9
Similarly, Mesopotamian society was structured into distinct social classes. At the top
were nobles, priests, and palace officials, followed by merchants, artisans, and farmers. The
lowest class included slaves, who were often war captives or debtors. And so, social mobility
was possible despite rigid divisions, especially through trade, military service, or religious
dedication.
Consequently, women played varied roles in Mesopotamian society. Some became
priestesses, traders, or landowners, while others had more restricted rights depending on their
status. The Code of Hammurabi contained laws regarding marriage, inheritance, and women’s
legal protections, demonstrating that while women had defined societal roles, they were still
integrated into legal and economic structures.

CONCLUSION
To this end, the Early and Middle Bronze Age in Mesopotamia laid the foundation for
future civilizations. Political developments saw a shift from independent city-states to territorial
empires, while advances in writing, law, and metallurgy transformed society. The contributions
of figures like Sargon of Akkad and Hammurabi shaped governance, and the expansion of urban
centers and trade networks connected Mesopotamia to the wider ancient world. Even as power
changed hands from Sumerians to Akkadians, Amorites, and Kassites, the cultural achievements
of this era endured, influencing later civilizations such as the Assyrians, Persians, and Greeks.
This period remains one of the most significant in human history, marking the true
beginnings of organized societies, codified laws, and technological innovation. Mesopotamia’s
legacy as the “cradle of civilization” is firmly rooted in the transformations that took place
during the Bronze Age, shaping the development of complex human societies for centuries to
come.

9
Kordas et al., World History Volume 1

4
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOkS

Charpin, Dominique. Writing, Law, and Kingship in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 2010.

Kriwaczek, Paul. Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization. New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 2010.

Van De Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC. 3 rd ed. Hoboken,
NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2016.

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