Tool Geometry
UNIT 7 TOOL GEOMETRY
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Classification of Cutting Tools
7.3 Single-point Cutting Tools
7.3.1 Single-point Cutting Tool Geometry
7.3.2 System of Nomenclature of Cuttintg Tools
7.3.3 American System (ASA)
7.4 Cutting Tools and Operations Performed on a Lathe
7.5 Multi-point Cutting Tools
7.5.1 Twist Drills
7.5.2 Milling Cutters
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
7.8 Answers to SAQs
7.9 Exercises
7.1 INTRODUCTION
A component (or part) shape can be produced by various methods, namely, machining,
forming, casting etc. Machining is widely employed for generating surfaces. In generating
technique, the required profile on the workpiece is obtained by manipulating the relative
motion between the workpiece and the tool cutting edge. The primary motion of the
workpiece and the secondary motion of the tool govern the shape and size of the machined
component. For example, in turning the rotation of the workpiece and linear motion of the tool
along the axis of the workpiece results in the generation of cylindrical surface (Figure 7.1)
provided the feed rate is small. Thus, the machined surface profile is different from the shape
of cutting tool edge. In forming, the shape of the cutting tool is impressed upon the workpiece
(Figure 7.2). However, in some cases, the combination of these two methods can also be
used depending upon the job requirements. Sometimes there would be a tertiary movement
(depth of cut) in between the cuts for the production of specific types of surfaces. Thus, it
becomes essential to know the shape and size of the cutting tools.
5
Principles of Figure 7.1 : Longitudinal Turning (a) External Surface, (b) Internal Surface
Metal Cutting
Figure 7.2 : (a) Generating, and (b) Forming of Surfaces
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• decide to which class (single -point or multi-point) a given tool belongs,
• identify different elements of a cutting tool (faces, nose radius, angles),
• identify the values of different angles if its specification is given, and
• recommend which type of cutting tool (or tool) be employed for a given type of
work surface.
7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS
Cutting tools are usually classified based on the number of cutting edges it has, viz., single
point cutting tool or multipoint cutting tool. Single-point cutting tools are used for turning
operations (for producing internal and external cylindrical surfaces and sometimes flat
surfaces (face turning) also), as well as for shaping and planning operations (for producing
flat surfaces). Exactly which type of surface is produced depends upon the relationship
between primary, secondary and tertiary motions. For example, if feed to the tool is not
parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece, it would produce a conical or contoured
surface (Figure 7.3). Multi-point cutting tools are also used for producing cylindrical
surfaces as well as flat surfaces. A drill with two cutting edges produces internal cylindrical
surfaces, while cylindrical grinding produces external cylindrical surfaces. Milling and surface
grinding produce plane surfaces (Figure 7.4). However, grinding is mainly used for surface
finishing purposes.
Figure 7.3 : Generation of a Conical Surface by a Single-point Tool
The machined surface characteristics mainly depend on the geometrical configuration of the
cutting edge(s), and the magnitude and interrelationship between the motions (primary,
secondary and tertiary). In this unit, the geometrical configuration of the cutting tools (cutting
6
edge(s)) and a brief introduction to the basic machine tools used in conjunction with these Tool Geometry
cutting tools will be discussed.
Figure 7.4 : (a) Drilling of a Hole Using a Twist Drill, (b) Milling Process Producing a Flat Surface,
(c) Surface Grinding Producing Flat Surface
7.3 SINGLE-POINT CUTTING TOOLS
Single-point cutting tools have one principal cutting edge. Such tools are classified into three
categories : solid tool, brazed tool, and inserted bit type tool. The solid tool is a single piece
tool (Figure 7.5(a)) having different faces, edges and nose radius, and is made from the tool
materials, depending upon the work material and the machined surface requirements. In case
of a brazed tool (Figure 7.5(b)), the shank is made of high strength steel and a bit of
appropriate tool material (HSS, WC, or some other suitable material) is brazed to it. However,
still more convenient way is to use a tool holder having an indexable insert (Figure 7.5(c))
(carbide or ceramic) mechanically clamped on it. Inserted bit type tools are economical to
use, require less tool changing time, and there is no degradation of the tool material due to
regrinding of tool. (Inserts are not reground. After their usage such tools are thrown away.)
In addition, a few types of tool holders can be used for a large variety of inserts stored which
will require lesser money for tool inventory. This reduces tool inventory cost.
Figure 7.5 : Type of Single-point Cutting Tool
7.3.1 Single-point Cutting Tool Geometry
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Principles of
Metal Cutting
Irrespective of the category to which (solid, brazed, or inserted) a tool belongs, it consists of
parts as shown in Figure 7.6. A single-point tool has a side cutting edge (or major cutting
edge) while end cutting edge (minor cutting edge) does not contribute to material removal.
Face of the tool is the part over which the chip flows and suffers crater wear of the tool.
Flank is the part of the tool, which comes in contact of the machined surface and slowly
wears out.
The wear of the flank is known as Flank wear and it affects the dimensional accuracy of the
machined component. The end cutting edge and side cutting edge meet at a point (called the
nose) and has certain radius (usually ≠ zero). The nose radius largely affects the roughness of
the machined surface. Sometimes tool has a groove ground on the tool face, which acts as a
chip breaker. The cross-section of the shank can be square, rectangular, or round. The tool
Figure 7.6 : Terminology for a Right-hand Cutting Tool for Turning
face and edges of the cutting tool have a definite relationship with each other, and it should be
maintained during cutting. However, during cutting the tool undergoes wear, and this can alter
the original tool geometry. Therefore, the tool must be reground periodically to restore its
original shape (geometry). The interrelationship between the different elements of a cutting
tool (single point) is discussed in the following paragraphs.
7.3.2 System of Nomenclature of Cutting Tools
Literature reports the existence of a number of systems for specifying tool geometry e.g.,
British maximum rake system, German system (or DIN system), ASA (American Standards
Association) system and ISO (International Organisation for Standardization) system.
However, before defining the geometry of a single -point tool, let us study the two systems of
reference planes employed for defining the angles of a tool.
(a) Tool in Hand (or Tool in Space) System
In this system (Figure 7.7), a horizontal plane (Pr) containing the base of the tool shank
is termed as base plane (or tool reference plane). The second plane (Pf) is
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Tool Geometry
Figure 7.7 : Reference Planes in Tool in Hand (or Coordinate) System
perpendicular to the base plane but along the tool feed motion. It is known as the
longitudinal plane. The third reference plane (Pp) is perpendicular to both the planes
(tool reference plane (Pr) and the working plane (Pf)), and is in the direction of primary
motion. It is known as transverse plane. This system of reference planes is known as
the coordinate system of planes.
(b) Tools in Use (or the Orthogonal) System
In this case, the reference planes are chosen based on the consideration of the cutting
tool operating on the work on a machine tool. This system also employs three mutually
perpendicular reference planes. The first reference plane known as the base plane
(Pre) (Figure 7.8) is identified as the base plane in case of ‘tool in hand system’. The
second reference plane (Ppe) is called cutting plane. It contains principal (or major)
cutting edge and it is perpendicular to the base plane. The third reference plane (Pfe) is
called orthogonal plane and is perpendicular to other two planes.
Figure 7.8 : Reference Planes in Tool in Use (Orthogonal) System
7.3.3 American System (ASA)
This system uses co-ordinate (tool in hand or tool in space) system of reference planes.
Figure 7.6 shows a single -point cutting tool. Figure 7.9 shows a single -point turning tool
geometry in the three orthographic views. Figure 7.10 shows three views of the same tool
showing various angles and their interpretation while the tool is in cutting mode.
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Principles of
Metal Cutting
Figure 7.9 : Turning Tool Geometry
Different abbreviations have been used to express these angles. One of the popular system of
abbreviations is given below. The tool specification in this case is stated in the following
sequence.
Back rake angle → αb; Side rake angle → αs,
End relief (clearance) angle → δe,; Side relief (clearance) angle → δs,
End cutting edge angle → φe,; Side cutting edge angle → φs,
Nose radius → r.
A tool geometry specified as 7-8-5-6-9-5-1 would mean that : Back rake angle = 7o, side rake
angle = 8o, end relief angle = 5o, side relief angle = 6o, end cutting edge angle = 9o, side
cutting edge angle = 5o, and nose radius = 1mm.
From the tool grinding point of view, this system of single -point cutting tool specification is
easier to use because it is simpler to determine the reference coordinates.
Figure 7.10 : Tool Angles in Coordinate System
Tables 7.1 and 7.2 give the recommended tool angles for HSS cutting tools and carbide
cutting tools, respectively.
Table 7.1 : Recommended Tool Angle s for High Speed Steel (HSS) Tool [Rao,
2000]
Work material Back rake Side rake Side relief End relief Side cutting End cutting
angle angle angle angle edge angle edge angle
(α b) (α s) (δ s) (δ e ) (φs) (φe )
Steel 8-20 8-20 6 6 10 15
Cast Steel 8 8 6 6 10 15
Cast Iron 0 4 6 6 10 15
Bronze 4 4 6 6 10 10
Stainless Steel 8-20 8-20 6 6 10 15.
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Tool Geometry
Table 7.2 : Recommended Tool Angles for Carbide Cutting Tool [Rao, 2000]
Work material Back rake Side rake Side relief End relief
angle angle angle angle
(α b) (α s) (δ s) (δ e )
Aluminium 0-10 10-20 6 6
Mangensium alloys
Copper 0-4 15-20 6-8 6-8
Brass and Bronze 0-5 –5-8 6-8 6-8
Cast Iron –7-0 –7-6 5-8 5-8
Plane Carbon steel –7-0 –7-6 5-8 5-8
Alloy Steel –7-0 –7-6 5-8 5-8
Stainless Steels –7-0 –7-6 5-8 5-8
Titanium alloys –5-6 –5-0 5-8 5-8
7.4 CUTTING TOOLS AND OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON
A LATHE
Figure 7.11 shows a lathe machine in which rotary motion is given to the workpiece. The
workpiece is held in a chuck (Figure 7.12) attached to the spindle. The rotary motion to the
workpiece is provided by a complex gear arrangement driven by the motor which is located
below head shock. The relative velocity with which the work material moves past the tool
cutting edge is termed as the “cutting speed”.
Figure 7.11 : Lathe Machine [Kalpakjian, 1989]
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Principles of
Metal Cutting
Figure 7.12 : Motions while Turning
The cutting tool moves in the axial direction at an uniform rate with the help of a feed screw
which is driven by gear arrangement in the head stock. This motion is called “feed motion”.
The processes of machining or removing material from the outer surface of the workpiece
are known as “outside turning” whereas the processes of removing material from inside of
a hole are called “inside turning”. The workpiece can be provided with cylindrical shape by
longitudinal turning, plane surfaces by facing, tapered surfaces by taper turning, profile by
profile turning, and threads by thread cutting. Figure 7.13(a) shows different kinds of tools
used on a lathe machine to achieve different external surfaces and Figure 7.13(b) shows the
tools for internal surfaces. Tools are also available for the production of knurled surfaces
(knurling operation), enlarging the diameter of a predrilled hole (boring operation), cut off or
parting (parting operation), and drilling a hole by drilling operation on a lathe machine.
Figure 7.13(a) : Different Kinds of Tools for External Surfaces [Rao, 2000]
Figure 7.13(b) : Different Kinds of Tools Used for Generating Internal Surfaces
Rake angle is the angle between the rake face of the tool and the normal to the machining
direction as shown in Figure 7.14. The value of rake angle to be used in the tool for a given
operation is decided based on the combination of the value material and work material. It can
be positive (Figure 7.14), zero (Figure 7.15(a)), or negative (Figure 7.15(b)). Larger the +ve
rake angle, smaller the force acting on the tool but weaker will be the tool. In case of brittle
tool material (carbide and ceramic), usually zero or negative rake angle is used to provide the
strength to the tool tip.
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Tool Geometry
Figure 7.14 : The General Characteristics of a Metal Cutting Tool
(a) Zero Rake Angle (b) Negative Rake Angle
Figure 7.15 : Tool Cutting at Different Rake Angles
7.5 MULTI-POINT CUTTING TOOLS
A multi-point cutting tool is regarded as a series of two or more cutting elements (chip
producing elements) secured to a common body. The term such as face, flank, and cutting
edge, defined earlier for single -point tools, are applicable to multi-points tool as well. The
cutting action on one of the cutting edges is the same as that of a single -point cutting tool. The
commonly used multi-point cutting tools are drills, reamers, milling cutters, broaches, etc. The
geometry of some of these cutting tools are discussed in this unit.
7.5.1 Twist Drills
When you examine the products used in daily life you would realize that a large number of
them have holes either for assembly, riveting, or some other purpose. These holes are made
by one or more than one kind of operations like drilling, boring, countersinking, etc.
Figure 7.16 shows various kinds of drills and drilling operations.
Drilling is the operation used to make a hole in the solid body. Drill is used as a cutting tool for
drilling operation, and usually it is made of tool steel or high speed steel. For special
applications, carbide tipped drills are used. There are various kinds of drills (Figure 7.17), viz
twist drill, straight flute drill, gun drill, spade drill, drill with brazed carbide tip, and drill with
indexable carbide inserts. Amongst all these drills, twist drill is the one that is most
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Principles of
Metal Cutting
Figure 7.16 : Various Types of Drills and Drilling Operations
Figure 7.17 : Various Types of Drills
commonly used. The salient features of the twist drill are shown in Figure 7.18. In case of
twist drills, the normal rake angle and the velocity of the cutting vary with distance from the
center of the drill. The chips are simultaneously produced by the two cutting edges, which
have positive rake angle near the drill periphery, while the rake angle is highly negative near
the center of the drill. The cutting near the drill center is also low. The chips produced due to
drilling are guided upward by the two spiral grooves (flutes). Through these grooves, the
cutting fluid also reaches to the cutting edges. Some drills have chip breaker ground along the
cutting edge to break the long chips into small pieces to ease the disposal of chips
Figure 7.18 : Standard Chisel-point Drill Indicating Various Features [Timings, 2002]
without operator’s intervention. Some drills have internal longitudinal holes to force the cutting
fluid upto the cutting edges to facilitate chips disposal and cooling. A twist drill consists of two
helical grooves called flutes. The flutes perform multifarious functions like forming rake
angle, forming cutting edge, providing passage to the coolant/lubricant and to provide passage
for the swarf removal. The drill is tapered towards the shank so as to give clearance to the
drilled hole (body clearance). This increases the drill life and its cutting efficiency.
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Tool Geometry
Figure 7.19 : Twist Drill Cutting Angles : (a) Cutting Angles Applied to a Twist Drill,
(b) Variation in Rake Angle Along Lip of the Drill. Note that the Rake Angle at the Periphery is Equal to
the Helix Angle of the Flute
The rake angle in case of drills is formed by a helical groove (one of the flutes) which varies
from point to point along the radius of the drill (from +ve to –ve rake angle (Figure 7.19)).
The rake angle in drilling depends upon the helix angle of the flutes, the point angle as well as
the feed rate. The axial rake angle is the angle between the face and the line parallel to the
drill axis. The helix angle (or spiral angle) is formed by the leading edge of the land and the
axis of the drill. The surface on the drill, which extends behind the cutting tip to the following
flute, is termed as the flank. The part of the flute surface adjacent to the cutting tip on which
the chip moves is called face. The la nd is the cylindrically ground surface on the leading edge
of the drill. The lead of the helix is the distance measured parallel to the drill axis, between the
two corresponding points on the leading edge of the land in one complete revolution. The
chisel edge is formed by the intersection of the two flanks. Various kinds of drilling operations
can be performed on a drill machine (Figure 7.20).
The cutting conditions at the chisel point of the drill are comparatively poor hence resist its
penetration in the work. In the case of large hole drilling, it is usual to provide a pilot hole of
smaller diameter to reduce the feed force. Afterwards, it can be easily enlarged by drilling the
desired diameter hole.
Figure 7.20 : Main Parts of a Pillar Type Drilling Machine [Gerling, 1965]
The drill spindle holds the drill lightly during its operation. The rotary motion to the drill is
transmitted from the main drive (electric motor and step pulleys or gear drive). When the drill
starts rotating, it is manually fed (modern machines have automatic feed arrangement) using
feed drive towards the workpiece to penetrate inside it till the desired depth of hole is
achieved. The feed motion is provided by the rack and pinion arrangement. Many holes can
be simultaneously drilled in a workpiece if multi-spindle drilling machine is available.
7.5.2 Milling Cutters
Milling cutters are used to produce parallel, perpendicular and inclined plain or formed
surfaces using multi-tooth cutters. The cutter is rotated by the milling machine spindle (or
arbor) and the workpiece is given feed. Figure 7.21(a) shows the angles of a single -point
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Principles of
Metal Cutting
cutting tool and the corresponding angles on a milling cutter tooth while in action,
(Figure 7.21(b)). There are various kinds of milling cutters. Some of them are shown in
Figures 7.22 and 7.23 along with the kind of surface generated by them.
Figure 7.21 : Comparison of Angles (a) Single-point Cutting Tool, (b) Milling Cutter Tooth
Milling machine can perform a variety of cutting operations. They can be classified as
horizontal type, vertical type or universal milling machine. Figure 7.24 shows a horizontal
milling machine.
In this machine, worktable has T slots to clamp the workpiece. This table can move
longitudinally (with respect to saddle) and transversely. The knee is used to move the
workpiece (along with table and saddle) up and down to adjust the depth of cut. Arbor holds
and rotates the cutter. Over arm is adjustable to accommodate arbors of different lengths.
This machine has three axes of movement, which can be achieved by power or manually.
Figure 7.22 : Horizontal Milling Machine Cutters and the Surface they produce : (a) Slab Milling Cutter
(Cylinder Mill); (b) Side and Face Cutter; (c) Single Angle Cutter; (d) Double Equal Angle Cutter;
(e) Concave Cutter; (f) Convex Cutter [Timing, 2002]
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Tool Geometry
Figure 7.23 : Vertical Milling Machine Cutter and the Surfaces they Produce : (a) End Milling Cutter;
(b) Face Milling Cutter; (c) Dovetail (Angle) Cutter; (d) T-slot Cutter [Timing, 2002]
Figure 7.24 : Schematic Illustration of a Horizontal-Spindle Column-and-Knee Type Milling Machine
[Kalpakjian, 1989]
SAQ 1
Choose the correct answer from the given choices.
(a) During the turning operation, the tertiary motion is given to achieve
(i) cutting speed, (ii) feed rate, (iii) depth of cut, (iv) none of these.
(b) In which case a surface can be generated without the tertiary motion:
(i) turning, (ii) drilling, (iii) milling , (iv) none of these.
(c) Face of a long cylindrical rod can be machined on
(i) milling machine, (ii) lathe, (iii) drilling machine, (d) all of these.
(d) Internal threads in a cylindrical block can be made on
(i) lathe, (ii) drilling m/c, (iii) milling m/c, (iv) all of these.
(e) Indexable inserts are usually made of
(i) HSS, (ii) tool steel, (iii) diamond, (iv) carbide.
(f) A chip breaker is provided on the tool
(i) flank face, (ii) rake face, (iii) side face, (iv) shank.
(g) During milling, chip flows on the
(i) rake face, (ii) flank face, (iii) flute, (iv) none of these.
(h) Lathe machine in general cannot be used for the machining of
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Principles of
Metal Cutting
(i) internal thread, (ii) conical shape, (iii) trapezoidal block, (iv) all of these.
(i) When using carbide cutting tool, the preferred rake angle is
(i) positive, (ii) negative, (iii) zero, (iv) all of these.
(j) A cutting tool for shaping operation is of
(i) single point, (ii) multi-point, (iii) none of these.
(k) A straight flute drill is normally provided with helix angle equal to
(i) 15o, (ii) 20o, (iii) 30o, (iv) none of these.
7.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, the geometry of different types of cutting tools has been discussed at length. The
family of cutting tools has been classified in two classes : single -point cutting tools and multi-
point cutting tools. The angles in both cases have been compared. Various elements of a
single point cutting tool like rake face, flank face, different angles (back rake angle, side
clearance angle, end cutting edge angle, etc.) and their specifications have been elaborated.
Reference planes (coordinate and orthogonal) used in tool nomenclature have been discussed.
Various types of tools used on a lathe machine, milling machine and drilling machine have
been illustrated. One machine each of these three types (lathe, drilling machine and milling
machine) has been explained along with their major parts.
7.7 KEY WORDS
Reference Planes : Employed for defining the angle of a tool.
Single Point Cutting Tool : Tool with single cutting edge.
Multipoint Cutting Tool : Series of two or more cutting elements secured to a
single body.
Twist Drills : Consists of two helical grooves for forming of rake
angle, cutting edge and providing passage to
coolant.
Milling Cutters : Used to produce parallel, perpendicular and inclined
plane or formed surface using multi-tooth cutters.
7.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs
SAQ 1
(a) (iii), (b) (ii), (c) (ii), (d) (i), (e) (iv), (f) (ii), (g) (i), (h) (iii), (i) (ii), (j) (i), (k) (i)
7.9 EXERCISES
Exercise 1
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(a) Sketch a single point cutting tool showing its different parts. Tool Geometry
(b) Draw three views of the above tool sketched in Exercise 1(a).
(c) Explain the advantages of an indexable insert as compared to solid tool.
Exercise 2
The specification of a turning tool is given by:
8, 8, 6, 6, 10, 15, 0.5
Write the names of the different angles indicated in the specification.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arshinov V. and Alekseev G. (1976), Metal Cutting Theory and Cutting Tool Design, Mir
Publishers, Moscow.
Boothroyd G. (1975), Fundamental of Metal Machining and Machine Tools, McGraw-
Hills Kiogakusha Ltd., Tokyo.
Gerling H. (1965), All About Machine Tools, Willey Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
Kalpakjian S. (1989), Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., New York.
Lal G.K. (1996), Introduction to Machining Science, New Age International Publishers,
New Delhi.
Pandey P.C. and Singh C.K. (1998), Production Engineering Science, Standard Publishers
Distributors, Delhi.
Rao P.N. (2000), Manufacturing Technology : Metal Cutting and Machine Tools, Tata
McGraw Hills Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi.
Roger Timings, 2002, Engineering Fundamentals, Newnes, Wobum, MA.
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