GROUND
WATER
By: DKMD
TYPES OF
AQUIFIERS AND
FORMATIONS
WHAT IS A GROUNDWATER ?
Ground water is a widely available and
replenishable resource found beneath the
earth's surface. The main challenges in ground
water investigation involve identifying zones
of occurrence and recharge. Modern
approaches aim to increase ground water
recharge through natural sources such as rain
and percolation dams.
ADVANTAGES
Formations that serve as
good aquifers are:
unconsolidated gravels, sands, granites and marble with fissures
alluvium and cracks, weathered gneisses
and schists
lake sediments, glacial deposits heavily sheared quartzites
sand stones vesicular basalts
limestones with cavities (caverns) slates (better than shales owing
formed by the action of acid to their jointed conditions)
waters (solution openings in
limestones and dolomites)
A geologic formation, which can absorb water but can
not transmit significant amounts is called an ‘aquitard’.
Examples are clays, shales, etc
A geologic formation with no interconnected pores and
hence can neither absorb nor transmit water is called an
‘aquifuge’. Examples are basalts, granites, etc.
A geologic formation of rather impervious nature, which
transmits water at a slow rate compared to an aquifer
(insufficient for pumping from wells) is called an
‘aquitard’. Examples are clay lenses interbedded with
sand.
Specific Yield
While porosity (n) is a measure of the water
bearing capacity of the formation, all this
water can not be drained by gravity or by
pumping from wells as a portion of water is
held in the void spaces by molecular and
surface tension forces.
specific yield
The volume of water expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the saturated
(Sᵧ) aquifer, that will drain by gravity when the water table (Ground Water Table (GWT))
drops due to pumping or drainage.
specific
retention (Sᵣ) Percentage volume of water, which will not drain by gravity, and corresponds to ‘field
capacity’ i.e., water holding capacity of soil (for use by plants and is an important
factor for irrigation of crops)
n = Sᵧ + Sᵣ porosity = specific yield + specific retention
Specific yield depends upon grain size, shape and distribution of pores and compaction of
the formation. The values of specific yields for alluvial aquifers are in the range of 10–20%
and for uniform sands about 30%.
CONFINED AND
UNCONFINED
AQUIFIERS
On the other hand, if a porous formation underneath is sandwiched between two impervious
strata (aquicludes) and is recharged by a natural source (by rain water when the formation
outcrops at the ground surface—recharge area, or outcrops into a river-bed or bank) at a
higher elevation so that the water is under pressure in the aquifer (like pipe flow), i.e., artesian
condition. Such an aquifer is called an artesian aquifer or confined aquifer. If a well is drilled
into an artesian aquifer, the water level rises in the well to its initial level at the recharge
source called the piezometric surface. If the piezometric surface is above the ground level at
the location of the well, the well is called ‘flowing artesian well’ since the water flows out of
the well like a spring, and if the piezometric surface is below the ground level at the well
location, the well is called a non-flowing artesian well. In practice, a well can be drilled
through 2-3 artesian aquifers (if multiple artesian aquifers exist at different depths below
ground level).
Sometimes a small band of impervious strata lying above the main ground water table (GWT)
holds part of the water percolating from above. Such small water bodies of local nature can be
exhausted quickly and are deceptive. The water level in them is called ‘perched water table’.
The volume of water given out by a unit prism of aquifer (i.e., a column of aquifer standing on a
unit horizontal area) when the piezometric surface (confined aquifers) or the water table
(unconfined aquifers) drops by unit depth is called the storage coefficient of the aquifer (S)
and is dimensionless (a fraction). It is the same as the volume of water taken into storage by a
unit prism of the aquifer when the piezometric surface or water table rises by unit depth. In
the case of a water table (unconfined) aquifer, the storage coefficient is the same as specific
yield (Sᵧ).
The storage coefficient of an artesian aquifer ranges from
0.00005 to 0.005, while for a water table aquifer S = Sᵧ =
0.05 – 0.30. The specific yield (unconfined aquifers) and
storage coefficient (confined aquifers) values must be
determined to estimate the changes in groundwater storage
due to fluctuations in the GWT or piezometric surface (ps)
from the relation.
ΔGWS = change in groundwater storage
Aₐq = involved area of the aquifer
ΔGWT or ps = fluctuation in GWT or piezometric surface
S or Sᵧ = storage coefficient (confined aquifer) or specific yield
(unconfined aquifer)
EXAMPLE 7.1
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 7.2
SOLUTION
DARCY’S
LAW
The flow of groundwater, except through coarse gravels and rockfills, is laminar and
the velocity of flow is given by Darcy’s law (1856). This law states that the velocity of
flow in a porous medium is proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
A = cross-sectional area of the aquifer =wb
w = width of aquifer
b = thickness of aquifer
T = coefficient of transmissibility of the aquifer
Q = volume rate of flow of groundwater (discharge
or yield)
Darcy’s law is valid for laminar flow, i.e., the Reynolds number
(Re)(R_e)(Re) varies from 1 to 10, though most commonly it is
less than 1:
ρ = mass density of water
μ = dynamic viscosity of water
d = mean grain size of the aquifer soil
In aquifers containing large diameter solution openings, coarse gravels, rockfills, and also in
the immediate vicinity of a gravel-packed well, flow is no longer laminar due to high
gradients and exhibits a non-linear relationship between velocity and hydraulic gradient. For
example, in a gravel-packed well (mean size of gravel = 5 mm) Re=45, and the flow would be
transitional at a distance of about 5 to 10 times the well radius.
TRANSMISSIBILITY
WELL
HYDRAULICS
WELL HYDRAULICS
Steady radial flow into a well (Dupuit 1863, Thiem 1906)
(a) Water table conditions (unconfined aquifer)
Assuming that the well is pumped at a constant rate QQQ for a long time
and the water levels in the observation wells have stabilized, i.e., equilibrium
conditions have been reached
\
Applying Eq. (7.7) between the face of the well
(r=rw,h=hw) and the point of zero drawdown (r=R,h=H)
If the drawdown in the pumped well (sw=H−hw) is small:
Then,
(b) Artesian conditions (confined aquifer)
If the well is pumped at a constant pumping rate QQQ for a long time and the equilibrium
conditions have reached, Fig. 7.3 (b):
From Darcy’s law:
Applying Eq. (7.9) between the face of the well (r=rw,h=hw) and the point of zero drawdown
(r=R,h=H), simplifying and putting T=Kb:
which is the same as Eq. (7.8) (for water table conditions under small drawdown).
Note: The length of the screen provided will usually be half to three-fourths of the thickness of the
aquifer for obtaining a suitable entrance velocity (≈2.5cm/sec) through the slots to avoid incrustation
and corrosion at the openings; the percentage open area provided in the screen will be usually 15 to
18%.
DUPUIT’S EQUATIONS ASSUMPTIONS
The following assumptions are made in the derivation of the Dupuit Thiem equations:
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
The specific capacity Q/Swof a well is the discharge per unit drawdown in the well and is
usually expressed as lpm/m. The specific capacity is a measure of the effectiveness of the
well; it decreases with the increase in the pumping rate QQQ and prolonged pumping
(time,t).
Example 7.3
A 20-cm well penetrates 30 m below static water level (GWT). After a long period of
pumping at a rate of 1800 lpm, the drawdowns in the observation wells at 12 m and 36 m
from the pumped well are 1.2 m and 0.5 m, respectively.
Determine:
(i) The transmissibility of the aquifer.
(ii) The drawdown in the pumped well assuming R=300 mR = 300 \, mR=300m.
(iii) The specific capacity of the well.
Solution
Solution
Example 7.4
A tube well taps an artesian aquifer. Find its yield in litres
per hour for a drawdown of 3 m when the diameter of the
well is 20 cm and the thickness of the aquifer is 30 m.
Assume the coefficient of permeability to be 35 m/day.
If the diameter of the well is doubled, find the percentage
increase in the yield, assuming other conditions remain the
same. Assume the radius of influence as 300 m in both
cases
Solution
Solution
Thus, by doubling the diameter, the percentage increase in yield is only about 10%, which is
uneconomical. Larger diameter wells do not necessarily produce proportionately larger
yields. The diameter of a tube well usually ranges from 20 to 30 cm, allowing the bowl
assembly of a deep well or a submersible pump to fit easily.
CAVITY
WELLS
If a relatively thin impervious formation or a stiff clay layer is
encountered at a shallow depth underlain by a thick alluvial
stratum, it is an excellent location for a cavity well. A hole is drilled
using the hand boring set, and casing pipe is lowered to rest firmly
on the stiff clay layer (see Fig. 7.4). A hole of small cross-section
is drilled into the sand formation and is developed into a big hollow
cavity by pumping at a high rate or by operating a plunger,
resulting in large yields.
The depth of the cavity at the center varies from 15-30 cm with a
6-8 m radius. The flow of water into the cavity is spherical, and the
yield is low. Failure of a cavity well is usually due to the caving of
the clay roof. Since the depth is usually small, deep well pumps are
not necessary, which reduces the capital costs of construction,
development, and installation.
Yield of
Cavity Well
For the unsteady flow condition, the pumping rate QQQ of a cavity well is
given by:
HYDRAULICS
WELL
YIELD TESTS
The following tests may be performed to estimate the probable yield of the
well:
In the pumping test, the water level in the well is depressed to an
amount equal to the safe working head for the sub-soil. Then, the
water level is kept constant by adjusting the pumping rate to match
the percolation rate into the well. The quantity of water pumped during
a known time provides an estimate of the probable yield of the well for
a given diameter. This test can be conducted on existing open wells.
In hard-rock areas, if:
D = Diameter of the well
d = Depth of the water column
Q = Pumping rate
t = Time required for emptying the well
Then, the Rate of seepage into the well is given by:
YIELD TESTS
In the recuperation test, the water level in the well is depressed by an amount less
than the safe working head for the subsoil. The pumping is stopped, and the water
level is allowed to rise or recuperate. The depth of recuperation in a known time is
noted, from which the yield of the well may be calculated as follows (Fig. 7.5).
Let the water level inside the well rise from s1to s2 (measured below
static water level, SWL) in time T. If s is the head at any time t, from
Darcy’s law:
Assuming the flow is entirely from the bottom (impervious steining of masonry), the
yield of the well:
Q=CAH
Where:
Q = Safe yield of the well
A = Area of cross-section of the well
H = Safe working depression head
C = Specific yield of the soil
From Eq. (7.17a), Q = C when A = 1, H = 1, i.e., the specific
yield of the soil is the discharge per unit area under a unit
depression head and has dimensions of T−1 (1/time) and the
usual values of C are:
The value of C is usually determined from a recuperation test (Eq. 7.17).
EXAMPLE 7.6
RECUPERATION
RATES
Determine
(i) Rate of seepage into the well during pumping.
(ii) Specific yield of the soil and specific capacity of the well.
(iii) Yield of the well under a safe working depression head of 0.85 m.
(iv) The area of crop that can be irrigated under the well (assume a peak consumptive
use of 4 mm and irrigation efficiency of 75%).
(v) Diameter of the well in such a soil to get a yield of 3000 lph under a safe working
depression head of 0.8 m.
Solution:
From the plot of 's₁/s₂ vs. time' on semi-log paper (Fig. 7.6), it is seen that s₁/s₂ = 9.5 after 24 hours of recovery (by
extending the straight-line plot), and the residual drawdown after 24 hours, s₂₄ = 0.85/9.5 = 0.09 m; hence the depth of
recuperation per day = 0.85 – 0.09 = 0.76 m.
The volume of water available per day = (7.70 × 4.65) = 27.2 m³.
CONSTRUCTION
OF OPEN WELLS
In alluvial soil, open wells are built with an impervious vertical steining to support
the soil and allow water to enter from the bottom. Larger diameter wells are
preferred in these areas to improve water yield. In rocky substrata, water enters
through fissures and cracks, so the lower part of the steining may use dry
masonry without cement. Deeper wells are more effective in rocky areas as long
as fractures are visible, rather than expanding the well’s diameter. Larger wells
require extensive excavation, which reduces the amount of usable land. Existing
wells can be improved by deepening through blasting or by drilling vertical bores
at the bottom, known as dug-cum-borewells. This method reduces suction lift
and costs, while lateral bores can also be drilled to access additional water
sources.
SPACING OF
WELLS
SPACING OF WELLS
Pumping wells should be spaced far apart so that their cones of depression will not
overlap over each other resulting in the reduction of their yields and/or increased
drawdowns (Fig. 7.9), i.e., to avoid 'well interference', the wells should be spaced
beyond their radii of influence. This is roughly estimated to be around 600–1000 m
in alluvial area and around 100–200 m in hard rock areas.
An open dug well should be located beyond the cone of depression of the tubewell;
otherwise when the tubewell is pumping, it will dewater the open well. The open well
can get water only when the tubewell pumping is stopped and fast recuperation
takes place.
Thank You
