Astronomy

Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the
cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall
evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, meteoroids, asteroids,
and comets. Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars,
blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation. More generally, astronomy studies
everything that originates beyond Earth's atmosphere. Cosmology is a branch of astronomy that
studies the universe as a whole.

The Paranal Observatory of European Southern

Observatory shooting a laser guide star to the Galactic
Center

Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history made
methodical observations of the night sky. These include the Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, Indians,
Chinese, Maya, and many ancient indigenous peoples of the Americas. In the past, astronomy
included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, and the
making of calendars.

Professional astronomy is split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational

astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects. This data is
then analyzed using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the
development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena.
These two fields complement each other. Theoretical astronomy seeks to explain observational
results and observations are used to confirm theoretical results.
Astronomy is one of the few sciences in which amateurs play an active role. This is especially true
for the discovery and observation of transient events. Amateur astronomers have helped with many
important discoveries, such as finding new comets.

Etymology

Astronomical Observatory, New South

Wales, Australia 1873

Astronomy (from the Greek ἀστρονομία from ἄστρον astron, "star" and -νομία -nomia from νόμος
nomos, "law" or "culture") means "law of the stars" (or "culture of the stars" depending on the
translation). Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, the belief system which claims that
human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects.[1] Although the two fields share
a common origin, they are now entirely distinct.[2]

Use of terms "astronomy" and "astrophysics"

"Astronomy" and "astrophysics" are synonyms.[3][4][5] Based on strict dictionary definitions,

"astronomy" refers to "the study of objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere and of their
physical and chemical properties",[6] while "astrophysics" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing
with "the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and
phenomena".[7] In some cases, as in the introduction of the introductory textbook The Physical
Universe by Frank Shu, "astronomy" may be used to describe the qualitative study of the subject,
whereas "astrophysics" is used to describe the physics-oriented version of the subject.[8] However,
since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern
astronomy could actually be called astrophysics.[3] Some fields, such as astrometry, are purely
astronomy rather than also astrophysics. Various departments in which scientists carry out
research on this subject may use "astronomy" and "astrophysics", partly depending on whether the
department is historically affiliated with a physics department,[4] and many professional
astronomers have physics rather than astronomy degrees.[5] Some titles of the leading scientific
journals in this field include The Astronomical Journal, The Astrophysical Journal, and Astronomy &
Astrophysics.

History

Pre-historic astronomy

The Nebra sky disc

(c. 1800–1600 BCE), found near a
possibly astronomical complex, most
likely depicting the Sun or full Moon,
the Moon as a crescent, the Pleiades
and the summer and winter solstices
as strips of gold on the side of the
disc,[9][10] with the top representing
the horizon[11] and north.

In early historic times, astronomy only consisted of the observation and predictions of the motions
of objects visible to the naked eye. In some locations, early cultures assembled massive artifacts
that may have had some astronomical purpose. In addition to their ceremonial uses, these
observatories could be employed to determine the seasons, an important factor in knowing when to
plant crops and in understanding the length of the year.[12]
Classical astronomy

A Babylonian planisphere (7th century

BCE). Babylonian astronomy made
early advances in astronomy. Its use
of sexagesimals (e.g. 12, 24, 60, 360)
is still being used today through
having been broadly adopted for
timekeeping and astrometry.[13]

As civilizations developed, most notably in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Persia, India, China, and
Central America, astronomical observatories were assembled and ideas on the nature of the
Universe began to develop. Most early astronomy consisted of mapping the positions of the stars
and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From these observations, early ideas about
the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the
Universe were explored philosophically. The Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with
the Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the geocentric model of the
Universe, or the Ptolemaic system, named after Ptolemy.[14]

A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific
astronomy, which began among the Babylonians, who laid the foundations for the later
astronomical traditions that developed in many other civilizations.[15] The Babylonians discovered
that lunar eclipses recurred in a repeating cycle known as a saros.[16]

Following the Babylonians, significant advances in astronomy were made in ancient Greece and the
Hellenistic world. Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical
explanation for celestial phenomena.[17] In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos estimated the
size and distance of the Moon and Sun, and he proposed a model of the Solar System where the
Earth and planets rotated around the Sun, now called the heliocentric model.[18] In the 2nd century
BC, Hipparchus discovered precession, calculated the size and distance of the Moon and invented
the earliest known astronomical devices such as the astrolabe.[19] Hipparchus also created a
comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere
derive from Greek astronomy.[20] The Antikythera mechanism (c. 150–80 BC) was an early analog
computer designed to calculate the location of the Sun, Moon, and planets for a given date.
Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when
mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.[21]

Post-classical astronomy

Portrait of Alfraganus in the

Compilatio astronomica, 1493. Islamic
astronomers began just before the
9th century to collect and translate
Indian, Persian and Greek
astronomical texts, adding their own
astronomy and enabling later,
particularly European astronomy to
build on.[22]

Astronomy flourished in the Islamic world and other parts of the world. This led to the emergence of
the first astronomical observatories in the Muslim world by the early 9th century.[23][24][25] In 964, the
Andromeda Galaxy, the largest galaxy in the Local Group, was described by the Persian Muslim
astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi in his Book of Fixed Stars.[26] The SN 1006 supernova, the
brightest apparent magnitude stellar event in recorded history, was observed by the Egyptian Arabic
astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and Chinese astronomers in 1006. Iranian scholar Al-Biruni observed
that, contrary to Ptolemy, the Sun's apogee (highest point in the heavens) was mobile, not fixed.[27]
Some of the prominent Islamic (mostly Persian and Arab) astronomers who made significant
contributions to the science include Al-Battani, Thebit, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, Biruni, Abū Ishāq
Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī, Al-Birjandi, and the astronomers of the Maragheh and Samarkand observatories.
Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names now used for individual stars.[28][29]

It is also believed that the ruins at Great Zimbabwe and Timbuktu[30] may have housed astronomical
observatories.[31] In Post-classical West Africa, Astronomers studied the movement of stars and
relation to seasons, crafting charts of the heavens as well as precise diagrams of orbits of the other
planets based on complex mathematical calculations. Songhai historian Mahmud Kati documented
a meteor shower in August 1583.[32][33] Europeans had previously believed that there had been no
astronomical observation in sub-Saharan Africa during the pre-colonial Middle Ages, but modern
discoveries show otherwise.[34][35][36][37]

For over six centuries (from the recovery of ancient learning during the late Middle Ages into the
Enlightenment), the Roman Catholic Church gave more financial and social support to the study of
astronomy than probably all other institutions. Among the Church's motives was finding the date for
Easter.[38]

Medieval Europe housed a number of important astronomers. Richard of Wallingford (1292–1336)

made major contributions to astronomy and horology, including the invention of the first
astronomical clock, the Rectangulus which allowed for the measurement of angles between planets
and other astronomical bodies, as well as an equatorium called the Albion which could be used for
astronomical calculations such as lunar, solar and planetary longitudes and could predict eclipses.
Nicole Oresme (1320–1382) and Jean Buridan (1300–1361) first discussed evidence for the
rotation of the Earth, furthermore, Buridan also developed the theory of impetus (predecessor of the
modern scientific theory of inertia) which was able to show planets were capable of motion without
the intervention of angels.[39] Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) and Regiomontanus (1436–1476)
helped make astronomical progress instrumental to Copernicus's development of the heliocentric
model decades later.
Early telescopic astronomy

The first sketches of the

Moon's topography, from
Galileo's ground-breaking
Sidereus Nuncius (1610),
publishing his findings from
the first telescopic
astronomical observations.

During the Renaissance, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system.
His work was defended by Galileo Galilei and expanded upon by Johannes Kepler. Kepler was the
first to devise a system that correctly described the details of the motion of the planets around the
Sun. However, Kepler did not succeed in formulating a theory behind the laws he wrote down.[40] It
was Isaac Newton, with his invention of celestial dynamics and his law of gravitation, who finally
explained the motions of the planets. Newton also developed the reflecting telescope.[41]

Improvements in the size and quality of the telescope led to further discoveries. The English
astronomer John Flamsteed catalogued over 3000 stars.[42] More extensive star catalogues were
produced by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille. The astronomer William Herschel made a detailed catalog of
nebulosity and clusters, and in 1781 discovered the planet Uranus, the first new planet found.[43]

During the 18–19th centuries, the study of the three-body problem by Leonhard Euler, Alexis Claude
Clairaut, and Jean le Rond d'Alembert led to more accurate predictions about the motions of the
Moon and planets. This work was further refined by Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre Simon
Laplace, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.[44]

Significant advances in astronomy came about with the introduction of new technology, including
the spectroscope and photography. Joseph von Fraunhofer discovered about 600 bands in the
spectrum of the Sun in 1814–15, which, in 1859, Gustav Kirchhoff ascribed to the presence of
different elements. Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide range of
temperatures, masses, and sizes.[28]

Deep space astronomy

The earliest known photograph of the

Great Andromeda "Nebula", by Isaac
Roberts from 29 December 1888.
With the calculation of its distance in
1923 intergalactic space was proven,
allowing the calculation of the age
and expanse of the Universe.

The existence of the Earth's galaxy, the Milky Way, as its own group of stars was only proven in the
20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies. The observed recession of those
galaxies led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe.[45] In 1919, when the Hooker
Telescope was completed, the prevailing view was that the universe consisted entirely of the Milky
Way Galaxy. Using the Hooker Telescope, Edwin Hubble identified Cepheid variables in several spiral
nebulae and in 1922–1923 proved conclusively that Andromeda Nebula and Triangulum among
others, were entire galaxies outside our own, thus proving that the universe consists of a multitude
of galaxies.[46] With this Hubble formulated the Hubble constant, which allowed for the first time a
calculation of the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe, which became
increasingly precise with better meassurements, starting at 2 billion years and 280 million light-
years, until 2006 when data of the Hubble Space Telescope allowed a very accurate calculation of
the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe.[47]
 First ever direct image of a
(supermassive) black hole, taken
2019 in radio wavelength, located at
the core of Messier 87.

Theoretical astronomy led to speculations on the existence of objects such as black holes and
neutron stars, which have been used to explain such observed phenomena as quasars, pulsars,
blazars, and radio galaxies. Physical cosmology made huge advances during the 20th century. In
the early 1900s the model of the Big Bang theory was formulated, heavily evidenced by cosmic
microwave background radiation, Hubble's law, and the cosmological abundances of elements.
Space telescopes have enabled measurements in parts of the electromagnetic spectrum normally
blocked or blurred by the atmosphere.[48] In February 2016, it was revealed that the LIGO project had
detected evidence of gravitational waves in the previous September.[49][50]

Observational astronomy

Overview of types of observational astronomy by observed

wavelengths and their observability
The main source of information about celestial bodies and other objects is visible light, or more
generally electromagnetic radiation.[51] Observational astronomy may be categorized according to
the corresponding region of the electromagnetic spectrum on which the observations are made.
Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the Earth's surface, while other parts are only
observable from either high altitudes or outside the Earth's atmosphere. Specific information on
these subfields is given below.

Radio astronomy

The Very Large Array in New Mexico,

an example of a radio telescope

Radio astronomy uses radiation with wavelengths greater than approximately one millimeter,
outside the visible range.[52] Radio astronomy is different from most other forms of observational
astronomy in that the observed radio waves can be treated as waves rather than as discrete
photons. Hence, it is relatively easier to measure both the amplitude and phase of radio waves,
whereas this is not as easily done at shorter wavelengths.[52]

Although some radio waves are emitted directly by astronomical objects, a product of thermal
emission, most of the radio emission that is observed is the result of synchrotron radiation, which is
produced when electrons orbit magnetic fields.[52] Additionally, a number of spectral lines produced
by interstellar gas, notably the hydrogen spectral line at 21 cm, are observable at radio
wavelengths.[8][52]

A wide variety of other objects are observable at radio wavelengths, including supernovae,
interstellar gas, pulsars, and active galactic nuclei.[8][52]
Infrared astronomy

ALMA Observatory is one of the

highest observatory sites on Earth.
Atacama, Chile.[53]

Infrared astronomy is founded on the detection and analysis of infrared radiation, wavelengths
longer than red light and outside the range of our vision. The infrared spectrum is useful for
studying objects that are too cold to radiate visible light, such as planets, circumstellar disks or
nebulae whose light is blocked by dust. The longer wavelengths of infrared can penetrate clouds of
dust that block visible light, allowing the observation of young stars embedded in molecular clouds
and the cores of galaxies. Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) have
been particularly effective at unveiling numerous galactic protostars and their host star
clusters.[54][55] With the exception of infrared wavelengths close to visible light, such radiation is
heavily absorbed by the atmosphere, or masked, as the atmosphere itself produces significant
infrared emission. Consequently, infrared observatories have to be located in high, dry places on
Earth or in space.[56] Some molecules radiate strongly in the infrared. This allows the study of the
chemistry of space; more specifically it can detect water in comets.[57]

Optical astronomy

The Subaru Telescope (left) and Keck

Observatory (center) on Mauna Kea,
both examples of an observatory that
operates at near-infrared and visible
wavelengths. The NASA Infrared
Telescope Facility (right) is an
example of a telescope that operates
only at near-infrared wavelengths.
Historically, optical astronomy, which has been also called visible light astronomy, is the oldest form
of astronomy.[58] Images of observations were originally drawn by hand. In the late 19th century and
most of the 20th century, images were made using photographic equipment. Modern images are
made using digital detectors, particularly using charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and recorded on
modern medium. Although visible light itself extends from approximately 4000 Å to 7000 Å (400 nm
to 700 nm),[58] that same equipment can be used to observe some near-ultraviolet and near-infrared
radiation.

Ultraviolet astronomy

Ultraviolet astronomy employs ultraviolet wavelengths between approximately 100 and 3200 Å (10
to 320 nm).[52] Light at those wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, requiring
observations at these wavelengths to be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space.
Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines
from hot blue stars (OB stars) that are very bright in this wave band. This includes the blue stars in
other galaxies, which have been the targets of several ultraviolet surveys. Other objects commonly
observed in ultraviolet light include planetary nebulae, supernova remnants, and active galactic
nuclei.[52] However, as ultraviolet light is easily absorbed by interstellar dust, an adjustment of
ultraviolet measurements is necessary.[52]

X-ray astronomy

X-ray jet made from a supermassive

black hole found by NASA's Chandra
X-ray Observatory, made visible by
light from the early Universe

X-ray astronomy uses X-ray wavelengths. Typically, X-ray radiation is produced by synchrotron
emission (the result of electrons orbiting magnetic field lines), thermal emission from thin gases
above 107 (10 million) kelvins, and thermal emission from thick gases above 107 Kelvin.[52] Since X-
rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, all X-ray observations must be performed from high-
altitude balloons, rockets, or X-ray astronomy satellites. Notable X-ray sources include X-ray
binaries, pulsars, supernova remnants, elliptical galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and active galactic
nuclei.[52]

Gamma-ray astronomy

Gamma ray astronomy observes astronomical objects at the shortest wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as the
Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov
telescopes.[52] The Cherenkov telescopes do not detect the gamma rays directly but instead detect
the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere.[59]

Most gamma-ray emitting sources are actually gamma-ray bursts, objects which only produce
gamma radiation for a few milliseconds to thousands of seconds before fading away. Only 10% of
gamma-ray sources are non-transient sources. These steady gamma-ray emitters include pulsars,
neutron stars, and black hole candidates such as active galactic nuclei.[52]

Fields not based on the electromagnetic spectrum

In addition to electromagnetic radiation, a few other events originating from great distances may be
observed from the Earth.

In neutrino astronomy, astronomers use heavily shielded underground facilities such as SAGE,
GALLEX, and Kamioka II/III for the detection of neutrinos. The vast majority of the neutrinos
streaming through the Earth originate from the Sun, but 24 neutrinos were also detected from
supernova 1987A.[52] Cosmic rays, which consist of very high energy particles (atomic nuclei) that
can decay or be absorbed when they enter the Earth's atmosphere, result in a cascade of secondary
particles which can be detected by current observatories.[60] Some future neutrino detectors may
also be sensitive to the particles produced when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere.[52]

Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging field of astronomy that employs gravitational-wave

detectors to collect observational data about distant massive objects. A few observatories have
been constructed, such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatory LIGO. LIGO made its
first detection on 14 September 2015, observing gravitational waves from a binary black hole.[61] A
second gravitational wave was detected on 26 December 2015 and additional observations should
continue but gravitational waves require extremely sensitive instruments.[62][63]

The combination of observations made using electromagnetic radiation, neutrinos or gravitational

waves and other complementary information, is known as multi-messenger astronomy.[64][65]

Astrometry and celestial mechanics

Star cluster Pismis 24 with a nebula

One of the oldest fields in astronomy, and in all of science, is the measurement of the positions of
celestial objects. Historically, accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and
stars has been essential in celestial navigation (the use of celestial objects to guide navigation) and
in the making of calendars.[66]: 39

Careful measurement of the positions of the planets has led to a solid understanding of
gravitational perturbations, and an ability to determine past and future positions of the planets with
great accuracy, a field known as celestial mechanics. More recently the tracking of near-Earth
objects will allow for predictions of close encounters or potential collisions of the Earth with those
objects.[67]

The measurement of stellar parallax of nearby stars provides a fundamental baseline in the cosmic
distance ladder that is used to measure the scale of the Universe. Parallax measurements of nearby
stars provide an absolute baseline for the properties of more distant stars, as their properties can
be compared. Measurements of the radial velocity and proper motion of stars allow astronomers to
plot the movement of these systems through the Milky Way galaxy. Astrometric results are the basis
used to calculate the distribution of speculated dark matter in the galaxy.[68]

During the 1990s, the measurement of the stellar wobble of nearby stars was used to detect large
extrasolar planets orbiting those stars.[69]

Theoretical astronomy

Theoretical astronomers use several tools including analytical models and computational numerical
simulations; each has its particular advantages. Analytical models of a process are better for giving
broader insight into the heart of what is going on. Numerical models reveal the existence of
phenomena and effects otherwise unobserved.[70][71]

Theorists in astronomy endeavor to create theoretical models that are based on existing
observations and known physics, and to predict observational consequences of those models. The
observation of phenomena predicted by a model allows astronomers to select between several
alternative or conflicting models. Theorists also modify existing models to take into account new
observations. In some cases, a large amount of observational data that is inconsistent with a model
may lead to abandoning it largely or completely, as for geocentric theory, the existence of
luminiferous aether, and the steady-state model of cosmic evolution.

Phenomena modeled by theoretical astronomers include:

stellar dynamics and evolution

galaxy formation

large-scale distribution of matter in the Universe

the origin of cosmic rays

general relativity and physical cosmology, including string cosmology and astroparticle physics.

Modern theoretical astronomy reflects dramatic advances in observation since the 1990s, including
studies of the cosmic microwave background, distant supernovae and galaxy redshifts, which have
led to the development of a standard model of cosmology. This model requires the universe to
contain large amounts of dark matter and dark energy whose nature is currently not well
understood, but the model gives detailed predictions that are in excellent agreement with many
diverse observations.[72]
Specific subfields

Astrophysics

Astrophysics applies physics and

chemistry to understand the
measurements made by astronomy.
Representation of the Observable
Universe that includes images from
Hubble and other telescopes.

Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that employs the principles of physics and chemistry "to
ascertain the nature of the astronomical objects, rather than their positions or motions in
space".[73][74] Among the objects studied are the Sun, other stars, galaxies, extrasolar planets, the
interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background.[75][76] Their emissions are examined
across all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the properties examined include luminosity,
density, temperature, and chemical composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject,
astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism,
statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics,
and atomic and molecular physics.

In practice, modern astronomical research often involves a substantial amount of work in the
realms of theoretical and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include
their attempts to determine the properties of dark matter, dark energy, and black holes; whether or
not time travel is possible, wormholes can form, or the multiverse exists; and the origin and ultimate
fate of the universe.[75] Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include Solar System
formation and evolution; stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation and evolution;
magnetohydrodynamics; large-scale structure of matter in the universe; origin of cosmic rays;
general relativity and physical cosmology, including string cosmology and astroparticle physics.
Astrochemistry

Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of molecules in the Universe, and their
interaction with radiation. The discipline is an overlap of astronomy and chemistry. The word
"astrochemistry" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium. The study of
the abundance of elements and isotope ratios in Solar System objects, such as meteorites, is also
called cosmochemistry, while the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction
with radiation is sometimes called molecular astrophysics. The formation, atomic and chemical
composition, evolution and fate of molecular gas clouds is of special interest, because it is from
these clouds that solar systems form. Studies in this field contribute to the understanding of the
formation of the Solar System, Earth's origin and geology, abiogenesis, and the origin of climate and
oceans.[77]

Astrobiology

Astrobiology is an interdisciplinary scientific field concerned with the origins, early evolution,
distribution, and future of life in the universe. Astrobiology considers the question of whether
extraterrestrial life exists, and how humans can detect it if it does.[78] The term exobiology is
similar.[79]

Astrobiology makes use of molecular biology, biophysics, biochemistry, chemistry, astronomy,

physical cosmology, exoplanetology and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds
and help recognize biospheres that might be different from that on Earth.[80] The origin and early
evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology.[81] Astrobiology concerns
itself with interpretation of existing scientific data, and although speculation is entertained to give
context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific
theories.

This interdisciplinary field encompasses research on the origin of planetary systems, origins of
organic compounds in space, rock-water-carbon interactions, abiogenesis on Earth, planetary
habitability, research on biosignatures for life detection, and studies on the potential for life to adapt
to challenges on Earth and in outer space.[82][83][84]

Physical cosmology

Cosmology (from the Greek κόσμος (kosmos) "world, universe" and λόγος (logos) "word, study" or
literally "logic") could be considered the study of the Universe as a whole.

Hubble Extreme Deep Field

Observations of the large-scale structure of the Universe, a branch known as physical cosmology,
have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos. Fundamental to
modern cosmology is the well-accepted theory of the Big Bang, wherein our Universe began at a
single point in time, and thereafter expanded over the course of 13.8 billion years[85] to its present
condition.[86] The concept of the Big Bang can be traced back to the discovery of the microwave
background radiation in 1965.[86]

In the course of this expansion, the Universe underwent several evolutionary stages. In the very early
moments, it is theorized that the Universe experienced a very rapid cosmic inflation, which
homogenized the starting conditions. Thereafter, nucleosynthesis produced the elemental
abundance of the early Universe.[86] (See also nucleocosmochronology.)

When the first neutral atoms formed from a sea of primordial ions, space became transparent to
radiation, releasing the energy viewed today as the microwave background radiation. The expanding
Universe then underwent a Dark Age due to the lack of stellar energy sources.[87]

A hierarchical structure of matter began to form from minute variations in the mass density of
space. Matter accumulated in the densest regions, forming clouds of gas and the earliest stars, the
Population III stars. These massive stars triggered the reionization process and are believed to have
created many of the heavy elements in the early Universe, which, through nuclear decay, create
lighter elements, allowing the cycle of nucleosynthesis to continue longer.[88]

Gravitational aggregations clustered into filaments, leaving voids in the gaps. Gradually,
organizations of gas and dust merged to form the first primitive galaxies. Over time, these pulled in
more matter, and were often organized into groups and clusters of galaxies, then into larger-scale
superclusters.[89]
Fundamental to the structure of the Universe is the existence of dark matter and dark energy. These
are now thought to be its dominant components, forming 96% of the mass of the Universe. For this
reason, much effort is expended in trying to understand the physics of these components.[90]

Extragalactic astronomy

This image shows several blue, loop-

shaped objects that are multiple
images of the same galaxy,
duplicated by the gravitational lens
effect of the cluster of yellow galaxies
near the middle of the photograph.
The lens is produced by the cluster's
gravitational field that bends light to
magnify and distort the image of a
more distant object.

The study of objects outside our galaxy is a branch of astronomy concerned with the formation and
evolution of galaxies, their morphology (description) and classification, the observation of active
galaxies, and at a larger scale, the groups and clusters of galaxies. Finally, the latter is important for
the understanding of the large-scale structure of the cosmos.[66]

Most galaxies are organized into distinct shapes that allow for classification schemes. They are
commonly divided into spiral, elliptical and Irregular galaxies.[91]

As the name suggests, an elliptical galaxy has the cross-sectional shape of an ellipse. The stars
move along random orbits with no preferred direction. These galaxies contain little or no interstellar
dust, few star-forming regions, and older stars.[66]: 877–878 Elliptical galaxies may have been formed
by other galaxies merging.[66]: 939

A spiral galaxy is organized into a flat, rotating disk, usually with a prominent bulge or bar at the
center, and trailing bright arms that spiral outward. The arms are dusty regions of star formation
within which massive young stars produce a blue tint. Spiral galaxies are typically surrounded by a
halo of older stars. Both the Milky Way and one of our nearest galaxy neighbors, the Andromeda
Galaxy, are spiral galaxies.[66]: 875

Irregular galaxies are chaotic in appearance, and are neither spiral nor elliptical.[66]: 879 About a
quarter of all galaxies are irregular, and the peculiar shapes of such galaxies may be the result of
gravitational interaction.[92]

An active galaxy is a formation that emits a significant amount of its energy from a source other
than its stars, dust and gas. It is powered by a compact region at the core, thought to be a
supermassive black hole that is emitting radiation from in-falling material.[66]: 907 A radio galaxy is
an active galaxy that is very luminous in the radio portion of the spectrum, and is emitting immense
plumes or lobes of gas. Active galaxies that emit shorter frequency, high-energy radiation include
Seyfert galaxies, quasars, and blazars. Quasars are believed to be the most consistently luminous
objects in the known universe.[93]

The large-scale structure of the cosmos is represented by groups and clusters of galaxies. This
structure is organized into a hierarchy of groupings, with the largest being the superclusters. The
collective matter is formed into filaments and walls, leaving large voids between.[94]

Galactic astronomy

Observed structure of the Milky Way's

spiral arms

The Solar System orbits within the Milky Way, a barred spiral galaxy that is a prominent member of
the Local Group of galaxies. It is a rotating mass of gas, dust, stars and other objects, held together
by mutual gravitational attraction. As the Earth is located within the dusty outer arms, there are large
portions of the Milky Way that are obscured from view.[66]: 837–842, 944
In the center of the Milky Way is the core, a bar-shaped bulge with what is believed to be a
supermassive black hole at its center. This is surrounded by four primary arms that spiral from the
core. This is a region of active star formation that contains many younger, population I stars. The
disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo of older, population II stars, as well as relatively dense
concentrations of stars known as globular clusters.[95]

Between the stars lies the interstellar medium, a region of sparse matter. In the densest regions,
molecular clouds of molecular hydrogen and other elements create star-forming regions. These
begin as a compact pre-stellar core or dark nebulae, which concentrate and collapse (in volumes
determined by the Jeans length) to form compact protostars.[96]

As the more massive stars appear, they transform the cloud into an H II region (ionized atomic
hydrogen) of glowing gas and plasma. The stellar wind and supernova explosions from these stars
eventually cause the cloud to disperse, often leaving behind one or more young open clusters of
stars. These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way.[97]

Kinematic studies of matter in the Milky Way and other galaxies have demonstrated that there is
more mass than can be accounted for by visible matter. A dark matter halo appears to dominate the
mass, although the nature of this dark matter remains undetermined.[98]

Stellar astronomy

Mz 3, often referred to as the Ant

planetary nebula. Ejecting gas from
the dying central star shows
symmetrical patterns unlike the
chaotic patterns of ordinary
explosions.

The study of stars and stellar evolution is fundamental to our understanding of the Universe. The
astrophysics of stars has been determined through observation and theoretical understanding; and
from computer simulations of the interior.[99] Star formation occurs in dense regions of dust and
gas, known as giant molecular clouds. When destabilized, cloud fragments can collapse under the
influence of gravity, to form a protostar. A sufficiently dense, and hot, core region will trigger nuclear
fusion, thus creating a main-sequence star.[96]

Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created inside the cores of stars.[99]

The characteristics of the resulting star depend primarily upon its starting mass. The more massive
the star, the greater its luminosity, and the more rapidly it fuses its hydrogen fuel into helium in its
core. Over time, this hydrogen fuel is completely converted into helium, and the star begins to
evolve. The fusion of helium requires a higher core temperature. A star with a high enough core
temperature will push its outer layers outward while increasing its core density. The resulting red
giant formed by the expanding outer layers enjoys a brief life span, before the helium fuel in the core
is in turn consumed. Very massive stars can also undergo a series of evolutionary phases, as they
fuse increasingly heavier elements.[100]

The final fate of the star depends on its mass, with stars of mass greater than about eight times the
Sun becoming core collapse supernovae;[101] while smaller stars blow off their outer layers and
leave behind the inert core in the form of a white dwarf. The ejection of the outer layers forms a
planetary nebula.[102] The remnant of a supernova is a dense neutron star, or, if the stellar mass was
at least three times that of the Sun, a black hole.[103] Closely orbiting binary stars can follow more
complex evolutionary paths, such as mass transfer onto a white dwarf companion that can
potentially cause a supernova.[104] Planetary nebulae and supernovae distribute the "metals"
produced in the star by fusion to the interstellar medium; without them, all new stars (and their
planetary systems) would be formed from hydrogen and helium alone.[105]

Solar astronomy

An ultraviolet image of the Sun's

active photosphere as viewed by the
NASA's TRACE space telescope.
 Solar observatory Lomnický štít
(Slovakia) built in 1962

At a distance of about eight light-minutes, the most frequently studied star is the Sun, a typical
main-sequence dwarf star of stellar class G2 V, and about 4.6 billion years (Gyr) old. The Sun is not
considered a variable star, but it does undergo periodic changes in activity known as the sunspot
cycle. This is an 11-year oscillation in sunspot number. Sunspots are regions of lower-than-average
temperatures that are associated with intense magnetic activity.[106]

The Sun has steadily increased in luminosity by 40% since it first became a main-sequence star. The
Sun has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a significant impact on the
Earth.[107] The Maunder minimum, for example, is believed to have caused the Little Ice Age
phenomenon during the Middle Ages.[108]

At the center of the Sun is the core region, a volume of sufficient temperature and pressure for
nuclear fusion to occur. Above the core is the radiation zone, where the plasma conveys the energy
flux by means of radiation. Above that is the convection zone where the gas material transports
energy primarily through physical displacement of the gas known as convection. It is believed that
the movement of mass within the convection zone creates the magnetic activity that generates
sunspots.[106] The visible outer surface of the Sun is called the photosphere. Above this layer is a
thin region known as the chromosphere. This is surrounded by a transition region of rapidly
increasing temperatures, and finally by the super-heated corona.[66]: 498–502

A solar wind of plasma particles constantly streams outward from the Sun until, at the outermost
limit of the Solar System, it reaches the heliopause. As the solar wind passes the Earth, it interacts
with the Earth's magnetic field (magnetosphere) and deflects the solar wind, but traps some
creating the Van Allen radiation belts that envelop the Earth. The aurora are created when solar wind
particles are guided by the magnetic flux lines into the Earth's polar regions where the lines then
descend into the atmosphere.[109]
Planetary science

The black spot at the top is a dust

devil climbing a crater wall on Mars.
This moving, swirling column of
Martian atmosphere (comparable to a
terrestrial tornado) created the long,
dark streak.

Planetary science is the study of the assemblage of planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets,
asteroids, and other bodies orbiting the Sun, as well as extrasolar planets. The Solar System has
been relatively well-studied, initially through telescopes and then later by spacecraft. This has
provided a good overall understanding of the formation and evolution of the Sun's planetary system,
although many new discoveries are still being made.[110]

The Solar System is divided into the inner Solar System (subdivided into the inner planets and the
asteroid belt), the outer Solar System (subdivided into the outer planets and centaurs), comets, the
trans-Neptunian region (subdivided into the Kuiper belt, and the scattered disc) and the farthest
regions (e.g., boundaries of the heliosphere, and the Oort Cloud, which may extend as far as a light-
year). The inner terrestrial planets consist of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The outer giant
planets are the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn) and the ice giants (Uranus and Neptune).[111]

The planets were formed 4.6 billion years ago in the protoplanetary disk that surrounded the early
Sun. Through a process that included gravitational attraction, collision, and accretion, the disk
formed clumps of matter that, with time, became protoplanets. The radiation pressure of the solar
wind then expelled most of the unaccreted matter, and only those planets with sufficient mass
retained their gaseous atmosphere. The planets continued to sweep up, or eject, the remaining
matter during a period of intense bombardment, evidenced by the many impact craters on the
Moon. During this period, some of the protoplanets may have collided and one such collision may
have formed the Moon.[112]

Once a planet reaches sufficient mass, the materials of different densities segregate within, during
planetary differentiation. This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle
and an outer crust. The core may include solid and liquid regions, and some planetary cores
generate their own magnetic field, which can protect their atmospheres from solar wind
stripping.[113]

A planet or moon's interior heat is produced from the collisions that created the body, by the decay
of radioactive materials (e.g. uranium, thorium, and 26Al), or tidal heating caused by interactions with
other bodies. Some planets and moons accumulate enough heat to drive geologic processes such
as volcanism and tectonics. Those that accumulate or retain an atmosphere can also undergo
surface erosion from wind or water. Smaller bodies, without tidal heating, cool more quickly; and
their geological activity ceases with the exception of impact cratering.[114]

Interdisciplinary studies

Astronomy and astrophysics have developed significant interdisciplinary links with other major
scientific fields. Archaeoastronomy is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies in their cultural
context, utilizing archaeological and anthropological evidence. Astrobiology is the study of the
advent and evolution of biological systems in the Universe, with particular emphasis on the
possibility of non-terrestrial life. Astrostatistics is the application of statistics to astrophysics to the
analysis of a vast amount of observational astrophysical data.[115]

The study of chemicals found in space, including their formation, interaction and destruction, is
called astrochemistry. These substances are usually found in molecular clouds, although they may
also appear in low-temperature stars, brown dwarfs and planets. Cosmochemistry is the study of
the chemicals found within the Solar System, including the origins of the elements and variations in
the isotope ratios. Both of these fields represent an overlap of the disciplines of astronomy and
chemistry. As "forensic astronomy", finally, methods from astronomy have been used to solve
problems of art history[116][117] and occasionally of law.[118]
Amateur astronomy

Amateur astronomers can

build their own equipment,
and hold star parties and
gatherings, such as
Stellafane.

Astronomy is one of the sciences to which amateurs can contribute the most.[119]

Collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena sometimes
with consumer-level equipment or equipment that they build themselves. Common targets of
amateur astronomers include the Sun, the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers, and a
variety of deep-sky objects such as star clusters, galaxies, and nebulae. Astronomy clubs are
located throughout the world and many have programs to help their members set up and complete
observational programs including those to observe all the objects in the Messier (110 objects) or
Herschel 400 catalogues of points of interest in the night sky. One branch of amateur astronomy,
astrophotography, involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Many amateurs like to specialize in
the observation of particular objects, types of objects, or types of events that interest them.[120][121]

Most amateurs work at visible wavelengths, but many experiment with wavelengths outside the
visible spectrum. This includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the
use of radio telescopes. The pioneer of amateur radio astronomy was Karl Jansky, who started
observing the sky at radio wavelengths in the 1930s. A number of amateur astronomers use either
homemade telescopes or use radio telescopes which were originally built for astronomy research
but which are now available to amateurs (e.g. the One-Mile Telescope).[122][123]

Amateur astronomers continue to make scientific contributions to the field of astronomy and it is
one of the few scientific disciplines where amateurs can still make significant contributions.
Amateurs can make occultation measurements that are used to refine the orbits of minor planets.
They can also discover comets, and perform regular observations of variable stars. Improvements
in digital technology have allowed amateurs to make impressive advances in the field of
astrophotography.[124][125][126]

Unsolved problems in astronomy

In the 21st century there remain important unanswered questions in astronomy. Some are cosmic in
scope: for example, what are dark matter and dark energy? These dominate the evolution and fate
of the cosmos, yet their true nature remains unknown.[127] What will be the ultimate fate of the
universe?[128] Why is the abundance of lithium in the cosmos four times lower than predicted by the
standard Big Bang model?[129] Others pertain to more specific classes of phenomena. For example,
is the Solar System normal or atypical?[130] What is the origin of the stellar mass spectrum? That is,
why do astronomers observe the same distribution of stellar masses—the initial mass function—
apparently regardless of the initial conditions?[131] Likewise, questions remain about the formation
of the first galaxies,[132] the origin of supermassive black holes,[133] the source of ultra-high-energy
cosmic rays,[134] and more.

Is there other life in the Universe? Especially, is there other intelligent life? If so, what is the
explanation for the Fermi paradox? The existence of life elsewhere has important scientific and
philosophical implications.[135][136]

See also

Cosmogony – Theory or model concerning the origin of the universe

Outline of astronomy – Overview of the scientific field of astronomy

Outline of space science – Overview of and topical guide to space science

Space exploration – Exploration of space, planets, and moons

Lists

Glossary of astronomy

List of astronomical instruments – Devices for observing, measuring, or recording astronomical

data

List of astronomical observatories

List of astronomy acronyms

List of software for astronomy research and education

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