COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

MS. SHERRY ROSE M. MATEO | PSY225

COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

TOPIC OUTLINE GROSS ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN:

I. Cognition in the Brain: The Anatomy and FOREBRAIN, MIDBRAIN, AND HINDBRAIN
Mechanisms of the Brain
a. Gross Anatomy of the Brain: FOREBRAIN
Forebrain, Midbrain, and Hindbrain
b. Cerebral Cortex and Localization of ➢ Is the region of the brain located toward
Function the top and front of the brain. It includes
c. Neuronal Structure and Function the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia, the
II. Viewing the Structures and Functions of
the Brain limbic system, the thalamus, and the
a. Postmortem Studies hypothalamus
b. Studying live Nonhuman animals o Cerebral Cortex - is the outer layer of the
c. Studying live humans cerebral hemispheres. It plays a vital role
III. Brain Disorders
a. Stroke in our thinking and other mental
b. Brain tumors processes.
c. Head injuries o Basal Ganglia - are collections of
neurons crucial to motor function
COGNITION IN THE BRAIN: THE ANATOMY o Limbic System – is important to emotion,
AND MECHANISMS OF THE BRAIN motivation, memory, and learning.
▪ 3 central interconnected cerebral
➢ Terminologies:
structures
o Cognitive Neuroscience- studies how
1. Septum - is involved in anger and
the brain and other aspects of the
fear
nervous system are linked to cognitive
2. Amygdala - plays an important
processing and, ultimately, to
role in emotion as well, especially
behavior.
in anger and aggression.
o Brain- is the organ in our bodies that
3. Hippocampus - is essential in
most directly controls our thoughts,
memory formation
emotions, and motivations
o Thalamus - relays incoming sensory
o Localization of function- refers to the
information through groups of neurons
specific areas of the brain that control
that project to the appropriate region in
specific skills or behaviors.
the cortex
o Nervous system- the basis for our
o Hypothalamus - regulates behavior
ability to perceive, adapt to, and
related to species survival: fighting,
interact with the world around us The
feeding, fleeing, and mating. It also helps
brain is the supreme organ of the
regulate emotions and react to stress. It
nervous system.

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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
MS. SHERRY ROSE M. MATEO | PSY225
is also important for the functioning of CEREBRAL CORTEX AND LOCALIZATION OF
the endocrine system FUNCTION

MIDBRAIN CEREBRAL CORTEX

➢ Helps to control eye movement and ➢ plays an extremely important role in

coordination. human cognition
o Superior Colliculi – involved in vision ➢ It forms a 1–3-millimeter layer that wraps
o Inferior Colliculi – involved in hearing the surface of the brain.
o Reticular Activating System - is a ➢ It forms the outer layer of the two halves of
network of neurons essential to the brain—the left and right cerebral
regulating consciousness, including hemispheres
sleep; wakefulness; arousal; attention; ➢ 3 ELEMENTS OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
and vital functions such as heartbeat 1. Sulci – small grooves
and breathing. 2. Fissures – large grooves
3. Gyri – are bulges between adjacent
HINDBRAIN
sulci or fissures
➢ Controls the body's vital functions such as o Left Cerebral Hemisphere - directs the
respiration and heart rate. It comprises the motor responses on the right side of the
medulla oblongata, the pons, and the body
cerebellum o Right Cerebral Hemisphere - directs
o Medulla Oblongata - controls heart responses on the left side of the brain
activity and largely controls breathing, o Contralateral - information
swallowing, and digestion transmission from one side to another
o Pons - contains neural fibers that pass o Ipsilateral - information transmission
signals from one part of the brain to on the same side
another. o Corpus Callosum - is a dense aggregate
o Cerebellum - controls bodily of neural fibers connecting the two
coordination, balance, and muscle cerebral hemispheres. It transmits
tone. information back and forth

HEMISPHERIC SPECIALIZATION

➢ Marc Dax
o Country doctor in France who first
found out about the study of
hemispheric specialization in the
human brain.

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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
MS. SHERRY ROSE M. MATEO | PSY225
o In 1836, he treated more than 40 locations in the brain yielded different
patients suffering from aphasia results.
because of brain damage. o Apparently, his research was limited by
o He noticed a relationship between the the technology available to him at the
loss of speech and the side of the brain time
in which damage had occurred. ➢ Split Brain Patients
o He saw that in every case there had o are patients who have undergone an
been damage to the left hemisphere of operation severing the corpus callosum
the brain
LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
➢ Paul Broca
o In 1861, French scientist who claimed 1. Frontal Lobe - toward the front of the
that an autopsy revealed that an brain, is associated with motor processing
aphasic stroke patient had a lesion in and higher thought processes, such as
the left cerebral hemisphere of the abstract reasoning, problem solving,
brain. planning, and judgement. It contains the
o He was convinced that the left primary motor cortex, which specializes
hemisphere is critical in speech. in the planning, control, and execution of
o The specific part that he identified is movement, particularly of movement
now called Broca’s area, contributes to involving any kind of delayed response
speech. 2. Parietal Lobe - at the upper back portion
➢ Carl Wernicke of the brain, is associated with
o German neurologist who studied somatosensory processing. The primary
language-deficient patients who could somatosensory cortex receives
speak but whose speech made no information from the senses about
sense. pressure, texture, temperature, and pain.
o Like Broca, he traced language ability to 3. Temporal Lobe - is located below the
the left hemisphere. parietal lobe, directly under your temples.
o He studied a different precise location, It is associated with auditory processing
now known as Wernicke’s area, which and comprehending language. It is also
contributes to language comprehension involved in retaining visual memories.
➢ Karl Spencer Lashley 4. Occipital Lobe - is associated with visual
o Often described as the Father of processing. It contains numerous visual
Neuropsychology areas, each specialized to analyze
o He started studying localization in 1915 specific aspects of scene, including color,
o He found that implantations of crudely motion, location, and form.
built electrodes in apparently identical

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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
MS. SHERRY ROSE M. MATEO | PSY225
5. Projection Areas - are the areas in the ▪ Receives nerve impulses from other
lobes in which sensory processing neurons.
occurs. These areas are referred to as ▪ Collect and stores information.
projection areas because the nerves ▪ Deliver the signals to the cell body.
contain sensory information going to the 3. Axon Hillock
thalamus ▪ Located at the end of the soma.
Controls the firing of the neuron.
4 DIFFERENT BRAIN REGIONS
4. Axon
1. Dorsal - upside of the brain (literally ▪ Carry nerve impulses from the cell
means “back”, and in animals the back is body to the other neurons.
on the upside of the body) ▪ Responds to the information through
2. Ventral - bottom surface of the transmitting electrochemical signal.
body/brain (the side of the stomach) ▪ Can connect to sensory neurons,
3. Caudal - refers to the back part of the motor neurons, and interneurons
body/brain (literally means “tail”) ▪ Myelin
4. Rostral - front part of the brain (literally • Connects neurons in somatic
the “nasal region”) nervous systems.
NEURONAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION • Myelin Sheath- the white, fatty
substance that surrounds some of
NEURONS the axons of the nervous system.
➢ Responsible for transmitting electrical • Nodes of Ranvier- small gaps in
signals from one location to another in the the myelin coating along the axon
nervous system. ▪ Unmyelinated Axons
➢ Neocortex of the brain • Not covered with myelin sheath.
➢ 86 billion neurons • Connects neurons in the
➢ BASIC PARTS OF NEURONS: automatic nervous system
1. Soma (Cell body) 5. Terminal Buttons
▪ Contains the nucleus of the cell. ▪ Small knobs found at the ends of the
▪ Life of the neuron branches of an axon, below the myelin
▪ Produces the proteins for other parts sheath.
of the neuron. ▪ Responsible for sending the signal to
▪ Acts as a bridge between the other neurons.
dendrites to the axon. ▪ Synapse- serves as a juncture
2. Dendrites between the terminal buttons of one
▪ Branchlike structures. or more neurons and the dendrites (or
sometimes the soma) of one or more
other neurons
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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
MS. SHERRY ROSE M. MATEO | PSY225
NEUROTRANSMISSION

➢ Monoamine Neurotransmitter
o Regulate consciousness, cognition,
attention, and emotion.
➢ Amino-Acid Neurotransmitters
o Involved in most functions of the
nervous system.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
➢ C. Neuropeptides
➢ Messengers that transmit information o Chains of amino acids
across the synaptic gap to the receiving ➢ Acetylcholine
dendrites. o A neurotransmitter that plays a role in
➢ Located in the axon terminal, stored memory, learning, attention, arousal,
within thin-walled sacs called synaptic and involuntary muscle movement.
vesicles. o Low acetylcholine levels include
➢ Controls: Alzheimer’s disease, Myasthenia
o Heartbeat and blood pressure gravis, etc
o Breathing ➢ Dopamine
o Stress response o Associated with attention, learning,
o Senses and movement coordination.
o Thoughts, memory, learning and o Schizophrenics show high levels of
feelings, dopamine.
o Muscle Movements o Parkinson’s disease shows low
➢ Transmits to the target cell dopamine levels.
o Excitatory neurotransmitters - ➢ Serotonin
“Excites the neuron.” (i.e., epinephrine o Associated in eating behavior and
and norepinephrine) body-weight regulation.
o Inhibitory neurotransmitters - Block or o Also involved in aggression and
prevent the chemical message (i.e., regulation of impulsivity.
Glycine and Serotonin) o High serotonin levels play a role in
o Modulatory neurotransmitters - some types of anorexia.
Influences the effects of other chemical
messengers

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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
MS. SHERRY ROSE M. MATEO | PSY225
VIEWING THE STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS o Cannot be used with humans
OF THE BRAIN ➢ Selective lesioning
o In selective lesioning, part of the brain
POSTMORTEM STUDIES
is surgically removed or damaged to
➢ Postmortem studies and brain observe resulting functional deficits
dissections have been done for centuries. o Can be done through the
➢ In more recent times, postmortem administering of drug
examinations of victims of Alzheimer’s ➢ Genetic Knock-out Procedures
disease (an illness that causes o Generally known as genetic
devastating losses of memory). manipulation
➢ It is limited because it cannot be o Animals can be created without
performed on the living brain. certain kinds of brain cells or
➢ Do not offer insights into more specific receptors
physiological processes of the brain
STUDYING LIVE HUMANS
STUDYING LIVE NONHUMAN ANIMALS
➢ Electrical Recordings
➢ Terminologies: o Recorded transmission of brain
o Vivo signals through electrical potentials
▪ “Within the living” appears as frequencies and
▪ in vivo technique is a process or a intensities.
procedure of testing that is ▪ Electroencephalograms (EEGs)
conducted on living biological - Changes in electrical potentials
entities instead of the more are recorded via electrodes
traditional method of testing attached to scalp.
extracted tissues or dead - Relatively noninvasive.
(postmortem) organisms. - Not precise.
➢ The study on the changing activity of a ▪ Event-related Potential (ERP)
living brain is adapted in vivo techniques - Changes in electrical potentials
which were then only done on animals are recorded via electrodes
and not on humans. attached to scalp.
➢ Single-Cell Recordings - Relatively noninvasive.
o A thin electrode is inserted next to a - Does not show actual brain
single neuron. images
o Changes in electrical activity ➢ Static Imaging Techniques
occurring in the cell are then o Brain Angiogram
recorded. ▪ A brain angiogram highlights the
o Precise. blood vessels of the brain.

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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
MS. SHERRY ROSE M. MATEO | PSY225
▪Allow for the observation of large when a person is engaged in a
abnormalities of the brain, such as particular task
damage resulting from strokes or ➢ Metabolic Imaging
tumors. They are limited in their o Metabolic imaging techniques rely on
resolution, however, and cannot changes that take place within the
provide much information about brain because of increased
smaller lesions and aberrations consumption of glucose and oxygen in
o CT scan active areas of the brain.
▪ A CT image of a brain uses a series o Subtraction Method
of rotating scans to produce a ▪ Used to pinpoint specialized areas
threedimensional view of brain for a task.
structures. ▪ Involves subtracting activity during
▪ Consists of several X-ray images of the control task from activity
the brain taken from different during the task of interest
vantage points that, when o PET Scan
combined, result in a three- ▪ Still photographs that show
dimensional image different metabolic processes
o MRI Scan during different activities. PET
▪ Shows a clearer three-dimensional scans permit the study of brain
picture of brain structures than CT physiology.
scans show. ▪ Less useful for fast processes
▪ Reveals high-resolution images of o Functional Magnetic Resonance
the structure of the living brain by Imaging (FMRI)
computing and analyzing magnetic ▪ Creates a magnetic field that
changes in the energy of the orbits induces changes in the particles of
of nuclear particles in the oxygen atoms.
molecules of the body. ▪ More active areas draw more
▪ Strong magnetic field - scanner - oxygenated blood than do less
computer analysis. active areas in the brain.
▪ Facilitates the detection of ▪ The differences in the amounts of
lesions, such as lesions oxygen consumed form the basis
associated with particular for FMRI measurements.
disorders of language use. ▪ More precise than PET,
▪ Structural MRIs – provide images ▪ Uncomfortable
of the brain’s size and shape o TMS (Transcranial Magnetic
▪ Functional MRIs – visualize the Stimulation)
parts of the brain that are activated

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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
MS. SHERRY ROSE M. MATEO | PSY225
▪Temporarily disrupts normal brain
activity to investigate cognitive
functioning when particular areas
are disrupted.
▪ Potentially dangerous if misused
o Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
▪ Involves measuring brain activity
through detection of magnetic
fields by placing a device over the
head.
▪ Extremely precise spatial and
temporal resolution.
▪ Expensive and not readily
available.
o Functional Transcranial Doppler
Sonography (FTCD)
▪ Uses ultrasound technology to
track the velocity of blood flow in
the brain.
▪ Excellent temporal resolution,
suitable for children.
▪ Limited spatial resolution.
o Near-infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)
▪ Can monitor blood flow in the
prefrontal cortex. It also can
monitor the amount of oxygen in
the blood.
▪ Portable, inexpensive, suitable for
children.
▪ Sensitive

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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
MS. SHERRY ROSE M. MATEO | PSY225
BRAIN DISORDERS o severe headache with no known
cause
➢ Brain disorders impair cognition,
offering insights into brain function. BRAIN TUMOR
Scientists analyze patient conditions and
➢ Neoplasms, or brain tumors, can
postmortem brains to locate symptom
significantly impact cognitive function.
origins. In vivo techniques aid
They may emerge in brain's gray or white
diagnostics, easing symptoms and
matter, with white matter tumors being
advancing brain understanding
more prevalent
STROKE ➢ Two brain tumor types:
o Primary
➢ Vascular disorder stems from strokes,
▪ Starts in brain
disrupting brain blood flow. Strokes
o Secondary
cause cognitive loss based on affected
▪ Originates elsewhere
brain area. Symptoms include paralysis,
➢ Tumors can be benign (non-cancerous)
speech loss, impaired movement, and
or malignant (cancerous). Benign can be
more
removed, while malignant invade healthy
o Ischemic stroke results from fatty
tissue and spread
buildup breaking off and blocking
➢ Symptoms:
brain arteries; treatable with clot-
o headaches (usually worse in the
busting drugs
morning)
o Hemorrhagic stroke occurs from
o nausea or vomiting
sudden brain vessel breakage, causing
o changes in speech, vision, or hearing
cell death due to blood spillage.
o problems balancing or walking
Prognosis depends on damage type
o changes in mood, personality, or
and severity. Stroke symptoms appear
ability to concentrate
immediately.
o problems with memory
➢ Symptoms:
o muscle jerking or twitching (seizures
o numbness or weakness in the face,
or convulsions)
arms, or legs (especially on one side
o numbness or tingling in the arms or
of the body)
legs
o confusion and difficulty speaking or
➢ are diagnosed via neurological exams, CT
understanding speech
scans, or MRIs. Treatment often involves
o vision disturbances in one or both
surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy.
eyes
o dizziness, trouble walking, or loss of
balance or coordination

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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
MS. SHERRY ROSE M. MATEO | PSY225
HEAD INJURIES

➢ Head injuries stem from various causes:

accidents, impact, or gunshot wounds.
➢ Two types of head injuries:
o Closed-head
▪ damage the brain without skull
fracture, often from a blow
o Open-head
▪ involve skull penetration, like
gunshot wounds
➢ Loss of consciousness indicates brain
damage from injury. Head injury
consequences encompass spastic
movements, swallowing issues, speech
difficulties, and various cognitive
challenges.
➢ Symptoms:
o abnormal breathing
o disturbance of speech or vision
o pupils of unequal size
o weakness or paralysis
o dizziness
o neck pain or stiffness
➢ Cognitive symptoms vary based on
affected brain area. Patients might face
concentration issues, struggle with
communication and comprehension,
grapple with abstract concepts, or
experience memory difficulties

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