Robbie’s AP® Calculus - Area, Volume

FRQ, free response questions (2000-2004)

This presentation is a
compilation of my answers
to questions of a topic
that appeared for years

Of the 16 tests in these

years, there were 9
different questions.

Basically every test has

an Area-Volume question.

Except for 2002-B,

AB and BC were the same.

AP® is a registered trademark of the College Board which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this material.
Each of the nine questions had three sub-questions, and of
these twenty-seven sub-questions, these were the topics:
Each of the nine questions had three sub-questions, and of
these twenty-seven sub-questions, these were the topics:
I Ten were “Find the area...”, and so includes limits of
intersections, limits of integrations, and integrals
Each of the nine questions had three sub-questions, and of
these twenty-seven sub-questions, these were the topics:
I Ten were “Find the area...”, and so includes limits of
intersections, limits of integrations, and integrals
I Ten were “Find the volume...” and so includes
revolution around a boundary, axis, or a line. All were
discs/washers methods?
Each of the nine questions had three sub-questions, and of
these twenty-seven sub-questions, these were the topics:
I Ten were “Find the area...”, and so includes limits of
intersections, limits of integrations, and integrals
I Ten were “Find the volume...” and so includes
revolution around a boundary, axis, or a line. All were
discs/washers methods?
I Four were “Each cross-section perpendicular...”
Each of the nine questions had three sub-questions, and of
these twenty-seven sub-questions, these were the topics:
I Ten were “Find the area...”, and so includes limits of
intersections, limits of integrations, and integrals
I Ten were “Find the volume...” and so includes
revolution around a boundary, axis, or a line. All were
discs/washers methods?
I Four were “Each cross-section perpendicular...”
I One each of “Area is max/min...”, “Perimeter is...”, and
“Tangent is...”
Each of the nine questions had three sub-questions, and of
these twenty-seven sub-questions, these were the topics:
I Ten were “Find the area...”, and so includes limits of
intersections, limits of integrations, and integrals
I Ten were “Find the volume...” and so includes
revolution around a boundary, axis, or a line. All were
discs/washers methods?
I Four were “Each cross-section perpendicular...”
I One each of “Area is max/min...”, “Perimeter is...”, and
“Tangent is...”

Now I’ll present my answers and there will be a list of typos

in the description of this video.
Let R be the shaded region in the first quadrant enclosed by
2
the graphs of y = e −x , y = 1 − cos (x)
(x), and the y -axis, as
shown in the figure above.
a) Find the area of region R

Point x∗ of intersection of two curves is the unique solution

of the equation
2
e −x = 1 − cos (x)
for 0 < x < π (on this interval, solution exists and is unique,
2 2
because the function e −x is strictly decreasing from 1 to e −π
and the function 1 − cos (x) is strictly increasing from 0 to 2 ).

The solution x∗ does not have a closed-form expression but

numerically it is equal to

x∗ = 0.941944

(common value of the functions at x∗ is approximately

2
e −x∗ = 1 − cos (x∗ ) = 0.411783
Now the area under the graph of the function is the definite
integral, so the shaded area is
Z x∗  
2
e −x − (1 − cos (x)) dx ≈ 0.590962 ≈ 0.591
0

2
The integral of e −x also does not have a closed-form
expression, so we compute it numerically.
b) Find the volume of the solid generated when the region R
is revolved about the x -axis

Consider the section of the solid for a fixed x . It is a circular

2
ring with outer radius R = e −x and inner radius
r = 1 − cos (x)
(x). Its area is
 2 
2 2 −x 2 2


π R −r =π e − (1 − cos (x))

To get the volume of the solid, we integrate the

cross-sectional areas for 0 ≤ x ≤ x∗ . The volume is
Z x∗  
2
π e −2x − (1 − cos (x))2 dx ≈ 1.74661 ≈ 1.747
0
c) The region R is the base of a solid. For this solid, each
cross-section perpendicular to the x -axis is a square. Find
the volume for this solid.

For a fixed x the cross-section is the square with the side

length
2
e −x − (1 − cos (x))

The area of the cross-section is

 2
2
e −x − (1 − cos (x))

To get the volume of the solid, we integrate the

cross-sectional areas for 0 ≤ x ≤ x∗ .

The volume is (integral is computed numerically)

Z x∗  2
2
e −x − (1 − cos (x)) dx ≈ 0.461064 ≈ 0.461
0
Let R and S be the regions in the first quadrant shown in
the figure above. The region R is bounded by the x -axis and
the graphs of y = 2 − x 3 and y = tan (x)
(x). The region S is
bounded by the y -axis and the graphs of y = 2 − x 3 and
y = tan (x)
a) Find the area of R

Point x∗ of intersection of two curves is the unique solution

of the equation
2 − x 3 = tan (x)
π
for 0 < x < (on this interval, solution exists and is unique,
2
because the function 2 − x 3 is strictly decreasing from 2 to
π3
2− and the function tan (x) is strictly increasing from 0 to
8
∞ ). The solution x∗ does not have a closed-form expression
but numerically it is equal to

x∗ = 0.902155

The common value of the function at x∗ is approximately

2 − x∗3 = tan (x∗ ) = 1.265751

The region R is situated under the graph of tan (x) for
1
0 ≤ x ≤ x∗ and under the graph of 2 − x 3 for x∗ ≤ x ≤ 2 3 (at
1
the point 2 3 the function 2 − x 3 intersects the x -axis). The
area of R is
1
Z x∗ Z 23
2 − x 3 dx ≈ 0.729


tan (x) dx +
0 x∗
b) Find the area of S

The region S is situated above the graph of tan (x) and

below the graph of 2 − x 3 for 0 ≤ x ≤ x∗ :
Z x∗
2 − x 3 − tan (x) dx ≈ 1.161


0
c) Find the volume of the solid generated when S is revolved
about the x -axis

For a fixed x ∈ [0, x∗ ]], the cross-section of the solid is a

circular ring with outer radius 2 − x 3 and inner radius tan (x)
(x).
Its area is 
2 
π 2 − x 3 − (tan (x))2

To get the volume, we integrate the cross-sectional areas for

0 ≤ x ≤ x∗ :
Z x∗  

2
π 2 − x 3 − (tan (x))2 dx ≈ 8.332
0
Let f and g be the functions given by f (x) = e x and
g (x) = ln (x)
a) Find the area of the region enclosed by the graphs of f
1
and g between x = and x = 1
2

1
For ≤ x ≤ 11, we have f (x) = e x > 0 ≥ ln (x) = g (x) (x), so the
2
region is situated below the graph of the function f and
above the graph of the function g . Its area is
Z 1 Z 1
(f (x) − g (x)) dx = (e x − ln (x)) dx ≈ 1.223
1 1
2 2
b) Find the volume of the solid generated when the region
1
enclosed by the graphs of f and g between x = and x = 1
2
is revolved about the line y = 4

The region is situated below the line y = 4 (as f (1) = e < 44).
For a fixed x , the cross-section of a solid is a circular ring
with inner radius r = 4 − e x and outer radius R = 4 − ln (x)(x).
Its area is
 
π R 2 − r 2 = π (4 − ln (x))2 − (4 − e x )2

To get the volume, we integrate the cross-sectional areas for

1
≤ x ≤ 11:
2
Z 1 
π (4 − ln (x))2 − (4 − e x )2 dx ≈ 23.609
1
2
c) Let h be the function given by h (x) = f (x) − g (x)
(x). Find
the absolute minimum value of h (x) on the closed interval
1
≤ x ≤ 11, and find the absolute maximum value of h (x) on
2
1
the closed interval ≤ x ≤ 11. Show the analysis that leads
2
to your answers.

The derivative of the function h (x) is

1
h0 (x) = f 0 (x) − g 0 (x) = e x −
x
h0 (x) > 0 if and only if xe x > 11. The root of the equation
1
0.567143. For ≤ x ≤ x∗ , h0 (x) < 0 and h is
xe x = 1 is x∗ ≈ 0.567143
2
decreasing. For x∗ < x ≤ 11, h 0 (x) > 0 and h is increasing.
So, the minimum is located at x = x∗ , and it is equal to 2.330
2.330.

The maximum is located at one of the ends:

 
1
h ≈ 2.342, h (1) = e ≈ 2.718
2

So, the minimal value is 2.330 and the maximal value is

2.718
Let R be the region bounded by the y -axis and the graphs of
x3
y= and y = 4 − 2x
2x, as shown in the figure above.
1 + x2
a) Find the area of R

Point x∗ of intersection of two curves is the unique solution

of the equation
x3
= 4 − 2x
1 + x2
for x > 0 (on this interval, a solution exists and is unique,
because the first function is strictly increasing from 0 to ∞
and the second function is strictly decreasing from 4 to −∞−∞).
Numerically it is equal to

x∗ = 1.48766

Common value of the functions at x∗ are

x∗3
= 4 − 2x∗ = 1.02467
1 + x∗2
 x3
The region R is situated above the curve y = and
1 + x2
below the curve y = 4 − 2x for 0 ≤ x ≤ x∗ , so the area is
Z x∗ 
x3

4 − 2x − dx ≈ 3.215
0 1 + x2
b) Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revovled
about the x -axis

Consider the section of the solid for a fixed x . It is a circular

x3
ring with outer radius R = 4 − 2x and inner radius r = .
1 + x2
Its area is
!
2 2

2 x6
π R − r = π (4 − 2x) −
(1 + x 2 )2

To get the volume of the solid, we integrate the

cross-sectional areas for 0 ≤ x ≤ x∗ . The volume is
Z x∗ !
2 x6
π (4 − 2x) − dx ≈ 31.885
0 (1 + x 2 )2
c) The region R is the base of a solid. For this solid, each
cross-section perpendicular to the x -axis is a square. Find
the volume of this solid.

For a fixed x , the cross-section is square with the side length

x3
4 − 2x −
1 + x2
The area of the cross-section is
2
x3

4 − 2x −
1 + x2
To get the volume of the solid, we integrate the
cross-sectional areas for 0 ≤ x ≤ x∗ . The volume is
Z x∗  2
x3
4 − 2x − dx ≈ 8.997
0 1 + x2
Let R be the region in the first quadrant bounded by the
3
y -axis and the graphs of y = 4x − x 3 + 1 and y = x
4
a) Find the area of R

Point x∗ of intersection of two curves is the unique solution

of the equation
3
4x − x 3 + 1 = x
4
It is equal to
x∗ = 1.94045
Common value of the functions at x∗ is approximately
3
4x∗ − x∗3 + 1 = x∗ = 1.45534
4
3x
The region R is situated above the graph y = and below
4
the graph y = 4x − x 3 + 11. The area is
Z x∗  
3 3x
4x − x + 1 − dx ≈ 4.515
0 4
b) Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved
about the x -axis

Consider the section of the solid for a fixed x . It is a circular

ring with outer radius R = 4x − x 3 + 1 and inner radius
3x
r= . Its area is
4
 2 !
2 2

3

2 3x
π R − r = π 4x − x + 1 −
4

To get the volume of the solid, we integrate the

cross-sectional areas for 0 ≤ x ≤ x∗ . The volume is
Z x∗  2 !
3

2 3x
π 4x − x + 1 − dx ≈ 57.463
0 4
c) Write an expression involving one or more integrals that
gives the perimeter of R . Do not evaluate

Length of a curve y = 4x − x 3 + 1 is given by

Z x∗ q Z x∗ q
0 2
1 + y (x) dx = 1 + (4 − 3x 2 )2 dx
0 0
3x
Length of a curve y = is given by
4
Z x∗ q Z x∗ r
0 2 9
1 + y (x) dx = 1 + dx
0 0 16

Z x∗
5
= dx
0 4

5
= x∗
4
The perimeter of R is
Z x∗ q 
5
1+ 1 + (4 − 3x 2 )2 dx + · 1.940
0 4

(11 = 4 · 0 − 03 + 1 is the segment of R on the y -axis)

Let R
√ be the shaded region bounnded by the graphs of
y = x and y = e −3x and the vertical line x = 11, as shown in
the figure above.
a) Find the area of R

The region R is situated above the curve √ y = e −3x (the

decreasing one) and below the curve y = x (the increasing
one) for x0 ≤ x ≤ 11, where x0 is the x -coordinate of the point
of intersection:
√
x0 = e −3x0 , x0 ≈ 0.238734

(Common value of the functions at this point is 0.488604

0.488604)
The area is Z 1
√
x − e −3x dx ≈ 0.443


x0
b) Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved
about the horizontal line y = 1

The region
√ is situated below the line y = 1 (as the upper
point 1 = 11). For fixed x ∈ [x0 , 1]
1], the cross-section of the
solid is the circular ring with√the outer radius R = 1 − e −3x
and the inner radius r = 1 − xx. Its area is

2 √
2 
π R 2 − r 2 = π 1 − e −3x − 1 − x

and the volume is

Z 1 

2 √
2 
π 1 − e −3x − 1 − x dx ≈ 1.424
x0
c) The region R is the base of a solid. For this solid, each
cross-section perpendicular to the x -axis is a rectangle whose
height is 5 times the length of its base in region R . Find the
volume of this solid.

The base of the cross-section at x ∈ [x0 , 1] has the length

√
x − e −3x
√
So, the height is 5 x − e −3x and the area is


√
2
5 x − e −3x . The volume is
Z 1 √
2
5 x − e −3x dx ≈ 1.554
x0
Let f be the function given by f (x) = 4x 2 − x 3 , and let l be
the line y = 18 − 3x
3x, where l is tangent to the graph of f .
Let R be the region bounded by the graph of f and the
x -axis, and let S be the region bounded by the graph of f ,
the line l , and the x -axis, as shown above
a) Show that l is tangent to the graph of y = f (x) at the
point x = 3

At x = 33, the line touches the graph, as 18 − 3x = 18 − 9 = 9

and f (3) = 4 · 9 − 27 = 36 − 27 = 9 and the derivative of f (x)
at the point x = 3 is

f 0 (x) = 8x − 3x 2
f 0 (3) = 24 − 27 = −3

so it coincides with the slope of the line

b) Find the area of S

The function f (x) = x 2 (4 − x) intersects the x -axis at x = 0

and x = 44. For 3 ≤ x ≤ 44, the region S is situated below the
line y = 18 − 3x and above the curve y = f (x)(x). For
4 ≤ x ≤ 66, the region S is situated below the line y = 18 − 3x
and above the x -axis. The area is
Z 4 Z 6
(18 − 3x) − 4x 2 − x 3 dx +



(18 − 3x) dx ≈ 7.917
3 4
c) Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved
about the x -axis

For a fixed x ∈ [0, 4]

4], the cross-section of the solid is a disk
with radius R = f (x)
(x). Its area is

2
πR 2 = π 4x 2 − x 3

and the volume is

Z 4
2
π 4x 2 − x 3 dx ≈ 490.208
0
 √ functions given by f (x) = 2x (1 − x) and
Let f and g be the
g (x) = 3 (x − 1) x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 11. The graphs of f and g are
shown in the figure above.
a) Find the area of the shaded region enclosed by the graphs
of f and g

For 0 ≤ x ≤ 11, the cross-section of the shaded region has the

length √
f (x) − g (x) = 2x (1 − x) − 3 (x − 1) x
Integrate this value in x to get the area:
Z 1
√

2x (1 − x) − 3 (x − 1) x dx
0

Z 1 3 1

= 2x − 2x 2 − 3x 2 + 3x 2 dx
0

2 6 17
= 1− − +2= ≈ 1.133
3 5 15
b) Find the volume of the solid generated when the shaded
region enclosed by the graphs of f and g is revolved about
the horizontal line y = 2

The region is situated

  below the line y = 22, as the maximal
1 1
value of f (x) is f = < 22. For fixed x ∈ [0, 1]
1], the
2 2
cross-section of the solid of revolution is √
a circular ring with
outer radius R = 2 − g (x) = 2 − 3 (x − 1) x and inner radius
r = 2 − f (x) = 2 − 2x (1 − x)
x). To get the volume, we
integrate the cross-sectional areas for 0 ≤ x ≤ 11:
Z 1 
√
2 
π 2 − 3 (x − 1) x − (2 − 2x (1 − x))2 dx ≈ 16.179
0
c) Let h be the function given by h (x) = kx (1 − x) for
0 ≤ x ≤ 11. For each k > 00, the region (not shown) enclosed
by the graphs of h and g is the base of a solid with square
cross-sections perpendicular to the x -axis. There is a value
of k for which the volume of this solid is equal to 15
15. Write,
but do not solve, an equation involving an integral expression
that could be used to find the value of k

For fixed x ∈ [0, 1]

1], the cross-section of the solid is the square
with the side length
√
kx (1 − x) − g (x) = kx (1 − x) − 3 (x − 1) x
So, the volume is
Z 1
√
2
kx (1 − x) − 3 (x − 1) x dx
0
k can be found from the equation
Z 1
√
2
kx (1 − x) − 3 (x − 1) x dx = 15
0
 √
Let R be the region enclosed by the graph of y = x − 11, the
vertical line x = 10
10, and the x -axis
a) Find the area of R

The √
region is situated above the x -axis, below the curve
y = x − 1 and to the left of the vertical line x = 10
10. The
curve intersects the x -axis at the point (1, 0)
0).

The area is
Z 10 √
2 3 x=10

x − 1dx = (x − 1) 2
1 3 x=1

2
= · 27 = 18
3
b) Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved
about the horizontal line y = 3

The region R is situated

√ below the line y = 3 (as the highest
10, y = 9 = 33). For a fixed x ∈ [1, 10]
point is x = 10 10], the
cross-section of the solid is the circular
√ ring with the outer
radius R = 3 and inner radius r = 3 − x − 11. Its area is
√
  2 
2 2


π R −r = π 9− 3− x −1
 √ 
= π 6 x −1−x +1

and the volume of the solid is

√
Z 10   135π
π 6 x − 1 − x + 1 dx = ≈ 212.057
1 2
c) Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved
about the vertical line x = 10

√
Represent the curve y = x − 1 in the form x = y 2 + 11. For
fixed y ∈ [0, 3]
3], the cross-section of the solid is a disk with
radius R = 10 − x = 10 − y 2 − 1 = 9 − y 2 . To get the volume,
we integrate the cross-sectional areas for 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
Z 3

2 648π
π 9 − y 2 dy = ≈ 407.150
0 5
 Robbie’s AP® Calculus - Position, Velocity, Acceleration
FRQ, free response questions (2000-2004)
This presentation is a
compilation of my answers
to questions of a topic
that appeared for years

Of the 16 tests in these

years, there were 8
different questions.

Basically every test has

a PVA question

Often BC will have

Parametric PVA
(a different video)
AP® is a registered trademark of the College Board which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this material.
Almost all of the eight questions had four sub-questions (one
had three). And of these sub-questions, these were the
topics (though there was overlap):
Almost all of the eight questions had four sub-questions (one
had three). And of these sub-questions, these were the
topics (though there was overlap):
I Almost one half of the questions were primarily on
Velocity in some way
Almost all of the eight questions had four sub-questions (one
had three). And of these sub-questions, these were the
topics (though there was overlap):
I Almost one half of the questions were primarily on
Velocity in some way
I A bit more than a half of the questions were split
between Acceleration, Distance, Speed, and Position
Almost all of the eight questions had four sub-questions (one
had three). And of these sub-questions, these were the
topics (though there was overlap):
I Almost one half of the questions were primarily on
Velocity in some way
I A bit more than a half of the questions were split
between Acceleration, Distance, Speed, and Position
I Interestingly, of the questions, two had graphs, and one
had a table of values (for Riemann sums). And one of
the answers was sketching the velocity.
Almost all of the eight questions had four sub-questions (one
had three). And of these sub-questions, these were the
topics (though there was overlap):
I Almost one half of the questions were primarily on
Velocity in some way
I A bit more than a half of the questions were split
between Acceleration, Distance, Speed, and Position
I Interestingly, of the questions, two had graphs, and one
had a table of values (for Riemann sums). And one of
the answers was sketching the velocity.
Generally, questions involved relating derivative and integral
aspects between position, velocity, and acceleration rather
than a straightforward evaluation of only one of them.
Almost all of the eight questions had four sub-questions (one
had three). And of these sub-questions, these were the
topics (though there was overlap):
I Almost one half of the questions were primarily on
Velocity in some way
I A bit more than a half of the questions were split
between Acceleration, Distance, Speed, and Position
I Interestingly, of the questions, two had graphs, and one
had a table of values (for Riemann sums). And one of
the answers was sketching the velocity.
Generally, questions involved relating derivative and integral
aspects between position, velocity, and acceleration rather
than a straightforward evaluation of only one of them.

Now I’ll present my answers and there will be a list of typos

in the description of this video.
Two runners, A and B, run on a straight racetrack for
0 ≤ t ≤ 10 seconds. The graph above, which consists of two
line segments, shows the velocity, in meters per second, of
Runner A. The velocity, in meters per second, of Runner B is
24t
given by the function v defined by v (t) =
2t + 3
a) Find the velocity of Runner A and the velocity of Runner
B at time t = 2 seconds. Indicate units of measure

At first, we find an expression for the velocity of Runner A.

On a segment [0, 3] its plot is a straight line that passes
through (0, 0) and (3, 10)
10). The equation of the line is

10
vA (t) = t
3

For t ≥ 33, the velocity is constant and is equal to 10

10. So, the
velocity of Runner A is

 10 t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3
vA (t) = 3
10, 3 ≤ t ≤ 10
The velocity of Runner B is given
24t
vB (t) =
2t + 3

At time t = 22, the velocity of Runner A is (calculated by the

first formula, as 2 ∈ [0, 3]
3])

20
vA (2) = ≈ 6.6667 ≈ 6.667 (m/s)
3

and the velocity of Runner B is

48
vB (2) = ≈ 6.8571 ≈ 6.857 (m/s)
7
b) Find the acceleration of Runner A and the acceleration of
Runner B at time t = 2 seconds. Indicate units of measure.

The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity. For

0 ≤ t ≤ 3 we have
10
vA (t) = t
3

The acceleration of Runner A is the derivative

10
vA0 (2) = ≈ 3.333 m/s 2


3

For Runner B, the derivative of the velocity is

24 (2t + 3) − 2 · 24t 72
vB0 (t) = 2
=
(2t + 3) (2t + 3)2

At time t = 22, we have the accleration of Runner B equal to

72
vB0 (2) = ≈ 1.469 m/s 2


49
c) Find the total distance run by Runner A and the total
distance run by Runner B over the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 10
seconds. Indicate units of measure.

The velocity is the derivative of the travelled distance, so the

distance is the integral of the velocity.

For the Runner A, the distance is

Z 10
vA (t) dt =
0

split integral into two, according to different expressions for

the velocity
Z 3 Z 10
10t
= dt + 10dt =
0 3 3
  t=3
10 t 2
= + 10 · 7 = 85 (m)
3 2 t=0
For the Runner B, the distance is
Z 10
24t
dt =
0 2t + 3

s −3 1
change variables s = 2t + 3 so that t = , dt = ds
2 2
24 · s−3
24
Z
2 1
= ds
3 s 2
Z 23  
3
=6 1− ds
3 s
 
= 6 20 − (3 ln (s))|s=23
s=3

= 120 − 18 (ln (23) − ln (3)) ≈ 83.336 (m)

A car is travelling on a straight road with velocity 55 ft/sec
at time t = 00. For 0 ≤ t ≤ 18 seconds, the car’s acceleration
(t), in ft/sec2 , is the piecewise linear function defined by
a (t)
the graph above.
a) Is the velocity of the car increasing at t = 2 seconds?
Why or why not?

The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity:

a (t) = v 0 (t)

At time t = 22, the acceleration is positive a (2) = 15 , so the

velocity is increasing.
b) At what time in the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 18
18, other than t = 00,
is the velocity of the car 55 ft/sec? Why?

Due to symmetry, the integral of acceleration over [0, 12] is

equal to zero (areas below the graph of [0, 6] and above the
graph on [6, 12] are equal and with different signs). So
Z 12
v (12) = v (0) + a (t) dt = v (0) = 55
0
c) On the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 18
18, what is the car’s absolute
maximum velocity, in ft/sec, and at what time does it occur?
Justify your answer.

The velocity is increasing on [0, 6]6], decreasing on [6, 14] and

then increasing on [14, 18]
18]. Comparing areas below [14, 18]
and above [12, 16] it is observed that the final value is less
than 55
Z 18
v (18) = v (12) + a (t) dt
12
Z 16 Z 18
= 55 + a (t) dt + a (t) dt
12 16
Z 14
= 55 + a (t) dt
12
= 55 − 15 · 2 = 25
So, maximal values is
Z 6
v (6) = 55 + a (t) dt =
0

[on the segment [2, 6] acceleration is linearly decreasing to

15
zero: a (t) = 15 − (t − 2) = −3.75t + 22.5
22.5]
4
Z 6
= 55 + 2 · 15 + (−3.75t + 22.5) dt
2

t=6
= 85 + 22.5t − 1.875t 2 t=2

= 85 + 30 = 115

So, the absolute maximum velocity is 115 ft/sec at t = 6

d) At what times in the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 18
18, if any, is the
car’s velocity equal to zero? Justify your answer.

From part (c), it follows that the minimal value is

Z 16
v (16) = v (12) + a (t) dt
12

[on the segment [14, 16] the acceleration is linearly

15
increasing: a (t) = −15 + (t − 14) = 7.5t − 120
120]
2
Z 16
= 55 − 2 · 15 + (7.5t − 120) dt
14
= 55 − 30 − 15 = 10

So, v (t) is never equal to zero

An object moves along the x -axis with initial position
Thevelocity of the object at time t ≥ 0 is given by
x (0) = 22. 
π
v (t) = sin t .
3
a) What is the acceleration of the object at time t = 44?

Acceleration is the derivative of the velocity:

π π 
a (t) = v 0 (t) = cos t
3 3
For t = 44, the acceleration is
 
π 4π
a (4) = cos ≈ −0.524
3 3
b) Consider the following two statements:
S.I: For 3 < t < 4.5
4.5, the velocity of the object is decreasing.
S.II: For 3 < t < 4.5
4.5, the speed of the object is increasing.
Are either or both of these statements correct? For each
statement provide a reason why it is correct or not correct.

For 3 < t < 4.5

4.5, the acceleration is negative, and the velocity
is negative, so the velocity is decreasing. S.I is correct .

For 3 < t < 4.5

4.5, the velocity is negative, and the acceleration
is negative, hence the speed is increasing. S.II is correct .
c) What is the total distance traveled by the object over the
time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 44?

Velocity is positive for 0 < t < 3 and is negative for 3 < t < 44.
The total distance is:
Z 4 Z 3 Z 4
|v (t)| dt = v (t) dt − v (t) dt
0 0 3

Z 3  πt  Z 4  πt 
= sin dt − sin dt
0 3 3 3

   
3 4π
= 1 − cos (π) + cos − cos (π)
π 3

  
3 4π
= 3 + cos ≈ 2.387
π 3
d) What is the position of the object at time t = 44?

The derivative of the position is the velocity, so at time

t = 44, the position is
Z 4 π 
x (4) = x (0) + sin t dt
0 3

  
3 4π
= 2+ 1 − cos
π 3

≈ 3.432
A particle moves along the x -axis so that its velocity v at
16, is given by v (t) = e 2 sin(t) − 11. At
any time t , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 16
time t = 00, the particle is at the origin.
a) On the axes provided, sketch the graph of v (t) for
0 ≤ t ≤ 16

v (t) is periodic with period 2π ≈ 6.283

6.283. Its behaviour reflects
(t), as the function x → e 2x − 1 is strictly
that of sin (t)
increasing on (−∞, ∞) ∞).
π
For 0 ≤ t ≤ ≈ (1.571)
(1.571), v (t) increases from v (0) = 0 to
π  2
v = e 2 − 1 ≈ 6.389
6.389.
2
π 3π π 
For ≤ t ≤ (≈ 4.712)
4.712), v (t) decreases from v to
 2 2 2
3π
v = e −2 − 1 ≈ −0.865
−0.865. Then it is increasing again to
2
v (2π) = 0
b) During what intervals of time is the particle moving to the
left? Give a reason for your answer.

The particle moves to the left when v (t) < 00, i.e when
sin (t) < 00. Intervals are

(π, 2π)

(3π, 4π)

(5π, 16]
c) Find the total distance traveled by the particle from t = 0
to t = 4

The total distance is found by integrating |v (t)| (as the

direction does not influence the distance travelled):
Z 4
|v (t)| dt =
0

split integral into two, according to the sign of v (t)

Z π  Z 4 
2 sin(t)
= e − 1 dt + 1 − e 2 sin(t) dt ≈ 10.543
0 π
d) Is there any time t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 16
16, at which the particle
return to the origin? Justify your answer.

The velocity is positive on [0, π] and, as it is seen from the

sketch, the area above v (t) on [π, 2π] (where v (t) < 00) is
less than the area below v (t) on [0, π] (where vZ(t) > 00).
t
Rigorously, local minima of the position r (t) = v (s) ds are
0
at points 2π and 16
16. Values at these points are
Z 2π  
r (2π) = e 2 sin(t) − 1 dt ≈ 8.040
0

Z 16  
r (16) = e 2 sin(t) − 1 dt ≈ 26.116
0

So, the particle never returns to the origin.

A particle moves along the x -axis so that its velocity at time
t is given by  2
t
v (t) = − (t + 1) sin
2
At time t = 00, the particle is at position x = 1
a) Find the acceleration of the particle at time t = 22. Is the
speed of the particle increasing at t = 22? Why or why not?

The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity:

 2  2
0 t t
a (t) = v (t) = − sin − t (t + 1) cos
2 2

At time t = 22, the acceleration is

a (2) = − sin (2) − 6 cos (2) ≈ 1.588

The velocity at time t = 2 is

v (2) = −3 sin (2) ≈ −2.728

The velocity is negative, but the acceleration a (2) > 00, thus
the speed is decreasing .
b) Find all times t in the open interval 0 < t < 3 when the
particle changes direction. Justify your answer.

Particle changes directions when the velocity  2changes

 the
t
sign. v (t) > 0 is equivalent to − (t + 1) sin > 00. The
2  
t2
bracket (t + 1) > 00, so v (t) is positive when sin is
2
negative, i.e.
t2 t2
π< < 2π
2π, 3π < < 4π
4π, . . .
2 2
√ √ √ √
2π < t < 4π4π, 6π < t < 8π 8π, . . .
√ √
As 0 < 2π < 3√< 4π 4π, the only value when the direction
changes is t = 2π ≈ 2.507
c) Find the total distance traveled by the particle from time
t = 0 until time t = 3

The total distance is the integral of speed:

Z 3
|v (t)| dt =
0

Split the integral into two according to the sign of v (t)

Z 2.507  2 Z 3  2
t t
= (t + 1) sin dt − (t + 1) sin dt ≈ 4.334
0 2 2.507 2
d) During the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 33, what is the greatest
distance between the particle and the origin? Show the work
that leads to your answer.

The distance between the particle and the origin is |x (t)|

(t)|,
where x (t) is the position of the particle:
Z t
x (t) = 1 + v (s) ds
0

Maximal value of |x (t)| is achieved either at the end-points

or at one of the local extrema of x (t) inside the interval.
The only point of local extrema correspond to t = 2.507
(found in part (b)). At this point
Z 2.507  2
t
x (2.507) = 1 − (t + 1) sin dt
0 2
= −2.265
|x (t)| = 2.265

At t = 00, we have x (0) = 1 and

Z 3  2
t
x (3) = 1 − (t + 1) sin dt
0 2
= −1.197
|x (t)| = 1.197

The greatest distance between the particle and the origin is

achieved at t = 2.507 and is equal to 2.265
A particle moves along the x -axis with velocity at time t ≥ 0
given by v (t) = −1 + e 1−t
a) Find the acceleration of the particle at time t = 3

The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity:

a (t) = −e 1−t
a (3) = −e −2
b) Is the speed of the particle increasing at time t = 33? Give
a reason for your answer.

The velocity at time t = 3 is −1 + e −2 < 00. As the velocity is

negative and the acceleration is negative, the speed is
increasing .
c) Find all values of v at which the particle changes
direction. Justify your answer.

The particle changes directions when v (t) changes sign.

v (t) > 0 if and only if e 1−t > 11, i.e., t < 11. The particle
changes direction at t = 1
d) Find the total distance traveled by the particle over the
time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 3

The total distance is the integral of the speed:

Z 3
|v (t)| dt =
0

split integral into two according to the sign of v (t)

(t):
Z 1 Z 3
e 1−t − 1 dt + 1 − e 1−t dt



=
0 1

t=1
t=3
= −e 1−t t=0
− 1 + 2 + e 1−t t=1

= (−1 + e) + 1 + e −2 − 1

= e + e −2 − 1
A particle moves along the y -axis
so that its velocity v , at
−1 t
time t ≥ 00, v (t) = 1 − tan e . At time t = 00, the particle
is at y = −1
a) Find the acceleration of the particle at time t = 2

Acceleration is the derivative of the velocity:

et
a (t) = v 0 (t) = −
1 + e 2t
At time t = 22, the acceleration is

e2
a (2) = − ≈ −0.133
1 + e4
b) Is the speed of the particle increasing or decreasing at
time t = 22? Give a reason for your answer.

The velocity at time t = 2 is

v (2) = 1 − tan−1 e 2 ≈ −0.436

As the velocity is negative and the acceleration is negative,

the speed is increasing .
c) Find the time t ≥ 0 at which the particle reaches its
highest point. Justify your answer.

At the point where y (t) reaches maximum, we have

v (t) = 00. Equivalently,

tan−1 e t = 1

t = ln (tan (1))
≈ 0.443

v (t) > 0 for 0 < t < ln (tan (1))

v (t) < 0 for t > ln (tan (1))

y (t) has an absolute maximum at t = 0.443

d) Find the position of the particle at time t = 22. Is the
particle moving toward the origin or away from the origin at
time t = 22? Justify your answer.

The velocity is the derivative of the position. So, by the

fundamental theorem of calculus,
Z 2
y (2) = y (0) + y 0 (t) dt
0
Z 2
1 − tan−1 e t dt



= −1 +
0
= −1.361

As the velocity at time t = 2 is negative, y is decreasing at

time t = 2 and moves away from the origin.
A test plane flies in a straight line with positive velocity v (t)
(t),
in miles per minute at time t minutes, where v is a
differentiable function of t . Selected values of v (t) for
0 ≤ t ≤ 40 are shown in the table above.
a) Use a midpoint Riemann sum with four subintervals of
equal length and values from the table to approximate
Z 40
v (t) dt
dt. Show the computations that lead to your
0
answer. Using correct units, explain the meaning of
Z 40
v (t) dt in terms of the plane’s flight.
0

The intervals of equal lengths are [0, 10]10], [10, 20]

20], [20, 30]
30],
[30, 40]
40]. On each interval, the integral is approximated by the
length times the value at a mid-point:
Z 40
v (t) dt = 10v (5) + 10v (15) + 10v (25) + 10v (35)
0
= 10 (9.2 + 7 + 2.4 + 4.3) = 229

Velocity v (t) is measured in miles per minute, so the integral

Z 40
v (t) dt is measured in miles . It is the distance travelled
0
by the plane during first 40 minutes.
b) Based on the values in the table, what is the smallest
number of instances at which the acceleration of the plane
could equal zero on the open interval 0 < t < 40
40? Justify
your answer.

The velocity at times t = 0 and t = 15 is 7 :

v (0) = v (15) = 7

By the mean value theorem,

v (15) − v (0) = 15a (t)

where t is some time in (0, 15) and a (t) = v 0 (t) is the

acceleration. So, at some point in (0, 15)
15), the acceleration is
zero. Similarly, v (25) = v (30) = 2.4
2.4, so acceleration is zero
at some t ∈ (25, 30)
30).

Thus. the acceleration is zero at least at two points on

(0, 40)
c) The function f , definedby 
t  7t
f (t) = 6 + cos + 3 sin is used to model the
10 10
velocity of the plane, in miles per minute, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 40
40.
According to this model, what is the acceleration of the
plane at t = 23
23? Indicate units of measure.

The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity

 
1  t  21 7t
a (t) = f 0 (t) = − sin + cos
10 10 40 40

At time t = 23
23, the acceleration is

a (23) ≈ −0.408 miles/min2

d) According to the model f , given in part (c), what is the
average velocity of the plane, in miles per minute, over the
time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 40
40?

Average velocity is
Z 40   
1 t  7t
6 + cos + 3 sin dt ≈ 5.916 miles/min
40 0 10 40
 Robbie’s AP® Calculus - Parametric - PVA
FRQ, free response questions (2000-2004)
This presentation is a
compilation of my answers
to questions of a topic
that appeared for years

Of the 16 tests in these

years, there were 8
different questions.

Basically every BC test

has a Parametric PVA
question

AP® is a registered trademark of the College Board which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this material.
Each of the eight questions had four sub-questions. And of
these sub-questions, these were the topics (though there was
overlap):
Each of the eight questions had four sub-questions. And of
these sub-questions, these were the topics (though there was
overlap):
I Topics seemed evenly spaced into Position (and
Distance), Velocity (and Speed), and Acceleration, as
well as Tangents.
Each of the eight questions had four sub-questions. And of
these sub-questions, these were the topics (though there was
overlap):
I Topics seemed evenly spaced into Position (and
Distance), Velocity (and Speed), and Acceleration, as
well as Tangents.
I There were two graphs in the questions, and one graph
in the answers.
Each of the eight questions had four sub-questions. And of
these sub-questions, these were the topics (though there was
overlap):
I Topics seemed evenly spaced into Position (and
Distance), Velocity (and Speed), and Acceleration, as
well as Tangents.
I There were two graphs in the questions, and one graph
in the answers.
Generally, questions involved relating derivative and integral
aspects between motion aspects rather than a
straightforward evaluation of only one of them.
Each of the eight questions had four sub-questions. And of
these sub-questions, these were the topics (though there was
overlap):
I Topics seemed evenly spaced into Position (and
Distance), Velocity (and Speed), and Acceleration, as
well as Tangents.
I There were two graphs in the questions, and one graph
in the answers.
Generally, questions involved relating derivative and integral
aspects between motion aspects rather than a
straightforward evaluation of only one of them.

Now I’ll present my answers and there will be a list of typos

in the description of this video.
A moving particle has position (x (t) , y (t)) at time t . The
position of the particle at time t = 1is (2, 6) and the
 velocity
1 1
vector at any time t > 0 is given by 1 − 2 , 2 + 2
t t
a) Find the acceleration vector at time t = 3

Acceleration is the derivative of the velocity:

    
d 1 d 1
a (t) = 1− 2 , 2+ 2
dt t dt t
 
2 2
= ,− 3
t3 t
 
2 2
At time t = 33, the acceleration is a (3) = ,−
27 27
b) Find the position of the particle at time t = 3

To find the position, we integrate the velocity from 1 to 3

(as the velocity is the derivative of the position)
Z 3
r (3) = r (1) + v (t) dt
1
 Z 3  Z 3  
1 1
= 2+ 1 − 2 dt, 6 + 2 + 2 dt
1 t 1 t
 
t=3 t=3
= 2 + 2 + t −1 t=1 , 6 + 4 − t −1 t=1



 
1 1
= 3 + , 11 −
3 3
 
10 32
= ,
3 3
c) For what time t > 0 does the line tangent to the path of
the particle at (x (t) , y (t)) have a slope of 8

dy
The slope of the tangent line is the derivative . Find the
dx
derivative using differentiation of the composite function:

dy dy dx
=
dt dx dt
The slope at time t is
dy
dt
2 + t12 2t 2 + 1
= =
dx
dt
1 − t12 t2 − 1
It is equal to 8 when

2t 2 + 1 = 8t 2 − 8
6t 2 = 9
3
t2 =
2
r
3
The slope of the tangent line 8 at t =
2
d) The particle approaches a line as t → ∞
∞. Find the slope
of this line. Show the work that leads to your conclusion.

When t → ∞
∞, the limit of the slope of the tangent line is

2 + t12
lim =2
t→∞ 1 − t12

If the particle approaches the line, it coincides with the

tangent. So 2 is the slope of the limitting line.
An object moving along a curve in the xy -plane has position
(x (t) , y (t)) at time t with
dx
= cos t 3


dt
and

dy
= 3 sin t 2


dt
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 33. At time t = 22, the object is at position (4, 5)
a) Write an equation for the line tangent to the curve at
(4, 5)

dy
Compute the derivative at time t = 2 using the
dx
differentiation of the composition:
dy 2


dy dt 3 sin t
= dx =
dx dt
cos (t 3 )

For t = 22, we have

dy 3 sin (4)
= ≈ 15.604
dx cos (8)

The equation of the tangent line is

y − 5 = 15.604 (x − 4)
b) Find the speed of the object at time t = 2

Velocity of the object at time t is the derivative of the

position:
v (t) = cos t 3 , 3 sin t 2

The speed characterizes how fast the object covers the

distance, i.e. the speed is the length of the velocity vector.
So, the speed at time t = 2 is
q
cos2 (8) + 9 sin2 (4) ≈ 2.275
c) Find the total distance traveled by the object over the
time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

The distance is the integral of the speed:

Z 1q
cos2 (t 3 ) + 9 sin2 (t 2 ) dt ≈ 1.458
0
d) Find the position of the object at time t = 3

The position is found by integrating derivatives:

Z 3
x (3) = x (2) + x 0 (t) dt
2

Z 3
cos t 3 dt ≈ 3.954


= 4+
2

Z 3
y (3) = y (2) + y 0 (t) dt
2

Z 3
sin t 2 dt ≈ 4.906


= 5+3
2

So, the position is (3.954, 4.906)

The figure above shows the path traveled by a roller coaster
car over the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 18 seconds. The position of
the car at time t seconds can be modeled parametrically by

x (t) = 10t + 4 sin (t)

y (t) = (20 − t) (1 − cos (t))

where x and y are measured in meters. The derivatives of

these functions are given by

x 0 (t) = 10 + 4 cos (t)

y 0 (t) = (20 − t) sin (t) + cos (t) − 1
a) Find the slope of the path at time t = 22. Show the
computations that lead to your answer.

dy
The slope is the derivative which is computed using the
dx
chain rule:
dy y 0 (t) (20 − t) sin (t) + cos (t) − 1
= 0 =
dx x (t) 10 + 4 cos (t)

When t = 22, the slope is

18 sin (2) + cos (2) − 1

≈ 1.794
10 + 4 cos (2)
b) Find the acceleration vector of the car at the time when
the car’s horizontal position is x = 140

The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity:

a (t) = x 00 (t) , y 00 (t)

= (−4 sin (t) , (20 − t) cos (t) − 2 sin (t))

Next, we find t , such that x (t) = 140

140:

10t + 4 sin (t) = 140, t ≈ 13.647

and substitute t into expressions for the acceleration:

(−3.529, 1.226)
c) Find the time t at which the car is at its maximum height,
and find the speed, in m/sec, of the car at this time

Maximal height is acheived at a first nonzero extrema of

y (t) (as it follows from the plot of y ) Solve y 0 (t) = 00,

(20 − t) sin (t) + cos (t) − 1 = 0, t ≈ 3.024

The speed is the length of the tangent vector:

q
(x 0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2

q
= (10 + 4 cos (3.024))2 + ((20 − 3.024) sin (3.024) + cos (3.024) − 1)2

≈ 6.028
d) For 0 < t < 18
18, there are two times at which the car is at
ground level (yy = 00). Find these two times and write an
expression that gives the average speed, in m/sec, of the car
between these two times. Do not evaluate the expression.

Solve y (t) = 00,

(20 − t) (1 − cos (t)) = 0
For 0 < t < 18
18, the first bracket is not zero, so the equation
becomes cos (t) = 11, t = 2πn 2πn. Two solutions that lie in (0, 18)
are 2π, 4π
Length of the segment [2π, 4π] is 2π 2π. The average speed
between these two times is
Z 4π q
1
(x 0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 dt
2π 2π
Z 4π q
1
= (10 + 4 cos (t))2 + ((20 − t) sin (t) + cos (t) − 1)2 dt
2π 2π
A particle moves in the xy -plane so that its position at any
time t , for −π ≤ t ≤ π
π, is given by x (t) = sin (3t) and
y (t) = 2t
a) Sketch the path of the particle in the xy -plane provided.
Indicate the direction of motion along the path.

The y -coordinate is increasing from −2π ≈ −6.283 to

2π ≈ 6.283
6.283. The x -coordinate reflects the behaviour of sin (t)
2 1
with zeroes at times t = −π, − π, − π, 0, . . . , π
π. Sketch the
3 3
π
graph noting that x (t) = 1 for t = ≈ 0.524 and
6
y (t) = 2t = 1.047
b) Find the range of x (t) and the range of y (t)

The range of x is that of sin (t)

(t): [−1, 1] . As y is increasing,
its range is [−2π, 2π]
c) Find the smallest positive value of t for which the
x -coordinate of the particle is a local maximum. What is the
speed of the particle at this time?

As it was found in (a), the smallest positive value of t when

π
x (t) = 1 is t = . The velocity of the particle is
6
x 0 (t) = 3 cos (3t) , y 0 (t) = 2
π
The speed at t = is
6
q
(x 0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 = 2
d) Is the distance traveled by the particle from t = −π to
t = π greater than 5π
5π? Justify your answer

The speed of the particle is

q q
(x 0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 = 9 cos2 (3t) + 4

So, the distance travelled is

Z πq
9 cos2 (3t) + 4 dt ≈ 17.973 > 5π
−π
A particle starts at point A on the positive x -axis at time
t = 0 and travels along the curve from A to B to C to D , as
shown above. The coordinates of the particle’s position
(x (t) , y (t)) are differentiable functions of t , where
 √ 
dx  πt  π t +1 dy
x 0 (t) = = −9 cos sin and y 0 (t) = is
dt 6 2 dt
not explicitly given. At time t = 99, the particle reaches its
final position at point D on the positive x -axis.
 dy dx
a) At point C , is positive? At point C , is positive?
dt dt
Give a reason for each answer.

When the particle is travelling from C to D , its y -coordinate

is decreasing. So, y 0 (t) is negative at point C . Similarly, the
x -coordinate is decreasing and x 0 (t) is negative.
b) The slope of the curve is undefined at point B . At what
time t is the particle at point B ?

dx x 0 (t)
The tangent line is vertical at the point B , so = 0 =0
dy y (t)
and

x 0 (t) = 0
 πt   π √t + 1 
−9 cos sin =0
6 2
 πt 
The minimal value of t > 0 such that cos = 0 is t = 33.
 6√ 
π t +1
The minimal value of t > 0 such that sin = 0 is
2
t = 33.

So, the particle visits B at time t = 3

c) The line tangent to the curve at the point (x (8) , y (8))
5
has equation y = x − 22. Find the velocity vector and the
9
speed of the particle at this point.

The slope of the tangent line is

dy y 0 (8) 5
= 0 =
dx x (8) 9
   
0 4π 3π 9
Using that x (8) = −9 cos sin = − we get that
3 2 2
5
y 0 (8) = − . The velocity is
2
 
9 5
− ,− = (−4.5, −2.5)
2 2
r r
81 25 53
and the speed is + = ≈ 5.148
4 4 2
d) How far apart are points A and D , the inital and final
positions, respectively, of the particle?

The distance between A and D is the increment of the

x -coordinate
Z 9
x (9) − x (0) = x 0 (t) dt
0
Z 9  πt   π √t + 1 
= −9 cos sin dt
0 6 2
≈ −39.255

So, the distance between A and D is 39.255

A particle moves in the xy -plane so that the position of the
particle at any time t is given by

x (t) = 2e 3t + e −7t
and
y (t) = 3e 3t − e −2t
a) Find the velocity vector for the particle in terms of t , and
find the speed of the particle at time t = 0

The velocity is the derivative of the position:

v (t) = x 0 (t) , y 0 (t)

= 6e 3t − 7e −7t , 9e 3t + 2e −2t

The speed is the length of the velocity vector. Velocity at

time t = 0 is (−1, 11) and the speed is
q √
(−1)2 + (11)2 = 122
 dy dy
b) Find in terms of t , and find lim
dx t→∞ dx

Use differentiation of the composition, y (t) = y (x (t))

dy 0
y 0 (t) = x (t)
dx
dy y 0 (t) 9e 3t + 2e −2t
= 0 =
dx x (t) 6e 3t − 7e −7t

Divide numerator and denominator by e 3t

dy 9 + 2e −5t
=
dx 6 − 7e −10t

When t → ∞ we have e −5t → 00, e −10t → 0 and

dy 9 3
lim = =
t→∞ dx 6 2
c) Find each value t at which the line tangent to the path of
the particle is horizontal, or explain why none exists.

The tangent to the path is horizontal when y 0 (t) = 00:

9e 3t + 2e −2t = 0
2
e 5t = −
9
As the exponential function is never negative, there are
no such values of t
d) Find each value t at which the line tangent to the path of
the particle is vertical, or explain why none exists.

The tangent to the path is vertical when x 0 (t) = 0

6e 3t − 7e −7t = 0
7
e 10t =
6

 
1 7
t= ln
10 6
An object moving along a curve in the xy -plane has position
dx
= 3 + cos t 2 . The


(x (t) , y (t)) at time t ≥ 0 with
dt
dy
derivative is not explicitly given. At time t = 22, the
dt
object is at position (1, 8)
a) Find the x -coordinate of the position of the object at the
time t = 4

We recover x (t) as the antiderivative

Z 4
dx
x (4) = x (2) + dt
2 dt

Z 4
3 + cos t 2



= 1+ dt
2

≈ 7.133
 dy
b) At time t = 22, the value of is −7
−7. Write an equation
dt
for the line tangent to the curve at the point (x (2) , y (2))

dx
Derivative at time t = 2 is
dt
3 + cos (4)

So,
dy
dy dt −7
= dx
= ≈ −2.983
dx dt
3 + cos (4)
Tangent line is

y − 8 = −2.983 (x − 1)
c) Find the speed of the object at time t = 2

The speed is the length of the velocity vector

q
(3 + cos (4))2 + (−7)2 ≈ 7.383
d) For t ≥ 33, the line tangent to the curve at (x (t) , y (t)) has
a slope of 2t + 11. Find the acceleration vector of the object
at time t = 44.

It is given that
dy
dt
dx
= 2t + 1
dt
So,
dy dx
= (2t + 1) 3 + cos t 2



= (2t + 1)
dt dt
Acceleration is
d 2x 2


= −2t sin t
dt 2
d 2y
= 6 + 2 cos t 2 − 2t (2t + 1) sin t 2



dt 2

At t = 44, acceleration is
(2.303, 24.814)
A particle moving along a curve in the plane has position
(x (t) , y (t)) at time t , where
dx p dy
= t 4 + 9 and = 2e t + 5e −t
dt dt
for all real values of t . At time t = 00, the particle is at the
point (4, 1)
a) Find the speed of the particle and its acceleration vector
at time t = 0

The speed is the length of the velocity vector. At time t = 00,

the velocity is
√
  
dx dy 
, = 9, 2 + 5 = (3, 7)
dt dt
√ √
The speed is 9 + 49 = 58 = 7.616

Acceleration is the derivative of the velocity

 2
d x d 2y 2t 3
  
t −t
a (t) = , = √ , 2e − 5e
dt 2 dt 2 t4 + 9

a (0) = (0, −3)

b) Find an equation of the line tangent to the path of the
particle at time t = 0

dy
The derivative is given by:
dx
dy
dy dt 2e t + 5e −t
= dx
= √
dx dt t4 + 9

7
At time t = 00, the derivative is . The tangent line passes
3
through (4, 1)
1). Its equation is

7
y −1= (x − 4)
3
c) Find the total distance traveled by the particle over the
time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 3

The total distance is the integral of the speed:

Z 3q
t 4 + 9 + (2e t + 5e −t )2 dt ≈ 45.227
0
d) Find the x -coordinate of the position of the particle at
time t = 3

dx
The x -coordinate is found as an antiderivative of :
dt
Z 3
dx
x (3) = x (0) + dt
0 dt

Z 3p
= 4+ t 4 + 9dt
0

≈ 17.931
 Robbie’s AP® Calculus - Sequences, Series
FRQ, free response questions (2000-2004)
This presentation is a
compilation of my answers
to questions of a topic
that appeared for years

Of the 16 tests in these

years, there were 8
different questions.

Basically every BC test

has a Sequences, Series
question

AP® is a registered trademark of the College Board which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this material.
Five of the eight questions had four sub-questions, while the
other three had three. And of these twenty-nine
sub-questions, these were the topics:
Five of the eight questions had four sub-questions, while the
other three had three. And of these twenty-nine
sub-questions, these were the topics:
I About one-third on Taylor polynomials, series, and terms
I Almost a third on convergence
I Other thirds on errors, limits, derivatives and integrals,
sums, differential equations, etc..
Five of the eight questions had four sub-questions, while the
other three had three. And of these twenty-nine
sub-questions, these were the topics:
I About one-third on Taylor polynomials, series, and terms
I Almost a third on convergence
I Other thirds on errors, limits, derivatives and integrals,
sums, differential equations, etc..
As you can see, there are lots of various topics with lots of
overlap.
Five of the eight questions had four sub-questions, while the
other three had three. And of these twenty-nine
sub-questions, these were the topics:
I About one-third on Taylor polynomials, series, and terms
I Almost a third on convergence
I Other thirds on errors, limits, derivatives and integrals,
sums, differential equations, etc..
As you can see, there are lots of various topics with lots of
overlap.

Now I’ll present my answers and there will be a list of typos

in the description of this video.
The Taylor series about x = 5 for a certain function f
converges to f (x) for all x in the interval of convergence.
The n th derivative of f at x = 5 is given by
(−1)n n! 1
f (n) (5) = n and f (5) =
2 (n + 2) 2
a) Write the third-degree Taylor polynomial for f about x = 5

In the interval of convergence, the Taylor series gives the

following representation for the function:
∞
X f (n) (5)
f (x) = (x − 5)n , |x − 5| < R
n=0
n!
n=0
where R is the radius of convergence. Third-degree Taylor
polynomial is obtained when only the first four terms of the
series expansion remain.
Compute the first three derivatives at x = 55:
1
f (5) =
2
0 1
f (5) = −
6
2 1
f 00 (5) = =
16 8
6 3
f 000 (5) = − = −
40 20
The third-degree Taylor polynomial is
1 1 1 3
P3 (x) = − (x − 5) + (x − 5)2 − (x − 5)3
2 6 8 · 2! 20 · 3!

1 1 1 1
= − (x − 5) + (x − 5)2 − (x − 5)3
2 6 16 40
b) Find the radius of convergence of the Taylor series for f
about x = 5

Rewrite the series expansion in the form

∞
X (−1)n n!
f (x) = n (n + 2) n!
(x − 5)n
n=0
2
n=0
∞
X (−1)n
= n
(x − 5)n
n=0
2 (n + 2)
n=0

The radius of convergence satisfies

 1
−1 1 n
R = lim
n→∞ 2n (n + 2)
1 1 1
= lim 1 =
2 n→∞ (n + 2) n 2

1
as n n → 11. So, R = 2
c) Show that the sixth-degree Taylor polynomial for f about
1
x = 5 approximates f (6) with error less than
1000

The difference of the sixth-order polynomial with f (6) is the

sum of all terms of the series started from n = 77:
∞
X (−1)2
error = =
n=7
2n (n + 2)
n=7

Collect the terms as follows:

   
1 1 1 1
= − + + − + + ...
9 · 27 10 · 28 11 · 29 12 · 210
In each bracket, the first summand dominates the second, so
all brackets are negative and error less than zero. Now
re-collect the terms as follows:
 
1 1 1
error = − + −
9 · 27 10 · 28 11 · 29
 
1 1
+ − + ...
12 · 210 13 · 211
In each bracket, the first summand dominates the second, so
1
all brackets are positive and error is greater than − .
9 · 27
From inequalities
1
− < error < 0
9 · 27
It follows that
1 1 1
|error| < 7
= <
9·2 1152 1000
A function f is defined by
1 2 3 n+1
f (x) = + x + 3 x 2 + · · · + n+1 x n + · · ·
3 32 3 3
for all x in the interval of convergence of the given power
series
a) Find the interval of convergence for this power series.
Show the work that leads to your answer.

∞
X
The representation is a power series cn x n with
n=0

n+1
cn =
3n+1
1
The radius of convergence satisfies (using n n → 11)
1
R −1 = lim (cn ) n
n→∞
1
(n + 1) n 1
= lim →
n→∞ 1+ n1 3
3
So, R = 33, and we need to check the endpoints.
 n+1 n
With the terms of the series being x
3n+1

∞
X n+1
At x = −3 (−1)n
n=0
3
n=0

∞
X n+1
At x = 3
3
n=0

The terms for both of the series become infinite and so they
diverge. And so, the interval of convergence is (−3, 3)
 f (x) − 31
b) Find lim
x→0 x

The power series is a Taylor series for its sum (inside the
interval of convergence):
∞ ∞
X n+1 n
X f (n) (0) n
n+1
x = x
3 n=0
n!
n=0 n=0

In particular,
1 2
f (0) = , f 0 (0) =
3 9
The limit is the definition of the derivative at zero, so the
2
limit is
9
c) Write the first three nonzero terms and the general term
Z 1
for an infinite series that represents f (x) dx
0

Power series can be integrated term-by-term inside the

interval of convergence:
Z 1
f (x) dx
0

Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
1 2 3 2 n+1 n
= dx + xdx + x dx + · · · + x dx + · · ·
0 3 0 9 0 27 0 3n+1

1 1 1 1
= + + + · · · + n+1 + · · ·
3 9 27 3
d) Find the sum of the series determined in part (c)

Series obtained in (c) is a geometric progression

∞ 1
X 1 3 1
n+1
= 1
=
3 1− 3 2
n=0
The Maclaurin series for the function f is given by
∞
X (2x)n+1
f (x) =
n+1
n=0

4x 2 8x 3 16x 4 (2x)n+1
= 2x + + + + ··· + + ...
2 3 4 n+1
on its interval of convergence
a) Find the interval of convergence of the Maclaurin series
for f . Justify your answer.

∞
X 2n
The series is a power series of the form cn x n with cn =
n
n=1
The radius of convergence satisfies
1 2
R −1 = lim (cn ) n = lim 1 =2
n→∞ n→∞ nn
 
1 1 1
So, R = and the interval of convergence contains − , .
2 2 2
Endpoints must be studied separately.
 1
At x = , the series is
2
∞
X 1
n=0
n+1
n=0
It is a harmonic series and is divergent.

1
At x = − , the series is
2
∞
X (−1)n+1
n+1
n=0
∞
X
It is an alternating series (−1)n+1 an with absolute values
n=0
1
of terms an = decreasing monotonically to zero. The
n+1
series is convergent.
 
1 1
The overall interval of convergence is − ,
2 2
b) Find the first four terms and the general term for the
Maclaurin series for f 0 (x)

Power series can be differentiated term-by-term inside the

interval of convergence:

f 0 (x) = 2 + 4x + 8x 2 + 16x 3 + · · · + 2n+1 x n + . . .

c) Use the Macluarin
 series you found in part (b) to find the
1
value of f 0
3

1
Substitute x = − :
3
∞
(−1)n 2n+1
  X
1
f0 =
3 n=0
3n
n=0

the series is a geometric progression with first term 2 and

2
common multiple −
3

2 6
= 2
=
1+ 3 5
 ∞
xn
 
1 X
The Maclaurin series for ln is with interval of
1−x n
n=1
convergence −1 ≤ x < 1
  
1
a) Find the Maclaurin series for ln and determine
1 + 3x
the interval of convergence.


1
Substitute (−3x) into the Maclaurin series for ln :
1−x

∞
(−3)n x n
 
1 X
ln =
1 + 3x n
n=1

 
1 1
Interval of convergence transforms to − , since
3 3
1 1
−1 ≤ −3x < 1 becomes − < x ≤
3 3
 ∞
X (−1)n
b) Find the value of
n
n=1

Substitute x = −1 into the Maclaurin series:

∞
(−1)n
 
X 1
= ln
n 2
n=1
 ∞
X (−1)n
c) Give a value of p such that converges, but
np
n=1
∞
X 1
diverges. Give reasons why your value of p is correct
n=1
n2p
n=1

∞
X 1
Harmonic series ρ
converges for ρ > 1 and diverges for
n=1
n
n=1
1
ρ ≤ 11. Put p = .
2
∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
Then the series 2p
= diverges.
n=1
n n=1
n
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
X (−1)n X (−1)n
The series = √ converges by the
np n
n=1 n=1
1
alternating series test, because its terms √ are decreasing
n
monotonically to zero.
 ∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
d) Give a value of p such that p
diverges, but
n n2p
n=1 n=1
converges. Give reasons why your value of p is correct

Take p = 1 . The series

∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
p
=
n=1
n n=1
n
n=1 n=1

diverges as the power of n is 1 and the series

∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
=
n2p n2
n=1
n=1 n=1
n=1

converges as the power of n is 2 > 1

The function f is defined by the power series
∞
X (−1)n x 2n
f (x) =
(2n + 1)!
n=0
x2 x4 x6 (−1)n x 2n
= 1− + − + ··· + + ...
3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)!

for all real numbers x

a) Find f 0 (0) and f 00 (0)
(0). Determine whether f has a local
maximum, a local minimum, or neither at x = 00. Give a
reason for your answer.

The power series is a Taylor series for its sum

∞ ∞
X (−1)n x 2n X f (k) (0) x k
=
(2n + 1)! k!
n=0 n=0

Comparing coefficients of x and x 2 , we deduce that

1
f 0 (0) = 0, f 00 (0) = −
3

f has a local maximum at a point zero because f 0 (0) = 0 and

f 00 (0) < 0
 1
b) Show that 1 − approximates f (1) with error less than
3!
1
100

1
The difference f (1) − 1 + is a sum of all terms of the
3!
power series except the first two:
1 1 1 1 1
f (1) − 1 + = − + − + ...
3! 5! 7! 9! 11!
Terms have alternating signs and decrease in absolute value.
Combining the terms as
   
1 1 1 1
− + − + ...
5! 7! 9! 11!
 1
We see that all brackets are positive and f (1) − 1 + > 00.
3!
Combining the terms as
   
1 1 1 1 1
− − − − − ...
5! 7! 9! 11! 13!

We see that all brackets are positive, so

1 1 1 1
f (1) − 1 + < = <
3! 5! 120 100
c) Show that y = f (x) is a solution to the differential
equation xy 0 + x = cos (x)

Convergent power series can be the differentiated

term-by-term:
∞
X 2n (−1)n x 2n−1
f 0 (x) =
(2n + 1)!
n=0

If we multiply this identity by x and add f (x) we get

∞
X 2n (−1)n x 2n + (−1)n x 2n
xf 0 (x) + f (x) =
n=0
(2n + 1)!
∞
X (−1)n x 2n
=
n=0
(2n)!
n=0

which is the Taylor expansion for cos (x)

The function f has a Taylor series about x = 2 that
converges to f (x) for all x in the interval of convergence.
(n + 1)!
The n th derivative of f at x = 2 is given by f (n) (2) =
3n
for n ≥ 11, and f (2) = 1
a) Write the first four terms and the general term of the
Taylor series for f about x = 2

The Taylor series of a function f is given by

∞ ∞
X f (n) (2) X (n + 1)!
(x − 2)n = (x − 2)n
n! 3n n!
n=0 n=0

cancel factorials
∞
X n+1
= (x − 2)n
3n
n=0
2 3 4 n+1
= 1+ (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 + (x − 2)3 + . . . n (x − 2)n + . . .
3 9 27 3
b) Find the radius of convergence for the Taylor series for f
about x = 22. Show the work that leads to your answer.

n+1
Coefficients cn of the series are . Radius of convergence
3n
satisfies
1
R −1 = lim (cn ) n
n→∞
1
(n + 1) n
= lim
n→∞ 3
1
=
3

So, R = 3
c) Let g be a function satisfying g (2) = 3 and g 0 (x) = f (x)
for all x . Write the first four terms and the general term of
the Taylor series for g about x = 2

By definition of g ,
Z x
g (x) = 3 + f (y ) dy =
2

power series can be integrated term-by-term

Z x Z x Z x
2 n+1
= 3+ dy + (y − 2) dy + · · · + n
(y − 2)n dy + . . .
2 2 3 2 3
1 1 1
= 3 + (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 + (x − 2)3 + · · · + n (x − 2)n+1 + . . .
3 9 3
d) Does the Taylor series for g as defined in part (c)
converge at x = −2
−2. Give a reason for your answer

(−4)n+1
At x = −2
−2, the series has the general term of . The
3n
series is divergent as it is the geometric series with multiple
4
q = − , |q| > 1
3
  π
Let f be the function given by f (x) = sin 5x + , and let
4
P (x) be the third-degree Taylor polynomial for f about x = 0
a) Find P (x)

The third-order Taylor polynomial is

f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3
P (x) = f (0) + f 0 (0) x + x + x
2 6
Compute derivatives:
 π 1
f (x) = sin 5x + f (0) = √
4 2
 π 5
f 0 (x) = 5 cos 5x + f 0 (0) = √
4 2
00
 π 25
f (x) = −25 sin 5x + f 00 (0) = − √
4 2
 π 125
f 000 (x) = −125 cos 5x + f 000 (0) = − √
4 2

1 5 25 125
P (x) = √ + √ x − √ x 2 − √ x 3
2 2 2 2 6 2
b) Find the coefficient of x 22 in the Taylor series for f about
x =0

Taylor series of a function f (x) has the form

∞
X f (n) (0)
f (x) = xn
n!
n=0

f (22) (0)
So, the coefficient near x 22 is equal to
22!
Even derivatives are equal to
π  52p
f (2p) (0) = (−1)p 52p sin = (−1)p √
4 2
So, the answer is
522
− √
22! 2
c) Usethe Lagrange
  error bound to show that
1 1 1
f −P <
10 10 100

The fourth derivative satisfies

 π
f (4) = 54 sin 5x + ≤ 625
4
The Lagrange error bound:
x
f (4) (y ) (x − y )3 625 |x|4
Z
|f (x) − P (x)| = dy ≤
0 6 24

So,    
1 1 625 1
f −P < < 0.003 <
10 10 240000 100
 Z x
d) Let G be the function given G (x) = f (t) dt
dt. Write the
0
third-degree Taylor polynomial for G about x = 0

Integrate the Taylor series term-wise:

Z x Z x 
1 5 25 125
P (t) dt = √ + √ t − √ t 2 − √ t 3 dt
0 0 2 2 2 2 6 2

1 5 25 125
= √ x + √ x2 − √ x3 − √ x4
2 2 2 6 2 24 2
The third-order polynomial is

1 5 25
√ x + √ x2 − √ x3
2 2 2 6 2
Let f be a function having derivatives of all orders for all real
numbers. The third degree Taylor polynomial for f about
x = 2 is given by

T (x) = 7 − 9 (x − 2)2 − 3 (x − 2)3

a) Find f (2) and f 00 (2)

The Taylor series for f has the form

∞
X f (n) (2)
(x − 2)n
n!
n=0

The Taylor polynomial of order 3 is obtained by finding the

first four terms of the Taylor series:

f 00 (2) f 000 (2)

T (x) = f (2) + f 0 (2) (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 + (x − 2)3
2 6

= 7 − 9 (x − 2)2 − 3 (x − 2)3

Comparing coefficients, we find that f (2) = 7 , f 0 (2) = 00,

f 00 (2) = −18 , f 000 (2) = −18
b) Is there enough information given to determine whether f
has a critical point at x = 22? If not, explain why not. If so,
determine whether f (2) is a relative maximum, a relative
minimum, or neither, and justify your answer.

Yes, in part (a), we found that f 0 (2) = 00, f 00 (2) < 00. So, f
has a local maximum at x = 2
c) Use T (x) to find an approximation for f (0)
(0). Is there
enough information given to determine whether f has a
critical point at x = 00? If not, explain why not. If so,
determine whether f (0) is a relative maximum, a relative
minimum, or neither, and justify your answer.

f (0) ≈ T (0) = −5
There is not enough information to conclude that f has a
critical point at x = 00, as the value of f 0 (0) in terms of
Taylor expansion is equal to
∞
X f (n) (2)
f 0 (0) = (−2)n−1
n=1
(n − 1)!
n=1

and there is no information on the behaviour of higher order

derivatives at x = 2
d) The fourth derivative of f satisfies the inequality
f (4) (x) ≤ 6 for all x in the closed interval [0, 2]
2]. Use the
Lagrange error bound on the approximation to f (0) found in
part (c) to explain why f (0) is negative.

At first, we derive the Lagrange bound. Differentiate the

expression
(b − x)2 (b − x)3
g (x) = f (x) + f 0 (x) (b − x) + f 00 (x) + f 000 (x)
2 6
in x . We have
(b − x)2
g 0 (x) = f 0 (x) + f 00 (x) (b − x) − f 0 (x) + f 000 (x)
2
3
(b − x) (b − x)2
−f 00 (x) (b − x) + f (4) (x) − f 000
6 2
3
(b − x)
= f (4) (x)
6
So,
b
(b − x)3
Z
f (4) (x) dx
a 6
= g (b) − g (a)
(b − a)2 (b − a)3
= f (b) − f (a) − f 0 (a) (b − a) − f 00 (a) − f 000 (a)
2 6
In particular, for b = 0 and a = 2

(−2)2 (−2)3
f (0) − f (2) − f 0 (2) (−2) − f 00 (2) − f 000 (2)
2 6
0
(−x)3
Z
= f (4) (x) dx
2 6

use that f (4) (x) ≤ 6

Z 2
≤ x 3 dx = 4
0
Substitute

f (2) = 7
f 0 (2) = 0
f 00 (2) = −18
f 000 (2) = −18

to get

|f (0) + 5| ≤ 4

f (0) ≤ −5 + 4 = −1
≤−5

Therefore, f (0) is negative

 Robbie’s AP® Calculus - Differential Equations
FRQ, free response questions (2000-2004)
This presentation is a
compilation of my answers
to questions of a topic
that appeared for years

Of the 16 tests in these

years, there were 11
different questions.

Basically every test

has a Differential Equations
question

AP® is a registered trademark of the College Board which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this material.
Five of the eight questions had four sub-questions, while the
other three had three. And of these twenty-nine
sub-questions, these were the topics:
I Separation of Variables: 1a, 2c, 3b, 4c, 6b, 7b, 8b, 9c,
10c, 11c
I Domain and Range: 1b, 2d,
I Slope field (related): 2a, 2b, 5a, 9a, 11a, 11b,
I Evaluations: 3a, 4a, 8a, 9b,
I Euler’s method: 4b, 5b,
I Solution/variable finding: 5c, 7a, 7c,
I Analysis, max/min: 5d, 6a, 10d,
I Logistic differential equation: 10a, 10b
As you can see, there are lots of various topics with lots of
overlap.

Now I’ll present my answers and there will be a list of typos

in the description of this video.
 dy 3x 2
Consider the differential equation = 2y
dx e
a) Find a solution y = f (x) to the differential equation
1
satisfying f (0) =
2
Separate the variables:
e 2y dy = 3x 2 dx
Integrate both parts:
1 2y
e = x3 + C
2
1
Find the constant from the initial condition y (0) = :
2
1
e=C
2
The solution is
e 2y = 2x 3 + e
1
ln 2x 3 + e


y = f (x) =
2
b) Find the domain and range of the function f found in part
(a).

e 1
3
The function f (x) is defined for 2x 3 + e > 00, x > − .
2
e 1
3
As x ranges from − to infinity, 2x 3 + e ranges from 0 to
2
∞ and the range of f (x) is R
 dy
Consider the differential equation given by = x (y − 1)2
dx
a) On the axes provided, sketch a slope field for the given
differential equation at the eleven points indicated.

dy
When y = 11, the derivative is =0
dx
dy
When y = 00, the derivative is =x
dx
dy
When y = −1
−1, the derivative is = 4x
dx
We obtain the following slope field:
b) Use the slope field for the given differential equation to
explain why a solution could not have the graph shown below

At point (−1, 1)
1), the slope of a solution is zero (as y = 11)
while on the figure the curve has a negative slope at point
(−1, 1)
1).
c) Find the particular solution y = f (x) to the given
differential equation with the initial condition f (0) = −1

Separate variables
dy
= xdx
(y − 1)2

Integrate both parts:

Z Z
dy
= xdx
(y − 1)2
1 x2
− = +C
y −1 2
Find the constant from the initial condition y (0) = −1

1
=C
2

The solution is
1
y − 1 = − x2
+ 12
2
2
=− 2
x +1
2
y = 1− 2
x +1
d) Find the range of the solution found in part (c)

2
The term is positive and ≤ 22. As the limitting value
x2 +1
at infinity is 0, this term ranges in (0, 2]
2]. The range of the
solution is [−1, 1)
The function
  f is differentiable for all real numbers. The
1
point 3, is on the graph of y = f (x)
(x), and the slope at
4
dy
each point (x, y ) on the graph is given by = y 2 (6 − 2x)
dx
 d 2y
 
1
a) Find and evaluate it at a point 3,
dx 2 4

The second derivative:

d 2y d
y 2 (6 − 2x)


2
=
dx dx
Differentiate y 2 as a composition (y (x))2
dy
= 2y (6 − 2x) − 2y 2
dx
Use the expression for derivative
= 2y 3 (6 − 2x)2 − 2y 2
 
1
At a point 3, the value is
4

2 1
− = −
16 8
b) Find y = f (x) by solving the differential equation
dy 1
= y 2 (6 − 2x) with the initial condition f (3) =
dx 4

Separate variables:
dy
= (6 − 2x) dx
y2
Integrate both parts
1
− = 6x − x 2 + C
y
Find the constant from the initial condition
−4 = 18 − 9 + C
C = −13
So,
1
y=
x 2 − 6x + 13
Let f be the function satisfying f 0 (x) = −3xf (x)
(x), for all real
numbers x , with f (1) = 4 and lim f (x) = 0
x→∞
 Z ∞
a) Evaluate (−3xf (x)) dx
dx. Show the work that leads to
1
your answer.

Represent the improper integral as a limit of integrals over

finite segments:
Z ∞
(−3xf (x)) dx
1
Z x
= lim (−3yf (y )) dy
x→∞ 1
Z x
= lim f 0 (y ) dy =
x→∞ 1

by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

= lim [f (x) − f (1)] = −4

x→∞

as the limit of f at infinity is zero.

b) Use Euler’s method, starting at x = 1 with a step size of
0.5
0.5, to approximate f (2)

In Euler’s method, the integral in the representation

Z 0.5
f (x + 0.5) = f (x) + f 0 (x + h) dh
0
0
is approximated by 0.5f (x) (function under the integral is
changed to a constant), i.e.
f (1.5) ≈ f (1) + 0.5f 0 (1)
= f (1) − 1.5f (1) = −2

f (2) ≈ f (1.5) + 0.5f 0 (1.5)

= f (1.5) − 1.5 · 1.5f (1.5)
= −1.25f (1.5) = 2.5
c) Write an expression for y = f (x) by solving the differential
dy
equation = −3xy with the initial condition f (1) = 4
dx

Separate variables
dy
= −3xdx
y
And integrate both sides using that y > 0 (initial condition is
positive)
3
ln (y ) = − x 2 + C
2
Take exponentials
3 2 3 2
y = e C e − 2 x = C1 e − 2 x
where C1 is another constant. Substitute x = 11, y = 44:
3 3
4 = C1 e − 2 , C1 = 4e 2

3 2
y = 4e 2 (1−x )
 dy
Consider the differential equation = 2y − 4x
dx
a) The slope field for the given differential equation is
provided. Sketch the solution curve that passes through the
point (0, 1) and sketch the solution curve that passes through
the point (0, −1)

Sketch curves that pass through (0, 1) and (0, −1) and are
tangent to the slope field at every point:
b) Let f be the function that satisfies the given differential
equation with the initial condition f (0) = 11. Use Euler’s
method, starting at x = 0 with a step size of 0.1
0.1, to
approximate f (0.2)
(0.2). Show the work that leads to your answer

In Euler’s method with step size 0.1 we approximate

f (x + 0.1) by

f (x) + 0.1f 0 (x) = f (x) + 0.1 (2f (x) − 4x)

= 1.2f (x) − 0.4x

i.e

f (0.1) ≈ 1.2f (0) − 0.4 · 0 = 1.2

f (0.2) ≈ 1.2f (0.1) − 0.4 · 0.1 = 1.4

c) Find the value of b for which y = 2x + b is a solution to
the given differential equation. Justify your answer.

dy
Derivative of y = 2x + b is = 22. It is a solution to the
dx
equation if

2 = 2y − 4x

= 4x + 2b − 4x

= 2b, b = 1
d) Let g be the function that satisfies the given differential
equation with the initial condition g (0) = 00. Does the graph
of g have a local extremum at the point (0, 0) 0)? If so, is the
point a local maximum or a local minimum? Justify your
answer.

The derivative of g satisfies g 0 (x) = 2g (x) − 4x

At x = 00, we have g (x) = 0 and g 0 (x) = 0

Second derivative is

g 00 (x) = 2g 0 (x) − 4
= 4g (x) − 16x − 4

g 00 (0) = −4

And (0, 0) is a point of local maximum

 dy 3−x
Consider the differential equation =
dx y
a) Let y = f (x) be the particular solution to the given
differential equation for 1 < x < 5 such that the line y = −2 is
tangent to the graph of f . Find the x -coordinate of the point
of tangency, and determine whether f has a local maximum,
local minimum, or neither at this point. Justify your answer.

The tangent line is horizontal, so the derivative is zero:

dy 3−x
= = 0, x = 3
dx y

Also, f (3) = −2 (value of tangency point).

The second derivative is
d 3−x −f (x) − (3 − x) f 0 (x)
f 00 (x) = =
dx f (x) f (x)2

2
(3−x)
−f (x) − f (x)
=
f (x)2

−f (3) 1 1
Substitute x = 33: f 00 (3) = 2
=− = .
f (3) f (3) 2
There is local minimum at a point x = 3
b) Let y = g (x) be the particular solution to the given
differential equation for −2 < x < 88, with the initial condition
g (6) = −4
−4. Find y = g (x)

Separate variables
ydy = (3 − x) dx
Integrate both sides:
y2 x2
= 3x − +C
2 2
Equivalently,
y 2 = 6x − x 2 + C1 , C1 = 2C
For x = 6, y = −4
−4, we get C1 = 16 and so
y 2 = 6x − x 2 + 16
p
g (x) = − 16 + 6x − x 2
(the sign is minus as g (6) = −4 < 00)
The coffeepot has the shape of a cylinder with radius 5
inches, as shown in the figure above. Let h be the depth of
the coffee in the pot, measured in inches, where h is a
function of time t , measured in seconds. The volume
√ V of
coffee in the pot is changing at the rate of −5π h cubic
inches per second.
 √
dh h
a) Show that =−
dt 5

Differentiate the equality V = 25πh with respect to t and use

dV √
the fact that = −5π hh:
dt
√ dh
−5π h = 25π
dt

√
dh h
=−
dt 5
b) Given that h =√17 at time t = 00, solve the differential
dh h
equation =− for h as a function of t
dt 5

Separate variables:
dh 1
√ = − dt
h 5
Integrate both sides:
√ t
2 h =− +C
5
Use that h (0) = 17
17:
√
2 17 = C

√ t 2
h (t) = 17 −
10
c) At what time t is the coffeepot empty?

Coffeepot is empty when h (t) = 00:

√
t = 10 17 sec
Let f be the function satisfying f 0 (x) = x
p
f (x) for all real
numbers x , where f (3) = 25
a) Find f 00 (3)

Differentiate the equation:

xf 0 (x)
f 00 (x) =
p
f (x) + p
2 f (x)

p
p x 2 f (x)
= f (x) + p
2 f (x)

p x2
= f (x) +
2
At x = 33, we have f (3) = 25 and thus

9 19
f 00 (3) = 5 + =
2 2
b) Write an expression for y = f (x) by solving the differential
dy √
equation = x y with the initial condition f (3) = 25
dx

Separate variables:
dy
√ = xdx
y
Integrate both sides:
√ x2
2 y= +C
2
Find the constant C from the initial condition y (3) = 25
25:
9 11
10 = +C ⇒C =
2 2
So,
2
x 2 + 11

y=
4
 dy
Consider the differential equation = x 2 (y − 1)
dx
a) On the axes provided, sketch a slope field for the given
differential equation at the twelve points indicated.

dy dy
At x = 11, we have = y − 11. At x = 00, we have = 00. At
dx dx
dy
x = −1
−1, we have =y −1
dx
b) While the slope field is part (a) is drawn at only twelve
points, it is defined at every point in the xy -plane. Describe
all points in the xy -plane for which the slopes are positive.

The slope is positive when x 2 (y − 1) > 00, i.e. when x 6= 0

and y > 11.
c) Find the particular solution y = f (x) to the given
differential equation with the initial condition f (0) = 3

Separate variables:
dy
= x 2 dx
y −1
Integrate both sides
x3
ln |y − 1| = +C
3
As y (0) = 3 > 11, the absolute value is y − 11:
x3
ln (y − 1) = +C
3
For x = 00, y = 3 we get C = ln (2)
(2). So,
x3
ln (y − 1) = ln (2) +
3
x3
y = 1 + 2e 3
A population is modeled by a function P that satisfies the
logistic differential equation
 
dP P P
= 1−
dt 5 12
a) If P (0) = 33, what is lim P (t)
(t)? If P (0) = 20
20, what is
t→∞
lim P (t)
t→∞

The carrying capacity of the logistic equation is 12

12. It means
that there are two stationary points: P = 0 and P = 12 are
solutions to the equation. However, only P = 12 is stable in
the sense that any solution P (t) with initial condition
P (0) > 0 will converge to 12 at infinity. Indeed, separate
variables:
12dP dt
=
P (12 − P) 5
and integrate both sides:
Z Z  
12dP 1 1 P
= + dP = ln
P (12 − P) 12 − P P 12 − P

Z
dt t
= +C
5 5
Now, if 0 < P (0) < 12
12, the solution satisfies
   
P t t P (0)
ln = + C = + ln
12 − P 5 5 12 − P (0)

t
12P (0) e 5
P (t) = t
12 − P (0) + P (0) e 5

If P (0) > 12
12, the solution satisfies
   
P t t P (0)
ln = + C = + ln
P − 12 5 5 P (0) − 12

t
12P (0) e 5
P (t) = t
12 − P (0) + P (0) e 5
So, the solution in the case P (0) ≥ 0 is
t
12P (0) e 5
P (0) = t
12 − P (0) + P (0) e 5

When P (0) > 00, the limit at infinity is

12P (0)
lim P (t) = lim t = 12
t→∞ t→∞ (12 − P (0)) e − 5 + P (0)
b) If P (0) = 33, for what value of P is the population growing
the fastest?

Explicit solution is
t
12P (0) e 5
P (t) = t
12 − P (0) + P (0) e 5
t t
12, then 12 − P (0) + P (0) e 5 > P (0) e 5 and
If 0 < P (0) < 12
solution is P (t) < 12
12. From the differential equation, it
dP
follows that > 0 and the solution is increasing.
dt
To find the point of the fastest increase, differentiate the
equation:

d 2P
 
1 dP P P dP
= 1 − −
dt 2 5 dt 12 60 dt
 
dP 1 P
= −
dt 5 30

30 dP dP
So, for P < =6 increases and for P > 6 decreases.
5 dt dt
The point of the fastest increase is P = 6 (half of the
carrying capacity)
c) A different population is modeled by a function Y that
satisfies the separable differential equation

dY Y  t 
= 1−
dt 5 12
Find Y (t) if Y (0) = 3

Separate variables

dY (12 − t) dt
=
Y 60
and integrate both parts

(12 − t)2
ln (Y (t)) = − +C
120
To find C , substitute the initial condition
144
ln (3) = − +C
120
6
C = ln (3) +
5

6 (t−12)2 t t2
So, Y (t) = 3e 5 − 120 = 3e 5 − 120
d) For the function Y found in part (c), what is lim Y (t)
(t)?
t→∞

The limit of the exponent at −∞ is zero, so Y (t) → 0 as

t→∞
 dy
Consider the differential equation = x 4 (y − 2)
dx
a) On the axes provided, sketch a slope field for the given
differential equation at the twelve points indicated

dy
At x = 11, the slope is = y − 22. At x = 00, the slope is
dx
dy dy
= 00. At x = −1
−1, the slope is = y − 22.
dx dx
b) While the slope field in part (a) is drawn at only twelve
points, it is defined at every point in the xy -plane. Describe
all points in the xy -plane for which the slopes are negative.

Slopes are negative when x 4 (y − 2) < 00, i.e. x 6= 0 and y < 22.
Slopes are negative below the horizontal line y = 2 and not
on the vertical line x = 0
c) Find the particular solution y = f (x) to the given
differential equation with the initial condition f (0) = 0

Separate variables
dy
= x 4 dx
y −2
and integrate both parts
Z Z
dy
= x 4 dx
y −2
x5
ln |y − 2| = +C
5
The constant C is found from the inital condition x = 00,
y =0
ln (2) = C
So,
x5
ln (2 − y ) = + ln (2)
5
(expression y − 2 is negative as y passes through the point
zero).

Potentiate:
x5
2 − y = 2e 5

x5
y = 2 − 2e 5
 Robbie’s AP® Calculus - Polar
FRQ, free response questions (2000-2004)
This presentation is a
compilation of my answers
to questions of a topic
that appeared for years

Of the 16 tests in these

years, there were 2
polar questions.

Basically, polar
is rare.

AP® is a registered trademark of the College Board which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this material.
One question had four sub-questions, and the other question
had three.
I Coordinate: 1a,
I Area: 1b, 1d, 2a, 2b, 2c
I Equation-related: 1c,
Due to the rarity of the topic, not much to analyze. Some of
the questions were about setting-up the area

Now I’ll present my answers and there will be a list of typos

in the description of this video.
 5
Q1) The figure above shows the graphs of the line x = y
p 3
and the curve C given by x = 1 + y 2 . Let S be the shaded
region bounded by the two graphs and the x -axis. The line
and the curve intersect at point P .
 dx
1a) Find the coordinates of point P and the value of for
dy
curve C at point P

Point P is the intersection of the line and the curve C :

5 p
y = 1 + y2
3
Take squares:
25y 2 = 9 + 9y 2
9
y2 =
16
 
3 5 5 5 3
y = , x = ·y = → P= ,
4 3 4 4 4
dx y y
The derivative, = p =
dy 1+y 2 x
3
dx 4 3
at P is = 5
=
dy 4
5
1b) Set up and evaluate an integral expression with respect
to y that gives the area of S

p
The region S is situated to the left of x = 1 + y 2 and to
5 3
the right of x = y for 0 ≤ y ≤
3 4
Z 3 p 
4
2
5
1 + y − y dy ≈ 0.347
0 3
1c) Curve C is a part of the curve x 2 − y 2 = 11. Show that
x 2 − y 2 = 1 can be written as the polar equation
1
r2 =
cos (θ) − sin2 (θ)
2

In polar coordinates, x = r cos (θ)

(θ), y = r sin (θ)
(θ). Equation
transforms to

r 2 cos2 (θ) − r 2 sin2 (θ) = 1

1
r2 =
cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ)
1d) Use the polar equation given in part (c) to set up an
integral expression with respect to the polar angle θ that
represents the area of S

5
The line x = y in polar coordinates becomes
3
y 3
tan (θ) = =
x 5
  
3
For every θ ∈ 0, tan−1 , the length of a cross-section is
5
1
r=q . Using that the area of a sector of
cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ)
r2
radius r and angle dθ is dθ dθ, the area of the region is
2
Z tan−1 ( 3 )
5 1

dθ
0 2 cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ)
Q2) The figure above shows the graphs of the circles
x 2 + y 2 = 2 and (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 11. The graphs intersect at
the points (1, 1) and (1, −1)
−1). Let R be the shaded region in
the first quadrant bounded by the two circles and the x -axis.
2a) Set up an expression involving one or more integrals with
respect to x that represents the area of R .

The region R is situated between the x -axis and qthe curve

p √
y = 2 − x 2 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and the curve y = 1 − (x − 1)2
√ 
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (larger circle intersects x -axis at 2, 0 ). The
area is
Z 1q Z √2 p
1 − (x − 1)2 dx + 2 − x 2 dx
0 1
2b) Set up an expression involving one or more integrals with
respect to y that represents the area of R .

Solving equations with respect to x , we get

p that the region
R is situated to the left ofpthe curve x = 2 − y 2 and to the
right of the curve x = 1 − 1 − y 2 (square root is taken with
minus as the area is situated to the left of center of the
smaller circle). The area is
Z 1 p  p 
2 − y 2 − 1 − 1 − y 2 dy
0
 √
2c) The polar equations of the circles are r = 2 and
r = 2 cos (θ)
(θ), respectively. Set up an expression involving one
or more integrals with respect to the polar angle θ that
represents the area of R

π √
For 0 ≤ θ ≤ , the length of the cross-section is r = 22. For
hπ π i 4
θ∈ , , the length of the cross-section is r = 2 cos (θ) (θ).
4 2
r 2
The area of a sector of an angle dθ and radius r is dθ dθ. So,
2
the area of R is
Z π √ 2 Z π 2
4 2 2 (2 cos (θ))
dθ + dθ
0 2 π
4
2
Z π
π 2
= + 2 cos2 (θ) dθ
4 π
4
4
 Robbie’s AP® Calculus - Implicit Differentiation
FRQ, free response questions (2000-2004)
This presentation is a
compilation of my answers
to questions of a topic
that appeared for years

Of the 16 tests in these

years, there were 2
implicit differentiation
questions.

Basically, implicit
differentiation is rare.

AP® is a registered trademark of the College Board which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this material.
Both questions had three sub-questions:
dy
I Find : 1a, 2a
dx
I Tangent lines: 1b, 1c, 2b
d 2y
I Find : 2c
dx 2
Due to the rarity of the topic, not much to analyze.

Now I’ll present my answers and there will be a list of typos

in the description of this video.
Q1) Consider the curve given by xy 2 − x 3 y = 6
 dy 3x 2 y − y 2
1a) Show that =
dx 2xy − x 3

As the expression xy 2 − x 3 y is constant, its derivative (with

respect to x ) is zero. Differentiate, considering y = y (x) :

d
xy 2 − x 3 y


0=
dx
dy dy
= y 2 + 2xy − 3x 2 y − x 3
dx dx
So,
dy
y 2 − 3x 2 y + 2xy − x 3 = 0


dx
dy 3x 2 y − y 2
=
dx 2xy − x 3
1b) Find all points on the curve whose x -coordinate is 1 , and
write an equation for the tangent line at each of these points.

Points on the curve with x = 1 satisfy

y2 − y − 6 = 0
(y − 3) (y + 2) = 0

So, y = −2 or y = 33. Derivative at y = −2 is (using the result

of (a))
dy 3 (−2) − 4
= =2
dx 2 (−2) − 1

and the tangent line is

y = −2 + 2 (x − 1)
y + 2 = 2 (x − 1)
Derivative at y = 3 is

dy 3·3−9
= =0
dx 2·3−1

And the tangent line is y=3

1c) Find the x -coordinate of each point on the curve where
the tangent line is vertical.

The tangent line is vertical when the derivative is infinite

dx
(equivalently, = 00):
dy
2xy − x 3 = 0
Observe that from the equation xy 2 − x 3 y = 6 we have x 6= 00.
Then divide by x :
1
y = x2
2
Substitute y into the equation of the curve:
x5 x5
− =6
4 2
x 5 = −24
1
So, x = − (24) 5
Q2) Consider the curve given by x 2 + 4y 2 = 7 + 3xy
 dy 3y − 2x
2a) Show that =
dx 8y − 3x

Differentiate the equation of the curve with respect to x :

dy dy
2x + 8y = 3y + 3x
dx dx
Hence,
dy 3y − 2x
=
dx 8y − 3x
2b) Show that there is a point P with x -coordinate 3 at
which the line tangent to the curve at P is horizontal. Find
the y -coordinate of P

dy
The tangent line is horizontal, if = 00, i.e.,
dx
3y = 2x

If x = 33, then y = 22. It remains to check that the point (3, 2)

lies on the curve:

32 + 4 · 22 = 9 + 16 = 25
7 + 3 · 3 · 2 = 7 + 18 = 25

Equation is satisfied, so the point (3, 2) is on the curve.

 d 2y
2c) Find the value of at the point P found in part (b).
dx 2
Does the curve have a local maximum, a local minimum, or
neither at the point P ? Justify you answer.

Differentiate the equation with respect to x

dy 3y − 2x
=
dx 8y − 3x
   
dy dy
2
d y 3 dx − 2 (8y − 3x) − 8 dx − 3 (3y − 2x)
=
dx 2 (8y − 3x)2
dy
use that x = 33, y = 22, and =0
dx
−2 (16 − 9) 2
= 2
= −
(16 − 9) 7

Since y 0 = 0 and y 00 < 00, the curve has a local maximum at

the point P
 Robbie’s AP® Calculus - Functions
FRQ, free response questions (2000-2004)
This presentation is a
compilation of my answers
to questions of a topic
that appeared for years

Of the 16 tests in these

years, there were 13
function-related
questions.

Basically, functions
of various sorts
are on every test.

AP® is a registered trademark of the College Board which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this material.
Mainly manipulation regarding derivatives and integrals:
I Max/min: 1a, 1b, 1d, 10b, 10c, 11b,
d 2y
I : 1c, 2b, 4c, 6c,
dx 2
I Tangents: 2a, 2c, 2d, 5b, 7c, 11c,
I Integral: 3b, 5a, 12a, 12b, 12c, 13d
I Derivatives: 4a, 4b, 6a, 6b, 7a, 9a, 10a,
I Sketching: 4d,
I Finding values: 3a, 5c, 7d, 8c, 9c,
I Comparing functions: 5d,
I Approximations: 6d,
I Inflections: 7b, 9d, 10d, 11a,
I Limits and continuity: 8a,
I Averages: 8b, 9b, 13a, 13c
I Volume: 13b,
I (Graphs for Q’s 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12. Tables for Q5)
Mainly manipulation regarding derivatives and integrals:
I Max/min: 1a, 1b, 1d, 10b, 10c, 11b,
d 2y
I : 1c, 2b, 4c, 6c,
dx 2
I Tangents: 2a, 2c, 2d, 5b, 7c, 11c,
I Integral: 3b, 5a, 12a, 12b, 12c, 13d
I Derivatives: 4a, 4b, 6a, 6b, 7a, 9a, 10a,
I Sketching: 4d,
I Finding values: 3a, 5c, 7d, 8c, 9c,
I Comparing functions: 5d,
I Approximations: 6d,
I Inflections: 7b, 9d, 10d, 11a,
I Limits and continuity: 8a,
I Averages: 8b, 9b, 13a, 13c
I Volume: 13b,
I (Graphs for Q’s 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12. Tables for Q5)
Now I’ll present my answers and there will be a list of typos
in the description of this video.
1) The figure above shows the graph of f 0 , the derivative of
the function f , for −7 ≤ x ≤ 77. The graph of f 0 has
horizontal tangent lines at x = −3−3, x = 22, and x = 55, and a
vertical line at x = 33.
1a) Find the values of x , for −7 < x < 77, at which f attains a
relative minimum. Justify your answer.

Condition f 0 (x) = 0 is a necessary condition of an extremum

at a point x . This condition is satisfied at x = −5, −1, 55.

−5, we have f 0 (x) > 00, so f is increasing.

To the left of x = −5
−5, we have f 0 (x) < 00, so f is decreasing.
To the right of x = −5

In other words,

f (x) < f (−5) , x < −5

f (−5) > f (x) , −5 < x < 1

so x = −5 is a point of relative maximum.

 −1, we have f 0 (x) < 00, so f is decreasing.
To the left of x = −1
−1, we have f 0 (x) > 00, so f is increasing.
To the right of x = −1

In other words,

f (x) > f (−1) , −5 < x < −1

f (−1) < f (x) , x > −1

so x = −1 is a point of relative minimum.

x = 5 is not a point of relative extrema as, to the both sides

of it, we have f 0 (x) > 0 and f is increasing in the
neighborhood of x = 55.

Answer in this part is x = −1

1b) Find the values of x , for −7 < x < 77, at which f attains a
relative maximum. Justify your answer.

x = −5 (was found in the previous part)

1c) Find the values of x , for −7 < x < 77, at which f 00 (x) < 0

f 00 (x) < 0 on some interval I if and only if f 0 (x) is strictly

decreasing on I . Observe that f 00 (x) is defined for all points
x 6= 33. So f 00 (x) < 0 on three intervals:

f 00 (x) < 0 for −7 < x < −3

2< x <3
3< x <5
1d) At what value of x , for −7 ≤ x ≤ 77, does f attains its
absolute maximum? Justify your answer.

The function f (x) is expressed in terms of the derivative.

Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Z x
f (x) = f (−7) + f 0 (y ) dy
−7

Observe that the integral is increasing at all points where

f 0 (x) > 00. So, on [−7, −5]
−5], f is increasing, then decreasing to
x = −1 and then continuously increasing. The area on the
segment [−5, −1] is smaller than the area on [−1, 7] 7], so the
value of f at x = 7 is the largest.

Answer: x = 7
2) Let h be a function defined for all x 6= 0 such that
x2 − 2
h (4) = −3 and the derivative of h is given by h0 (x) =
x
for all x 6= 0
2a) Find all values of x for which the graph of h has a
horizontal tangent, and determine whether h has a local
maximum, a local minimum, or neither at each of these
values. Justify your answers

Horizontal tangent corresponds to points with h 0 (x) = 00, i.e.

√
x 2 − 2 = 0, x = ± 2

Second derivative is
 
00 d 2 2
h (x) = x− =1+ 2
dx x x
√ √
It is positive for all x 6= 00, so both points x = 2, x = − 2
are points of local minima.
2b) On what intervals, if any, is the graph of h concave up?
Justify your answer.

As h00 (x) > 0 for all x 6= 00, the function h (x) is concave up on
(−∞, 0) and (0, ∞)
2c) Write an equation for the line tangent to the graph of h
at x = 4

42 − 2
At x = 44, the derivative is = 3.5 and h (4) = −3
−3. The
4
equation for the tangent line is

y = −3 + 3.5 (x − 4)
2d) Does the line tangent to the graph of h at x = 4 lie
above or below the graph of h for x > 44? Why?

The tangent line is below the graph of y = h (x) because

h (x) is concave up for x > 44:
Z x
h (x) = h (4) + h0 (t) dt
4

 0
h (t) is increasing as h00 (t) > 0


Z x
> h (4) + h0 (4) dt
4

= −3 + 3.5 (x − 4)
3) A cubic polynomial function f is defined by

f (x) = 4x 3 + ax 2 + bx + k

where a , b , and k are constants. The function f has a local

minimum at x = −1 and the graph of f has a point of
inflection at x = −2
3a) Find the values of a and b

At points of local extrema, the derivative is zero, and, at

points of inflection, the second derivative is zero. Compute
the derivatives:

f 0 (x) = 12x 2 + 2ax + b

f 00 (x) = 24x + 2a

So, 0 = f 0 (−1) = 12 − 2a + b
0 = f 00 (−2) = −48 + 2a

From these equations we find a and b :

a = 24, b = 36
 Z 1
3b) If f (x) dx = 32
32, what is the value of k ?
0

Integrate f (x)
(x):
Z 1
32 = f (x) dx
0

Z 1
4x 3 + 24x 2 + 36x + k dx


=
0

x=1
= x 4 + 8x 3 + 18x 2 + kx x=0

= 27 + k

So, k = 5
4) The graph of the function f shown above consists of two
line segments. Let g be the function given by
Z x
g (x) = f (t) dt
0
 (−1), g 0 (−1)
4a) Find g (−1) (−1), and g 00 (−1)

By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, g 0 (x) = f (x)(x). For

−2 ≤ x ≤ 00, the function f (x) is the line connecting (−2, −3)
and (0, 3)
3):
6
f (x) + 3 = (x + 2) = 3x + 6
2
f (x) = 3x + 3
For −2 ≤ x ≤ 0
Z x Z 0
g (x) = f (t) dt = − f (t) dt
0 x
Z 0
=− (3t + 3) dt
x
3 2
= x + 3x
2
3
g (−1) = − , g 0 (−1) = f (−1) = 00, g 00 (−1) = f 0 (−1) = 3
2
4b) For what values of x in the open interval (−2, 2) is g
increasing? Explain your reasoning.

g is increasing when g 0 (x) = f (x) > 00, i.e. on the interval

(−1, 1)
4c) For what values of x in the open interval (−2, 2) is the
graph of g concave down? Explain your reasoning.

g is concave down when g 00 (x) = f 0 (x) < 00, i.e. when f (x) is
decreasing: (0, 2)
4d) On the axes provided, sketch the graph of g on the
closed interval [−2, 2]

Observe that g (−2) = g (0) = g (2) = 0 and on both intervals

[−2, 0] and [0, 2]
2], g is a parabola. It is concave down on [0, 2]
and is concave up on [−2, 0]
5) Let f be a function that is differentiable for all real
numbers. The table above gives the values of f and its
derivative f 0 for selected points x in the closed interval
−1.5 ≤ x ≤ 1.5
1.5. The second derivative of f has the property
00
that f (x) > 0 for −1.5 ≤ x ≤ 1.5
 Z 1.5
3f 0 (x) + 4 dx


5a) Evaluate dx. Show the work that leads
0
to your answer

Use linearity of the integral and the Newton-Leibniz formula:

Z 1.5
3f 0 (x) + 4 dx


0

Z 1.5
=3 f 0 (x) dx + 6
0

= 3 (f (1.5) − f (0)) + 6

= 3 (−1 + 7) + 6 = 24
5b) Write an equation to the line tangent to the graph of f
at the point where x = 11. Use this line to approximate the
value of f (1.2)
(1.2). Is this approximation greater than or less
than the actual value of f (1.2)
(1.2)? Give a reason for your
answer.

−4, f 0 (1) = 55. Tangent line is

It is given that f (1) = −4
y + 4 = 5 (x − 1)
y = 5x − 9
Predicted value of f (1.2) is
5 · 1.2 − 9 = −3
The value is below the true value as f is concave up:
Z 1.2
f (1.2) = f (1) + f 0 (x) dx
1
0
[ff is increasing]
> f (1.2) + 0.2f 0 (1) = −3
5c) Find a positive real number r having the property that
there must exist a value c with 0 < c < 0.5 and f 00 (c) = r .
Give a reason for your answer.

The increment of the derivative on [0, 0.5] is

f 0 (0.5) − f 0 (0) = 3

By the Mean Value Theorem, there exists a point c ∈ (0, 0.5)

such that
f 0 (0.5) − f 0 (0) = 0.5f 00 (c)
3
r= = 6
0.5
5d) Let g be a function given by
(
2x 2 − x − 7 for x < 0
g (x) =
2x 2 + x − 7 for x ≥ 0

The graph of g passes through each of the points (x, f (x))

given in the table above. It is possible that f and g are the
same function? Give a reason for your answer.

The derivative of g for x < 0 is 4x − 11, and the derivative for

x > 0 is 4x + 11. In particular, the one-sided derivatives at
zero are
g−0 (0) = −1, g+0 (0) = 1
and g 0 (0) does not exist, while f is differentiable at zero. So,
g and f can’t be the same function .
6) The graph of a differentiable function f on the closed
interval [−3, 15] is shown in the figure above. The graph of f
has a horizontal tangent line at x = 66. Let
Z x
g (x) = 5 + f (t) dt for −3 ≤ x ≤ 15
6
 (6), g 0 (6)
6a) Find g (6) (6), and g 00 (6)

By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, g 0 (x) = f (x)

(x). So,
00 0
g (x) = f (x)
(x). Value at x = 6 is
Z 6
g (6) = 5 + f (t) dt = 5
6

g 0 (6) = f (6) = 3 and g 00 (6) = f 0 (6) = 0 (as the tangent at

x = 6 is horizontal)
6b) On what intervals is g decreasing? Justify your answer

g is decreasing when g 0 (x) < 00, i.e. f (x) < 0

Hence the answer is

[−3, 0] and [12, 15]

6c) On what intervals is the graph of g concave down?
Justify your answer

g is concave down when g 00 (x) = f 0 (x) < 00, i.e. when f (x) is
decreasing

Hence, the answer is:

[6, 15]
 Z 15
6d) Find a trapezoid approximation of f (t) dt using six
−3
subintervals of length ∆t = 3

Nodes of a partition for six intervals are −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15

15:
Z 15
f (t) dt
−3

 
f (−3) f (15)
≈3 + f (0) + f (3) + f (6) + f (9) + f (12) +
2 2

 
1 1
= 3 − +1+3+1−
2 2

= 12
7) Let f be a function defined on the closed interval
−3 ≤ x ≤ 4 with f (0) = 33. The graph of f 0 , the derivative of
f , consists of one line segment and a semicircle, as shown
above.
7a) On what intervals, if any, is f increasing? Justify your
answer.

f is increasing when f 0 > 00, i.e. on the segment

−3 ≤ x ≤ −2
7b) Find the x -coordinate of each point of inflection of the
graph of f on the open interval −3 < x < 44. Justify your
answer.

Points of inflection are the points where the derivative f 0

changes direction (increasing to decreasing, or vice-versa):
x = 0 and x = 2
7c) Find an equation for the line tangent to the graph of f
at the point (0, 3)
3).

It is given that f (0) = 33. From the plot, f 0 (0) = −2 and the
equation of the tangent is

y − 3 = −2x
y = −2x + 3
7d) Find f (−3) and f (4)
(4). Show the work that leads to your
answer.

On the segment [−3, 0] 0], f 0 (x) is a line that connects points

0
(−2, 0) and (0, −2)
−2): f (x) = −x − 22. On the segment [0, 4] 4],
0
f (x) is an upper semicircle of center (2, −2) and radius 2 .
Equation of the circle is

(x − 2)2 + (y + 2)2 = 4
q p
So, f 0 (x) = 4 − (x − 2)2 − 2 = 4x − x 2 − 22. Values of f
are recovered by the Newton-Leibniz formula:
Z −3 Z 0
f (−3) = f (0) + f 0 (x) dx = f (0) − (−x − 2) dx
0 −3
 2  x=0  
x 9 9
= 3 − − − 2x =3+ − +6 =
2 x=−3 2 2
 Z 4 Z 4 p 
0
f (4) = f (0) + f (x) dx = 3 + 4x − x2 − 2 dx
0 0
Z 4p
= −5 + x (4 − x)dx =
0
 
x −2
change variables t = arccos , so that x = 2 + 2 cos (t) (t),
2
dx = −2 sin (t)
Z πp
= −5 + 2 (2 + 2 cos (t)) (2 − 2 cos (t)) sin (t) dt
0
Z πq Z π
= −5 + 4 2
1 − cos (t) sin (t) dt = −5 + 4 sin2 (t) dt
Z0 π 0

= −5 + 2 (1 − cos (2t)) dt = −5 + 2π
0
8) Let f be the function defined by
(√
x + 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
f (x) =
5 − x, 3<x ≤5
8a) Is f continuous at x = 33? Explain why or why not.

√
To the left of x = 33, function f (x) is given by f (x) = x + 11.
The left limit at x = 3 is
√ √
lim x + 1 = 4 = 2 = f (3)
x→3−

To the right of x = 33, function f (x) is given by f (x) = 5 − xx.

The right limit at x = 3 is

lim (5 − x) = 5 − 3 = 2 = f (3)
x→3+

Both limits coincide with f (3)

(3). f is continuous at x = 3
8b) Find the average value of f (x) on the closed interval
0≤x ≤5

The average value is given by

1 5
Z
f (x) dx =
5 0
split the integral according to the expression for f
√
Z 3 Z 5 
1
= x + 1dx + (5 − x) dx
5 0 3

x=3  x=5 !
x2

1 2 3
= (x + 1) 2 + 5x −
5 3 x=0 2 x=3

 
1 2 4
= (8 − 1) + 2 =
5 3 3
8c) Suppose the function g is defined by
( √
k x + 1, 0 ≤ x ≤3
g (x) =
mx + 2, 3<x ≤5

where k and m are constants. If g is differentiable at x = 33,

what are the values of k and m ?

g is continuous at x = 33. Compare limits to both sides:

2k = 3m + 2
k
Derivative to the left of x = 3 is √ . Derivative to the
2 x +1
right of x = 3 is m . Compare values at x = 33:
k
=m
4
2 8
From equations k = 4m
4m, 5m = 22, we get m = , k =
5 5
9) Let f be a function defined on the closed interval [0, 7]
7].
The graph of f , consisting of four line segments, is shown
Z x
above. Let g be the function given by g (x) = f (t) dt
2
 (3), g 0 (3)
9a) Find g (3) (3), and g 00 (3)

By definition of g , g (2) = 0 and g 0 (x) = f (x)

(x). On the
segment [2, 4]
4], f (x) is a line connecting (2, 4) and (4, 0)
0):

−4
f (x) − 4 = (x − 2)
2
f (x) = −2x + 8

So
Z 3
x=3
g (3) = (−2x + 8) dx = − x 2 x=2
+ 8 = −9 + 4 + 8 = 3
2
g 0 (3) = f (3) = 2
g 00 (3) = f 0 (3) = −2
9b) Find the average rate of change of g on the interval
0≤x ≤3

The average rate of change of g over [0, 3] is

Z 3 Z 0 
g (3) − g (0) 1
= f (x) dx − f (x) dx
3 3 2 2
Z 3 Z 2 
1
= f (x) dx + f (x) dx
3 2 0

on the segment [0, 2]

2], f (x) is a line joining (0, 0) and (2, 4)
4),
f (x) = 2x
Z 3 Z 2 
1
= (8 − 2x) dx + 2xdx
3 2 0
1 7
= (8 − 9 + 4 + 4) =
3 3
9c) For how many values c , where 0 < c < 33, is g 0 (c) equal to
the average rate found in part (b)? Explain your reasoning.

7 7
As 2 < < 33, g 0 (c) = f (x) = at two points in (0, 3)
3 3
9d) Find the x -coordinate of each point of inflection of the
graph of g on the interval 0 < x < 77. Justify your answer.

Points of inflection of g (x) correspond to points where the

derivative g 0 (x) = f (x) changes sign: x = 22, x = 5
(comment: here, one can’t use the second derivative of g , as
f is not differentiable at points 2 , 4 , and 5 )
10) The graph of the function f shown above consists of a
semicircle and three
Z line segments. Let g be the function
x
given by g (x) = f (t) dt
−3
10a) Find g (0) and g 0 (0)

On the segment [−3, 0] 0], the graph of f is a line connecting

points (−3, 2) and (0, 1)
1). Its equation is

1−2
f (x) = 2 + (x + 3)
0+3

1
= 1− x
3
So,
Z 0
g (0) = f (t) dt
−3


Z 0 
1
= 1 − t dt
−3 3

t=0
t2
= 3−
6 t=−3

9 9
= 3+ =
6 2

By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, g 0 (x) = f (x)

(x), so
g 0 (0) = f (0) = 1
10b) Find all values of x in the open interval (−5, 4) at which
g attains a relative maximum. Justify your answer.

At points of extrema, we have g 0 (x) = f (x) = 00, so possible

points of local maximum are x = −4 −4, x = 11, x = 33. g (x) is
decreasing to the left of x = −4 and is increasing to the right
of x = −4
−4. So, x = −4 is a point of local minimum. x = 1 is
not a point of extremum, as g is increasing to the both sides
of x = 11. Finally, g (x) is increasing to the left of x = 3 and is
decreasing to the right of x = 33. So, x = 3 is a point of
local maximum.
10c) Find the absolute minimum value of g on the closed
interval [−5, 4]
4]. Justify your answer.

The point of local minimum on the interval (−5, 4) is the

point x = −4−4. So, g (x) can achieve global minimum either at
x = −4−4, or at one of the end-points. g (x) is decreasing to
the left of x = −4−4, so g (−5) > g (−4)
(−4). Then g is increasing
till x = 3 and then is decreasing till x = 44. The decreasing of
g on the segment [3, 4] is smaller than the increasing on the
segment [−4, 3] 3]. So, g (4) > g (−4) and global minimum is
achieved at = −4
x
On the segment [−5, −3]
−3], the graph of f is a line connecting
points (−5, −2) and (−3, 2)
2). Its equation is

2+2
f (x) = −2 + (x + 5)
−3 + 5
= 2x + 8

Z −4
g (−4) = f (t) dt
−3
Z −3
=− (2t + 8) dt
−4
= −1
10d) Find all values of x in the open interval (−5, 4) at which
the graph of g has a point of inflection.

Points of inflection of the function g (x) are points where the

derivative g 0 (x) = f (x) changes direction:

x = −3, x = 1, x = 2
11) The figure above shows the graph of f 0 , the derivative of
the function f , on the closed interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 55. The graph
of f 0 has horizontal tangent lines at x = 1 and x = 33. The
function f is twice differentiable with f (2) = 6
11a) Find the x -coordinate of each of the points of inflection
of the graph of f . Give a reason for your answer.

At points of inflection, the derivative changes its direction:

x = 1 and x = 3
11b) At what values of x does f attain its absolute minimum
value on the closed interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 55? At what value of x
does f attain its absolute maximum value on the closed
interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 55? Show the analysis that leads to your
answers.

To the left of x = 44, we have f 0 (x) < 0 and, to the right of

x = 44, we have f 0 (x) > 00. So, f is decreasing on [−1, 4] and is
increasing on [4, 5]
5]. Global minimum is attained at x = 4 .
Maximal value is attained at one of the endpoints. The
decreasing of the function (that is, the area underneath the
x -axis) on [−1, 4] is larger than the increasing on [4, 5] and
global maximum is attained at x = −1 .
11c) Let g be the function defined by g (x) = xf (x)
(x). Find an
equation for the line tangent to the graph of g at x = 22.

The value of g at x = 2 is g (2) = 2f (2) = 12

12. Derivative of g
is

g 0 (x) = f (x) + xf 0 (x)

g 0 (2) = f (2) + 2f 0 (2) = 4

Tangent line is y − 12 = 4 (x − 2)
12) Let ` be the line tangent to the graph of y = x n at the
point (1, 1)
1), where n > 11, as shown above.
 Z 1
12a) Find x n dx in terms of n
0

x n+1
The antiderivative of x n is . Integrate
n+1
Z 1  n+1 x=1
x 1
x n dx = =
0 n + 1 x=0 n + 1
12b) Let T be the triangular region bounded by ` , the x -axis,
1
and the line x = 11. Show that the area of T is
2n

The derivative of x n at the point 1 is n , so the equation of `

is y − 1 = n (x − 1)
1), i.e., y = nx − n + 11. The line ` intersects
n−1
the x -axis at the point x = . The area of T is
n
Z 1  2 x=1
x 1
(nx − n + 1) dx = n − (n − 1)
(n−1)
n
2 x= n−1 n
n n

!
n (n − 1)2 n−1
= 1− −
2 n2 n

2n − 1 n − 1 1
= − =
2n n 2n
12c) Let S be the region bounded by the graph of y = x n ,
the line ` , and the x -axis. Express the area of S in terms of n
and determine the value of n that maximizes the area of S .

It is easier to express the area of S as an integral of y . The

1
equation of the curve is x = y n and the equation of the line `
y +n−1
is x = . For each y ∈ [0, 1]
1], the length of a
n
cross-section of S is
y +n−1 1
−yn
n
So, the area of S is
Z 1 
y +n−1 1 1 n−1 n
− y n dy = + −
0 n 2n n n+1

n−1
=
2n (n + 1)
The derivative in n is
1 (n − 1) (2n + 1) 2n + 1 − n2
− 2
=
2n (n + 1) 2n2 (n + 1) 2n2 (n + 1)2

Derivative is positive for n2 < 2n + 11, i.e.

(n − 1)2 < 2
√
|n − 1| < 2
√
As n > 11, we have n < 1 + 22. So, maximal value is achieved
√
when n = 1 + 2
 1
13) Let g be the function given g (x) = √
x
13a) Find the average value of g on the closed interval [1, 4]

The integral of g over [1, 4] is

Z 4 Z 4 1
g (x) dx = x − 2 dx
1 1

√ x=4
= 2 x x=1

= 2 (2 − 1) = 2

So, the average value is

Z 4
1 2
g (x) dx =
4−1 1 3
13b) Let S be the solid generated when the region bounded
by the graph of y = g (x)
(x), the vertical lines x = 1 and x = 44,
and the x -axis is revolved about the x -axis. Find the volume
of S

For fixed x ∈ [1, 4]

4], the cross-section of the solid is the disk
1 π
with radius g (x) = √ . Its area is . To get the volume, we
x x
integrate cross-sectional areas for 1 ≤ x ≤ 44:
Z 4
π
dx = π ln (4)
1 x
13c) For the solid S , given in part (b), find the average value
of the areas of the cross-sections perpendicular to the x -axis.

The integral of areas was found to be π ln (4)

(4), so the average
π ln (4)
of areas is
3
13d) The average value of a function f on the unbounded
Rb
f (x) dx
interval [a, ∞) is defined to be lim a . Show that
Z ∞ b→∞ b−a
∞
the improper integral g (x) dx is divergent, but the
4
average value of g on the interval [4, ∞) is finite.

The improper integral is the limit:

Z b Z b
dx
lim g (x) dx = lim √
b→∞ 4 b→∞ 4 x
√ x=b
= lim 2 x
b→∞
 √ x=4 
= lim 2 b − 4 = ∞
b→∞
√
as b → ∞ when b → ∞
∞. The integral is divergent.
If we compute the average values, then
Z b √
1 2 b−4
g (x) dx = =
b−4 4 b−4

divide numerator and denominator by b

√2 − b4
b
= →0
1 − b4

since the numerator tends to 0 and the denominator tends to

1 , as b → ∞
∞. So, the average of g over [4, ∞) is 0
 Robbie’s AP® Calculus - Applications
FRQ, free response questions (2000-2004)
This presentation is a
compilation of my answers
to questions of a topic
that appeared for years

Of the 16 tests in these

years, there were 11
application-related
questions.

Basically, applications
of various sorts
are on every test.

AP® is a registered trademark of the College Board which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this material.
“Applications” are story-based questions where you use
calculus involving
I Words: 1, 3, 5, 8, 10, 11
I Table: 2, 9
I Geometry: 4, 6
I Graph: 7
“Applications” are story-based questions where you use
calculus involving
I Words: 1, 3, 5, 8, 10, 11
I Table: 2, 9
I Geometry: 4, 6
I Graph: 7

Now I’ll present my answers and there will be a list of typos

in the description of this video.
Q1) Water is pumped into an underground tank at a
constant rate of 8 gallons
√ per minute. Water leaks out of the
tank at the rate of t + 1 gallons per minute, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 120
minutes. At time t = 00, the tank contains 30 gallons of
water.
1a) How many gallons of water leak out of the tank from
time t = 0 to t = 3 minutes?

The amount of water leaked out of the tank √ at a small

interval of time [t, t + dt] is approximately t + 1dt
1dt, so the
total amout of water leaked from t = 0 to t = 3 is
√
Z 3
t + 1dt
0
Z 3
1
= (t + 1) 2 dt
0
t=3
2 3
= (t + 1) 2
3 t=0
2
= (8 − 1)
3
14
= gal
3
1b) How many gallons of water are in the tank at time t = 3
minutes?

Up to the time t = 33, 8 · 3 = 24 gallons were pumped into the

14
tank, and gallons leaked out. So, at time t = 33, there are
3

14 148
30 + 24 − = gal
3 3
1c) Write an expression for A (t)
(t), the total number of gallons
of water in the tank at time t .

The amount of water pumped into the gallon on the interval

[0, t] is 8t gallons. The amount of water leaked out on the
same interval is
√
Z t
s + 1ds
0
s=t
2 3
= (s + 1) 2
3 s=0
2 3

= (t + 1) 2 − 1
3
So, the total amount at time t is
2 3

A (t) = 30 + 8t − (t + 1) 2 − 1
3
92 2 3
= + 8t − (t + 1) 2
3 3
1d) At what time t , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 120
120, is the amount of water
in the tank a maximum? Justify your answer.

To find the time when A (t) is maximal, differentiate with

respect to t : √
A0 (t) = 8 − t + 1
√
So, A0 (t) > 0 if and only if t + 1 < 88, t < 63
63. A (t) increases
before t = 63 m, and decreases afterwards. Maximal value is
achieved at t = 63 m .
Q2) The temperature, in degrees Celsius (◦ C )), of the water
in a pond is a differentiable function W of time t . The table
above shows the water temperature as recorded every 3 days
over a 15
15-day period.
2a) Use data from the table to find an approximation for
W 0 (12)
(12). Show the computations that lead to your answer.
Indicate units of measure.

Approximate the derivative

W (t + ∆t) − W (t)
W 0 (t) = lim
∆t→0 ∆t
by the difference quotient
W (15) − W (12) 1
W 0 (12) ≈ = − ◦ C /t
3 3
Other possible approximations are from the left:
W (9) − W (12) 2
W 0 (12) ≈ = − ◦ C /t
−3 3
or two-sided approximation
W (15) − W (9) 1
W 0 (12) ≈ = − ◦ C /t
6 2
2b) Approximate the average temperature, in degrees
Celsius, of the water over the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 15 days
by using a trapezoidal approximation with subintervals of
length ∆t = 3 days

In a trapezoidal rule a function f (x) is substituted by a linear

function on each segment of a partition [xk−1 , xk ]]. Equation
of a linear function is
f (xk ) − f (xk−1 )
g (t) = f (xk−1 ) + (t − xk−1 )
xk − xk−1

So, the integral over [xk−1 , xk ] is approximated by

Z xk
f (xk ) + f (xk−1 )
g (t) dt = (xk − xk−1 )
xk−1 2

(which is the area of a trapezium).

So, in a trapezoidal rule (with a uniform partition x0 = aa,
b−a b−a
x1 = a + , x2 = a + 2 · , . . . , xn = bb)
n n
Z b  
b−a 1 1
f (x) dx ≈ f (a) + f (x1 ) + . . . f (xn−1 ) + f (b)
a n 2 2

15
In our case, n = = 5 and
3
Z 15
W (t) dt
0
 
W (0) W (15)
≈3 + W (3) + W (6) + W (9) + W (12) +
2 2
≈ 376.5

To get the average temperature, we divide the answer by 15

15.
The average temperature is 25.1◦ C
2c) A student proposes the function P , given by
t
P (t) = 20 + 10te − 3 , as a model for the temperature of the
water in the pond at time t , where t is measured in days and
P (t) is measured in degrees Celsius. Find P 0 (12)
(12)? Using
appropriate units, explain the meaning of your answer in
terms of water temperature.

Differentiate P (t)
(t):
t 10 − t
P 0 (t) = 10e − 3 − te 3
3

So,
P 0 (12) = −30e −4 ≈ −0.549

At the 12
12th day, the temperature is decreasing at a rate
0.549 degrees Celsius per day.
2d) Use the function P (t) defined in part (c) to find the
average value, in degrees Celsius, of P (t) over the time
interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 15 days.

Integrate the function P (t)

(t):
Z 15   Z 15
− 3t t
20 + 10te dt = 300 + 10 te − 3 dt =
0 0
t
Integrate by parts with u = tt, dv = e − 3 dt
dt, so that du = dt
dt,
− 3t
v = −3e
 Z 15 
−5 − 3t
= 300 + 10 −45e + 3 e dt
0
= 300 − 450e −5 + 90 1 − e −5

≈ 386.362

The average temperature is obtained after dividng the

15: 25.757 degrees Celsius.
integral by 15
Q3) The rate at which people enter an amusement park on a
given day is modeled by the function E defined by
15600
E (t) =
(t 2 − 24t + 160)

The rate at which people leave the same amusement park on

the same day is modeled by the function L defined by
9890
L (t) =
(t 2 − 38t + 370)

Both E (t) and L (t) are measured in people per hour and
time t is measured in hours after midnight. These functions
are valid for 9 ≤ t ≤ 23
23, the hours during which the park is
open. At time t = 99, there are no people in the park
3a) How many people have entered the park by 5 : 00 P.M.
(tt = 17
17)? Round your answer ot the nearest whole number

People enter at the rate E (t)

(t). That is E (t) is the derivative
of the number of people entering the park. The number of
people that entered the park by t = 17 is an integral of E (t)
(t):
Z 17
15600
dt ≈ 6004
9 (t 2 − 24t + 160)
3b) The price of admission to the park is $15 until 5 : 00
P.M. (tt = 17
17). After 5 : 00 P.M., the price of admission to
the park is $11
11. How many dollars are collected from
admissions to the park on the given day? Round your answer
to the nearest whole number.

For t ∈ [9, 17]

17], the rate of increase of admissions is 15E (t)
(t),
for t ∈ [17, 23] it is 11E (t)
(t). Total amount during the day is
Z 17 Z 23
15600 15600
15 2
dt + 11 dt
9 (t − 24t + 160) 17 (t 2 − 24t + 160)

≈ 104048 dollars
 Z t
3c) Let H (t) = (E (x) − L (x)) dx for 9 ≤ t ≤ 23
23. The value
9
of H (17) to the nearest whole number is 3725. Find the
value of H 0 (17)
(17), and explain the meaning of H (17) and
0
H (17) in the context of the amusement park

By Newton-Leibniz formula, H 0 (17) = E (17) − L (17) ≈ −380

−380.
H (t) describes the number of people at the park at time t
(amount of people who entered the park minus amount of
people who left the park).

H (17) = 3725 means that at a time t = 17 there are

approximately 3725 people in the park.

H 0 (17) = −380 means that the number of people in the

park is decreasing at a rate 380 people per hour.
3d) At what time t , for 9 ≤ t ≤ 23
23, does the model predict
that the number of people in the park is a maximum?

H (t)
Derivative of the number of people in the park (H (t)) is
E (t) − L (t)
(t). The root of the equation

E (t) = L (t)

is t∗ = 15.795
15.795. For t < t∗ , E (t) > H (t) and for t > t∗ ,
(t). So, maximum is obtained at t ≈ 15.795
E (t) < H (t)
Q4) A container has the shape of an open right circular
cone, as shown in the figure above. The height of the
container is 10 cm and the diameter of the opening is 10 cm.
Water in the container is evaporating so that its depth h is
3
changing at the constant rate of − cm/hr.
10
4a) Find the volume V of water in the container when h = 5
cm. Indicate units of measure.

The volume is found by the formula

πr 2 h
V =
3
When h = 10
10, then r = 55. Comparing similar right triangles,
we see that
r 5 1
= =
h 10 2
5
So, when h = 55, then r = and the volume is
2

125π
V = cm3
12
4b) Find the rate of change of the volume of water in the
container, with respect to time, when h = 5 cm. Indicate
units of measure

h
Express the volume as a function of h , using that r = :
2
πh3
V =
12
3
Using that h0 = − ,
10

πh2 h0 75π 15π

V0 = =− = − cm3 /hr
4 40 8
4c) Show that the rate of change of volume of water in the
container due to evaporation is directly proportional to the
exposed surface area of the water. What is the constant of
proportionality?

The exposed area of the water is

πh2
πr 2 =
4
So,
V 0 = πr 2 h0

3
The constant of proportionality is h0 = −
10
Q5) The number of gallons, P (t)(t), of a√ pollutant in a lake
changes at the rate P (t) = 1 − 3e −0.2 t gallons per day,
0

where t is measured in days. There are 50 gallons of the

pollutant in the lake at time t = 00. The lake is considered to
be safe when it contains 40 gallons or less of pollutant.
5a) Is the amount of pollutant increasing at time t = 99?
Why or why not?

The derivative at time t = 9 is

P 0 (9) = 1 − 3e −0.6 ≈ −0.646 < 0

The amount of pollutant is not increasing

5b) For what value of t will be number of gallons of
pollutant be at its minimum? Justify your answer.

Consider the intervals where the derivative is positive:

√
1 − 3e −0.2 t
>0
√ 1
−0.2 t
e <
√ 3
0.2 t > ln (3)
t > (5 ln (3))2 ≈ 30.174

For t > 30.174

30.174, the pollutant is increasing and, for
0 < t < 30.174
30.174, the pollutant is decreasing. Minimum is
achieved for t∗ = 30.174
5c) Is the lake safe when the number of gallons of pollutant
is at its minimum? Justify your answer.

The amount of pollutant at t∗ = 30.174 is

Z t∗
P (t∗ ) = P (0) + P 0 (t) dt
0

Z t∗  √ 
= 50 + 1 − 3e −0.2t
dt
0

≈ 35.104 < 40

The lake is safe at this time.

5d) An investigator uses the tangent line approximation to
P (t) at t = 0 as a model for the amount of pollutant in the
lake. At what time t does this model predict that the lake
becomes safe?

The derivative at zero is P 0 (0) = 1 − 3 = −2

−2. So, the
equation of the tangent line is

y = 50 − 2t

Lake is safe when y = 40

40:

50 − 2t = 40

t=5
Q6) Ship A is travelling due west toward Lighthouse Rock at
a speed of 15 kilometers per hour (km/hr). Ship B is
travelling due north away from Lighthouse Rock at a speed
of 10 km/hr. Let x be the distance between Ship A and
Lighthouse Rock at time t , and let y be the distance
between Ship B and Lighthouse Rock at time t , as shown in
the figure above.
6a) Find the distance, in kilometers, between Ship A and
Ship B when x = 4 km and y = 3 km

The distance between ships is found from the right triangle:

p √
y 2 + x 2 = 9 + 16 = 5 km
6b) Find the rate of change, in km/hr, of the distance
between the two ships when x = 4 km and y = 3 km

Denote the distance by d (t)

(t):
q
d (t) = x 2 (t) + y 2 (t)

The derivative is
x (t) x 0 (t) + y (t) y 0 (t)
d 0 (t) = p
x 2 (t) + y 2 (t)

It is given that y 0 (t) = 10 and x 0 (t) = −15 (as Ship A moves

towards the Lighthouse Rock). So, when x = 4 and y = 33,
the rate of change is
−60 + 30
= −6 km/hr
5
6c) Let θ be the angle shown in the figure. Find the rate of
change of θ , in radians per hour, when x = 4 km and y = 3
km

Express angle θ in terms of x and y (from the right triangle)

y
tan (θ) =
x
Dfferentiate this identity:

θ0 xy 0 − yx 0
=
cos2 (θ) x2

x 4
When x = 4 and y = 33, we have cos (θ) = = and
d 5

16 40 + 45 17
θ0 = · = rad/hr
25 16 5
Q7) The rate of fuel consumption, in gallons per minute,
recorded during an airplane flight is given by a
twice-differentiable and strictly increasing function R of time
t . The graph of R and a table of selected values of R (t)
(t), for
the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 90 minutes, are shown above.
7a) Use data from the table to find an approximation for
R 0 (45)
(45). Show the computations that lead to your answer.
Indicate units of measure.

The approximation of the derivative

f (x + ∆x) − f (x) f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (x) = lim is the ratio for
∆x→0 ∆x b−a
some points a ≤ x ≤ bb. Values of R (t) that are closest to
t = 45 are R (40) = 40 and R (50) = 5555. Approximation of the
derivative is
R (50) − R (40) 15
R 0 (45) ≈ = = 1.5 gallons/min2
10 10
7b) The rate of fuel consumption is increasing fastest at
time t = 45 minutes. What is the value of R 00 (45)
(45)? Explain
your reasoning.

The statement means that the derviative R 0 (t) has a global

maximum at t = 4545. As R 00 (t) exists, by the necessary
conditions of an extrema,

R 00 (45) = 0
 Z 90
7c) Approximate the value of R (t) dt using a left
0
Riemann sum with the five subintervals indicated by the data
in the table. Is this numerical approximation less than the
Z 90
value of R (t) dt
dt? Explain your reasoning.
0

Riemann sum approximation using values at the left

endpoints has the form
Z b n
X
f (x) dx ≈ f (xk−1 ) (xk − xk−1 )
a k=1

where a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b is the partition of the

segment [a, b]
b]. In our case, the partition is

0 < 30 < 40 < 50 < 70 < 90

And the approximation of the integral is
Z 90
R (t) dt
0

≈ 30R (0) + 10R (30) + 10R (40) + 20R (50) + 20R (70)

= 3700

On every segment of the partition, the value of R (t) at the

left endpoint is the smallest value on the segment, and thus
Z xk
R (t) dt > R (xk−1 ) (xk − xk−1 )
xk−1

The approximation is less than the true value.

7d) For 0 < b ≤ 90 minutes, explain the meaning of
Z b
R (t) dt in terms of fuel consumption for the plane.
0
1 b
Z
Explain the meaning of R (t) dt in terms of fuel
b 0
consumption for the plane. Indicate units of measure in both
answers.

Z b
The integral R (t) dt is the total consumption of the fuel
0
from time t = 0 up to the time t = b (in gallons).

1 b
Z
R (t) dt is the average consumption from time t = 0 up
b 0
to the time t = b (in gallons per minute).
Q8) A tank contains 125 gallons of heating oil at time t = 00.
During the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 12 hours, heating oil is
pumped into the tank at the rate
10
H (t) = 2 + gallons per hour
1 + ln (t + 1)

During the same time interval, heating oil is removed from

the tank at the rate
 2
t
R (t) = 12 sin gallons per hour
47
8a) How many gallons of heating oil are pumped into the
tank during the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 12 hours?

If we denote by N (t)
(t), the number of gallons pumped into
the tank by the time t , then N 0 (t) = H (t)
(t), so
Z 12
N (12) = H (t) dt
0

12 
Z  
10
= 2+ dt
0 1 + ln (t + 1)

≈ 70.571 gallons
8b) Is the level of heating oil in the tank rising or falling at
time t = 6 hours? Give a reason for your answer.

The change in the level of heating oil is given by the

difference of the amount that is pumped into the tank and is
removed from the tank. The rate of change is then
H (t) − R (t)
(t). At time t = 66, we have
 
10 36
H (6) − R (6) = 2 + − 12 sin
1 + ln (7) 47

≈ −2.924

So, the level is decreasing at time t = 6

8c) How many gallons of heating oil are in the tank at time
t = 12 hours?

At time t = 00, there were 125 gallons. The rate of change is

given by H (t) − R (t)
(t). At time t = 12
12, there are
Z 12
125 + (H (t) − R (t)) dt
0

12 
Z   2 
10 t
= 125 + 2+ − 12 sin dt
0 1 + ln (t + 1) 47

≈ 122.026 gallons
8d) At what time t , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 12
12, is the volume of heating
oil in the tank the least? Show the analysis that leads to
your conclusion.

The derivative of the amount of the oil is H (t) − R (t)

(t). Plot
the functions H (t) and R (t)
(t):

There are two roots of the equation H (t) = R (t)

(t):

t1 ≈ 4.7790, t2 ≈ 11.318
The amount of oil is increasing on [0, t1 ]], decreasing on
[t1 , t2 ] and increasing on [t2 , 12]
12]. Points of local minimum are
0 and t = t2 . The amount at time t = 0 is 125 and the
amount at time t = 11.318 is
Z 11.318   2 
10 t
125 + 2+ − 12 sin dt ≈ 120.738
0 1 + ln (t + 1) 47

Minimum is achieved at t = 11.318

Q9) A blood vessel is 360 millimeters (mm) long with circular
cross-sections of varying diameter. The table above gives the
measurements of the diameter of the blood vessel at
selected points along the length of the blood vessel, where x
represents the distance from one end of the blood vessel and
B (x) is a twice-differentiable function that represents the
diameter at that point.
9a) Write an integral expression in terms of B (x) that
represents the average radius, in mm, of the blood vessel
between x = 0 and x = 360

The average value of the function f (x) over the segment

[a, b] is
Z b
1
f (x) dx
b−a a
B (x)
In our case, the radius corresponding to x is , so the
2
average radius is
Z 360 Z 360
1 B (x) 1
dx = B (x) dx
360 0 2 720 0
9b) Approximate the value of your answer from part (a)
using the data from the table and a midpoint Riemann sum
with three subintervals of equal length. Show the
computations that lead to your answer.

360
Length of intervals in a partition of [0, 360] is = 120
120.
3
Midpoints are 60
60, 180
180, and 300
300. Approximate value is
Z 360
1 1
B (x) dx ≈ (120 · 30 + 120 · 30 + 120 · 24)
720 0 720

= 14
9c) Using correct units, explain the meaning of
B (x) 2
Z 275  
π dx in terms of the blood vessel.
125 x

B (x) 2
 
B (x)
As the radius is mm, the quantity π mm2 is
2 2
the area of the cross-section corresponding to x . The
integral is the volume of a blood vessel between 125 and 275
mm from the end of the vessel.
9d) Explain why there must be at least one value x , for
360, such that B 00 (x) = 0
0 < x < 360

We have B (0) = 24
24, B (180) = 30
30. By the Intermediate Value
Theorem, there is a point x ∈ (0, 180) such that B (x) = 26 26.
Then B (x) = B (240) = B (360) = 26
26. Applying the Mean
Value Theorem twice, there must be two points
x < y1 < 240 < y2 < 360 such that B 0 (y1 ) = B 0 (y2 ) = 00.

Indeed,

0 = B (240) − B (x)
= B 0 (y1 ) (240 − x)
B 0 (y1 ) = 0

and similarly for y2 . Again by the Mean Value Theorem,

B 00 (z) = 0 at some point z between y1 and y2
Q10) Traffic flow is defined as the rate at which cars pass
through an intersection, measured in cars per minute. The
traffic flow at a particular intersection is modeled by the
function F defined by
t 
F (t) = 82 + 4 sin for 0 ≤ t ≤ 30
2
where F (t) is measured in cars per minute and t is measured
in minutes.
10a) To the nearest whole number, how many cars pass
through the intersection over the 30
30-minute period?

The rate F (t) is the derivative of the amount of cars. So,

the amount of cars is the integral of F (t)
(t):
Z 30 Z 30   t 
F (t) dt = 82 + 4 sin dt ≈ 2474.08
0 0 2

The answer is 2474 cars

10b) Is the traffic flow increasing or decreasing at t = 77?
Give a reason for your answer.

The derivative of the traffic flow is

t 
F 0 (t) = 2 cos
2
At time t = 7
 
0 7
F (7) = 2 cos ≈ −1.873
2

So, the traffic is decreasing at time t = 7

10c) What is the average value of the traffic flow over the
time interval 10 ≤ t ≤ 15
15? Indicate units of measure.

The average value is, by definition,

Z 15
1 15 
Z
1  t 
F (t) dt = 82 + 4 sin dt
15 − 10 10 5 10 2

= 81.899 cars/min
10d) What is the average rate of change of the traffic flow
over the time interval 10 ≤ t ≤ 15
15? Indicate units of measure.

The average rate of change is, by the Fundamental Theorem

of Calculus,
Z 15
1 F (15) − F (10)
F 0 (t) dt =
15 − 10 10 5

= 1.518 cars/min2
Q11) For 0 ≤ t ≤ 31
31, the rate of change of the number of
mosquitoes on Tropical Island at time t days is modeled by
√ t
R (t) = 5 t cos mosquitoes per day. There are 1000
5
mosquitoes on Tropical Island at time t = 0
11a) Show that the number of mosquitoes is increasing at
time t = 6

Change in the number of mosquitoes is expressed by the

√
 
6
(t). For t = 66, R (6) = 5 6 cos
function R (t) ≈ 4.438 > 00.
5
So, the number is increasing.
11b) At time t = 66, is the number of moquitoes increasing at
an increasing rate, or is the number of mosquitoes increasing
at a decreasing rate? Give a reason for your answer.

Change in the rate is given by

5 t  √ t 
R 0 (t) = √ cos − t sin
2 t 5 5

At time t = 66,
√
   
0 5 6 6
R (6) = √ cos − 6 sin ≈ −1.913
2 6 5 5

So, the number of mosquitoes is

increasing at a decreasing rate
11c) According to the model, how many mosquitoes will be
on the island at time t = 31
31? Round your answer to the
nearest whole number.

Let N (t) be the number of mosquitoes at time t . Since

N (0) = 1000 and N 0 (t) = R (t)
(t), by the Newton-Leibniz
formula,
Z 31
N (31) = N (0) + R (t) dt
0

31 √
Z t 
= 1000 + 5 t cos dt
0 5

≈ 964
11d) To the nearest whole number, what is the maximum
number of mosquitoes for 0 ≤ t ≤ 31
31? Show the analysis that
leads to your conclusion.

As R (t) is the derivative of the number of mosquitoes,

points of local extrema satisfy R (t) = 00:
√ t 
5 t cos =0
5
5π 15π
Solutions are t = 00, t = ≈ 7.853
7.853, t = ≈ 23.562
23.562. Values
2 2
at these points are N (0) = 1000
1000,
Z 5π
√
 
5π 2
t 
N = 1000 + 5 t cos dt ≈ 1039
2 0 5
Z 15π
√
 
15π 2
t 
N = 1000 + 5 t cos dt ≈ 842
2 0 5
N (31) = 964

Maximal value is 1039