Practical-1

1. Show that function 𝝆 𝒙, 𝒚 = 𝒙 − 𝒚 is a metric for the set R

Solution:
i) We have
𝑥 − 𝑥 = 0 for 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
∴ 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
ii) We have
𝑥 − 𝑦 > 0 for 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅
∴ 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦 > 0, for 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅
iii) We have
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑦 − 𝑥 for 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅
∴ 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝜌 𝑦, 𝑥 , 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅
iv) Also we have
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 − 𝑦 for 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅
= 𝑥 − 𝑧 + (𝑧 − 𝑦)
𝑥−𝑦 ≤ 𝑥−𝑧 + 𝑧−𝑦
∴ 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦 ≤ 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑧 + 𝜌 𝑧, 𝑦 , 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅
All conditions are satisfied.
Hence 𝜌 is a metric for R
2. For 𝑷 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑸 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝜍 𝑃, 𝑄 = 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐
Show that 𝝇 is a metric for a set of ordered pairs of real numbers
Solution: 𝜍 is defined as
𝜍 𝑃, 𝑄 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 , where 𝑃 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑥2 , 𝑦2
Let 𝑅 𝑥3 , 𝑦3
i) We have
𝑥1 − 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 − 𝑦1 = 0 + 0 = 0
∴ 𝜍 𝑃, 𝑃 = 0 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃 𝑥1 , 𝑦1
ii) We have
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 > 0 if 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 ≠ 𝑦2
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 > 0
∴ 𝜍 𝑃, 𝑄 > 0 𝑖𝑓𝑃 ≠ 𝑄
iii) we have
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 and 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
∴ 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
∴ 𝜍 𝑃, 𝑄 = 𝜍 𝑄, 𝑃
iv) Also we have
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥2
≤ 𝑥1 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥2
𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦3 + 𝑦3 − 𝑦2
≤ 𝑦1 − 𝑦3 + 𝑦3 − 𝑦2
∴ 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ≤ 𝑥1 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 − 𝑦3 + 𝑦3 − 𝑦2
≤ 𝑥1 − 𝑥3 + 𝑦1 − 𝑦3 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 𝑦3 − 𝑦2
∴ 𝜍 𝑃, 𝑄 ≤ 𝜍 𝑃, 𝑅 + 𝜍 𝑅, 𝑄
All conditions are satisfied
∴ 𝜍 is a metric for the set of ordered pairs of real numbers
3. For 𝑷 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑸 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝜏 𝑃, 𝑄 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥( 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 )
Show that 𝝉 defines metric for a set of ordered pairs of real numbers
Solution:
Given
𝜏 𝑃, 𝑄 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥( 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ), where 𝑃 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑥2 , 𝑦2
Let 𝑅 𝑥3 , 𝑦3
i) We have
𝑀𝑎𝑥( 𝑥1 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦1 ) = 𝑀𝑎𝑥(0,0) = 0
∴ 𝜏 𝑃, 𝑃 = 0
ii) We have
𝑀𝑎𝑥( 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) > 0 if 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 ≠ 𝑦2
∴ 𝜏 𝑃, 𝑄 > 0
iii) we have
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 and 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑥( 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) = 𝑀𝑎𝑥( 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
∴ 𝜏 𝑃, 𝑄 = 𝜏 𝑄, 𝑃
iv) Also we have
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥2
≤ 𝑥1 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥2
𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦3 + 𝑦3 − 𝑦2
≤ 𝑦1 − 𝑦3 + 𝑦3 − 𝑦2
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ≤ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑥1 − 𝑥3 , 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 𝑀𝑎𝑥( 𝑦1 − 𝑦3 , 𝑦3 − 𝑦2 )
∴ 𝜏 𝑃, 𝑄 ≤ 𝜏 𝑃, 𝑅 + 𝜏 𝑅, 𝑄
All conditions are satisfied
∴ 𝜏 is a metric for the set of ordered pairs of real numbers
 Practical-2
1.𝑳𝒆𝒕 𝒇 𝒃𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑹 𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝑹𝟏 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒇 𝒙, 𝒚 = 𝒙 , 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈ 𝑹𝟐 .
𝟐

𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒇 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝟐

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜖 > 0 𝑏𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ∈ 𝑅 2 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 . 𝐶𝑕𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝛿
> 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝛿 = 𝜖
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑅 2
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 2 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕
𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 < 𝛿
⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 < 𝛿
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝛿
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑥0 < 𝜖
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 < 𝜖
⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 . 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑅 2 , 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑅 2

𝟐. 𝑰𝒇 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝟏 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑨 𝑿 𝑩 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝟐

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ∈ 𝐴𝑋𝐵, 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥1 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦1 ∈ 𝐵.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
𝐵 𝑥1 , 𝑟1 ⊂ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑦1 , 𝑟2 ⊂ 𝐵
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑟 = min 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 .
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐵[ 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑟]
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜌 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑛 𝑹𝟐 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 < 𝑟
⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )2 < 𝑟
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑥1 < 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑦1 < 𝑟
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑥1 , 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 𝑦1 , 𝑟
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵
⇒ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐴 𝑋𝐵
⇒ 𝐵 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑟 ⊂ 𝐴 𝑋𝐵
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐴 𝑋𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑹𝟐
𝟑. 𝑰𝒇 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇𝑹𝟏 , 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑨 𝑿 𝑩 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝑹𝟐 .
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: 𝑇𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝐴 𝑋 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 , 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝐴 𝑋 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴 𝑋𝐵
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 𝑋 𝐵 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑋𝐵. 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ∞
𝑛=1 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑋 𝐵 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑥, 𝑦 .
𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑥𝑛 ∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑛 𝑛=1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 . 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦. 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠. 𝑆𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 𝑋 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 𝑋 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴 𝑋𝐵
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐴 𝑋𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑.
 Practical-3
1 2
1. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ( 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1). Let 𝜍 be the subdivision 0, 3 , 3 , 1 of 0,1 . Compute 𝑈 𝑓; σ
and L 𝑓; σ .
1 2
Solution: Let 𝜍 be the subdivision of 0,1 and is 0 = 0 < < 3 < 1 = 1.
3
1 1 2 2
∴ The component intervals are 𝐼1 = [0, 3 ] , 𝐼2 = [3 , 3] , 𝐼3 = [3 , 1], the length of each
1 1 2
subinterval 𝐼𝑘 = . Now M 𝑓; 𝐼1 = 3 ; 𝑓; 𝐼2 = 3 ; 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼3 = 1. On the other hand
3
1 2
𝑚 𝑓; 𝐼1 = 0 ; 𝑓; 𝐼2 = 3 ; 𝑚 𝑓; 𝐼3 = 3 .
∴ 𝑈 𝑓; σ = 3𝑘=1 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼𝑘 . 𝐼𝑘
= 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼1 . 𝐼1 + 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼2 . 𝐼2 + 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼3 . 𝐼3
1 1 2 1 1 3 1
=3∙ + ∙ + 1∙ =9+3
3 3 3 3
2
= .
3
2
Hence 𝑈 𝑓; σ = 3
Now L 𝑓; σ = 𝑛𝑘=1 𝑚 𝑓; 𝐼𝑘 . 𝐼𝑘
= 𝑚 𝑓; 𝐼1 . 𝐼1 + 𝑚 𝑓; 𝐼2 . 𝐼2 + 𝑚 𝑓; 𝐼3 . 𝐼3
1 1 1 2 1 1 2 3
=0∙ +3 ∙ +3∙ =0+9+9= 9
3 3 3
1
= 3
1
Hence 𝐿 𝑓; σ = 3 .
𝟏 𝟐 𝒏
2. Let 𝒙 = 𝒙 ( 𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟏) , for each 𝒏 ∈ 𝑰 let 𝝇𝒏 be the subdivision 𝟎, 𝒏 , 𝒏 , … , 𝒏 of
𝟎, 𝟏 . Compute 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒏→∞ 𝑼 𝒇; 𝛔𝐧 .
1 2 𝑛
Solution: Let 𝜍𝑛 be the subdivision of 0,1 and is 0 = 0 < <𝑛<⋯< =1
𝑛 𝑛
. Then the component intervals are𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 , … 𝐼𝑛 . & we have
1 1 2 𝑘−1 𝑘 𝑛−1 𝑛
𝐼1 = [0, 𝑛 ] , 𝐼2 = [𝑛 , 𝑛 ] , … , 𝐼𝑘 = [ , 𝑛 ], … , 𝐼𝑛 = [ , 𝑛 ] . The length of each
𝑛 𝑛
1
subinterval 𝐼𝑘 = for every k = 1, 2, … , 𝑛 .
𝑛
𝑙.𝑢.𝑏. 𝑙.𝑢.𝑏. 𝑘
Then 𝑀 𝑓; ℐ = 𝑥𝜖 ℐ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥𝜖 ℐ 𝑥= .
𝑛
𝑛
∴ 𝑈 𝑓; σ = 𝑘=1 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼𝑘 . 𝐼𝑘
𝑛 𝑘 1 1 𝑛
= 𝑘=1 𝑛 ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝑘=1 𝑘
1 𝑛 ( 𝑛+1 ) 𝑛+1
= 𝑛2 =
2 2𝑛
1 1
Hence 𝑈 𝑓; σn = 2 ( 1 + 𝑛 )
1 1
∴ lim𝑛→∞ 𝑈 𝑓; σn = lim𝑛→∞ 2 ( 1 + 𝑛 )
1 1 1 1
= lim𝑛→∞ ( 1 + 𝑛 ) = (1 + 0) =
2 2 2
 𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝒏𝝅
3. For 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝝅/𝟐 and 𝛔𝐧 = 𝟎, 𝟐𝒏 , 𝟐𝒏 , … 𝟐𝒏 .Compute
𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒏→∞ 𝑼 𝒇; 𝛔𝐧
Solution:
(𝑘−1)𝜋 𝑘𝜋
Let 𝐼𝑘 = , for k=1,2,3…n,
2𝑛 𝑛
𝜋
𝐼𝑘 = 2𝑛
The given function is 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋/2
𝜋
For 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 , 𝑓 𝑥 is an increasing function and for 𝐼𝑘
𝑘𝜋
𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼𝑘 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
2𝑛
𝑛

𝑈 𝑓; σn = 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼𝑘 . 𝐼𝑘
𝑘=1
= 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼1 . 𝐼1 + 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼2 . 𝐼2 + ⋯ + 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼𝑛 . 𝐼𝑛
= (𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼1 + 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼2 + ⋯ + 𝑀 𝑓; 𝐼𝑛 ) 𝐼𝑛
𝜋 2𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝜋
= [𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ]
2𝑛 2𝑛 2𝑛 2𝑛

Using identity,
𝑥 2𝑛 + 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠(2) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 2 )𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥
2𝑠𝑖𝑛(2)
𝜋
Put 𝑥 = 2𝑛
𝜋 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠(4𝑛) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 2 ) 2𝑛 𝜋
𝑈 𝑓; σn = 𝜋 .
2𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝑛) 2𝑛
𝜋 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠(4𝑛) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 2 ) 2𝑛 𝜋
lim 𝑈 𝑓; σn = lim 𝜋 .
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 →∞ 2𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝑛) 2𝑛
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 4𝑛
= lim [𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + ]. lim
𝑛→∞ 4𝑛 2 4𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜋 )
4𝑛
= 1 − 0 .1 = 1
 Practical-4
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐
1. If 𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟏, then show that ≤ ≤ 𝒙𝟐
𝟐 𝟏+𝒙
Solution : Since 0≤𝑥≤1
⇒ 1+0≤ 1+𝑥 ≤1+1
⇒ 1≤ 1+𝑥 ≤ 2
⇒ 1≤ 1+𝑥 ≤ 2
Inversing the inequality, we get
1 1
≤ ≤1
2 1+𝑥
2
Multiplying by 𝑥 , we get
𝑥2 𝑥2
≤ ≤ 𝑥2
2 1+𝑥
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝟏
2. Prove that ≤ ∫𝟎 𝒅𝒙 ≤
𝟑 𝟐 𝟏+𝒙 𝟑

𝑥2 𝑥2
Solution: We have ≤ ≤ 𝑥2
2 1+𝑥
Taking the integration from 0 to 1, we get
1 𝑥2 1 𝑥2 1
∫0 ≤ ∫0 ≤ ∫0 𝑥 2
2 1+𝑥
1 1
1 𝑥3 1 𝑥2 𝑥3
⇒ ≤ ∫0 1+𝑥 ≤
2 3 0 3 0
Putting the upper and lower limits, we get
1 1 1 𝑥2 1
− 0 ≤ ∫0 ≤ −0
2 3 1+𝑥 3
1 1 𝑥2 1
⇒ ≤ ∫0 𝑑𝑥 ≤ 3
3 2 1+𝑥

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒏
𝟑. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [( ) + ( )𝟐 + ⋯ + ( )𝟐 ]
𝒏→∞ 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
→ Let
1 1 2 𝑛
𝐿 = lim [( )2 + ( )2 + ⋯ + ( )2 ]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛
1 𝑘
= lim ( )2
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑘=1
𝑛
1 𝑘
= lim 𝑓( ) , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑥 = (𝑥)2
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑘=1
1 1
= 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝑥3 1 1 1
= [ ]0 = − 0 =
3 3 3
 Practical-5
1.If 𝒇 is continuous function on the closed bounded interval [𝒂, 𝒃], and if
𝝓′ 𝒙 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝒂≤𝒙≤ 𝒃 ,
𝒃
then ∫𝒂 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝝓 𝒃 − 𝝓(𝒂).
𝑥
Solution Let 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡, then by the first fundamental theorem of calculus we
have 𝐹 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 --(1)
′
But 𝜙 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 for all 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 --(2)
Hence from (1) and (2), we have
𝐹 ′ 𝑥 = 𝜙 ′ 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
Hence by the theorem “If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑔′ (𝑥) for all 𝑥 in the closed bounded interval [𝑎, 𝑏],
then 𝑓 − 𝑔 is constant i.e. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏) for some 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅” we get that
𝐹 𝑥 = 𝜙 𝑥 + 𝑐 for some 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] and for some real number 𝑐.
Hence 𝐹 𝑏 − 𝐹 𝑎 = 𝜙 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝜙 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 𝜙 𝑏 − 𝜙 𝑎
𝑎
But 𝐹(𝑎) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 0 so that 𝐹 𝑏 = 𝜙 𝑏 − 𝜙 𝑎
𝑏
And since 𝐹(𝑏) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡, we have
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝜙 𝑏 − 𝜙 𝑎

2. If 𝒇 is continuous on [𝒂, 𝒃], prove that there exists 𝒄 ∈ (𝒂, 𝒃) such that
𝒃
∫𝒂 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒇 𝒄 (𝒃 − 𝒂)
Solution : If 𝑀 and 𝑚 are supremum and infimum of 𝑓(𝑥) in [𝑎, 𝑏]
respectively then for 𝑏 > 𝑎, we have
𝑏
𝑚(𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎)
1 𝑏
⇒ 𝑚 ≤ (𝑏−𝑎) ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑀
1 𝑏
So that ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is value between 𝑚 and 𝑀 of continuous function 𝑓
(𝑏−𝑎) 𝑎
on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then by mean value theorem for continuous function in [𝑎, 𝑏], 𝑓
takes this value at some point 𝑐 of (𝑎, 𝑏), so that we get
1 𝑏
∫ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑐) for some 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏),
(𝑏−𝑎) 𝑎
𝑏
Thus we have ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑐 𝑏 − 𝑎 .

3. Prove that if 𝒇 ∈ 𝓡 𝒂, 𝒃 and if 𝑭′ (𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙), (𝒂 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝒃)

𝒃
then 𝑭 𝒃 − 𝑭(𝒂) = ∫𝒂 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Solution : For given 𝜖 > 0 there exists subdivision 𝜍𝑛 = 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑥1, 𝑥2, … , 𝑥𝑛 of 𝑎, 𝑏
such that
𝑏 𝜖 𝑏 𝜖
∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2 < 𝐿 𝑓; 𝜍𝑛 < 𝑈 𝑓; 𝜍𝑛 < ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 --(1)
For this subdivision𝜍𝑛 , we get
𝑛
𝑘=1 𝐹 𝑥𝑘 − 𝐹(𝑥𝑘−1 ) = 𝐹 𝑏 − 𝐹(𝑎)
Now by mean value theorem there exists a point 𝑐 ∈ (𝑥𝑘−1 , 𝑥𝑘 ) such that
𝐹 𝑥𝑘 − 𝐹 𝑥𝑘−1 = 𝐹 ′ 𝑐 (𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥𝑘−1 )
 But by hypothesis𝐹 ′ (𝑐) = 𝑓(𝑐), thus we get
𝐹 𝑥𝑘 − 𝐹 𝑥𝑘−1 = 𝑓 𝑐 (𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥𝑘−1 )
Hence 𝐹 𝑏 − 𝐹(𝑎) = 𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑐) (𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥𝑘−1 ) --(2)
Since𝑚[𝑓; 𝐼𝑘 ] ≤ 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑀[𝑓; 𝐼𝑘 ], now from (1) and (2), we get
𝑏 𝜖 𝑏 𝜖
∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ≤ 𝐹 𝑏 − 𝐹(𝑎) ≤ ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 --(3)
Since𝑓 ∈ ℛ 𝑎, 𝑏 , so that
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
Thus from (3), we have
𝑏
𝐹 𝑏 − 𝐹(𝑎) = ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Practical-6
1.Let 𝒂 = 𝟐 + 𝟑𝒊, 𝒃 = 𝟏 − 𝒊. If for all real 𝒙, 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒙 𝟐 . Compute
𝟏
(a) 𝑹𝒆𝒇 𝒙 (b) 𝑰𝒎𝒇 𝒙 (c)𝒇′ 𝒙 (d)∫𝟎 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Solution:-
Since 𝑎 = 2 + 3𝑖, 𝑏 = 1 − 𝑖
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 2
= 2 + 3𝑖 𝑥+ 1 − 𝑖 2 𝑥 2
= 2 + 3𝑖 𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2 𝑥 2
= 2 + 3𝑖 𝑥 + −2𝑖 𝑥 2
𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 𝑖 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 2
∴ 𝒂 𝑅𝑒𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥
(b) 𝐼𝑚𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 2
(c)𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2 + 𝑖 3 − 4𝑥
1
(d)∫0 2𝑥 + 𝑖 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= 2 ∫0 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫0 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1 1
𝑥2 3𝑥 2 2𝑥 3
=2 +𝑖 −
2 0 2 3 0
3 2
= 1−0 +𝑖 −3−0+0
2
5
=1+𝑖 6
2. Find the three cube roots of 1
3
Solution:- Let 1 = 𝑧, 𝑧 3 = 1
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧3 − 1 = 0
𝑧 3 − 1 = 0, 𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 = 1
∴ 𝑧 3 = 1 = 1 + 𝑖0
𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 0
𝑦
𝑟 = 1 + 0 = 1, 𝛼 = tan−1 𝑥
0
𝛼 = tan−1 = tan−1 0 = 0
1
We know that 𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 of the polynomial is given by
1
𝛼+2𝜋𝑘 𝛼+2𝜋𝑘
𝑧𝑘+1 = 𝑐 𝑛 cos + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … … … , 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 𝑛
If 𝑘 = 0
1
0+2𝜋×0 0+2𝜋×0
𝑧1 = 1 3 cos + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
= 1 cos 0 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛0
=1 1+0 =1
𝑧1 = 1
If 𝑘 = 1
1
0+2𝜋 0+2𝜋
𝑧2 = 1 3 cos + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
2𝜋 2𝜋
= 1 cos + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
 𝜋 𝜋
= cos 𝜋 − 3 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 − 3
𝜋 𝜋
= − cos 3 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 3
1 𝑖 3
𝑧2 = − 2 + 2
If 𝑘 = 2
1
4𝜋 4𝜋
𝑧3 = 1 3 cos 0 + + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 +
3 3
𝜋 𝜋
= 1 cos 𝜋 + 3 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 + 3
𝜋 𝜋
= − cos 3 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 3
1 3
𝑧3 = − 2 − 𝑖 2
3. Find the square roots of 𝒊:
Solution-Let 𝑖 = 𝑧
∴ 𝑧2 = 𝑖
Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 − 𝑖 = 0
𝑐 = 𝑖 = 0 + 𝑖, 𝑐 = 1
𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 1
𝑦 1
𝛼 = tan−1 = tan−1 = tan−1 ∞
𝑥 0
π
∴ 𝛼= 2
We know that 𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 of the polynomial 𝑝 is given by
1
𝛼+2𝜋𝑘 𝛼+2𝜋𝑘
𝑧𝑘+1 = 𝑐 𝑛 cos + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, …
𝑛 𝑛
Put 𝑘 = 0
1 𝜋 𝜋
+0 +0
2 2
𝑧1 = 12 cos + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧1 = cos 4 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 4
1 𝑖1
𝑧1 = +
2 2
1
𝑧1 = 1+𝑖
2
Put 𝑘 = 1
1 𝜋 𝜋
+2𝜋 +2𝜋
2 2
𝑧2 = 1 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
5𝜋 5𝜋
𝑧2 = 1 cos + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 4
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 + 4 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 + 4
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧2 = − cos − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 4
1 1
𝑧2 = − −𝑖
2 2
1
𝑧2 = − 1+𝑖
2
 Practical-7
(1) Consider the system of equation
𝒊𝒛𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐 = 𝟏 + 𝒊
𝟐𝒛𝟏 + 𝟐 − 𝒊 𝒛𝟐 = 𝟏
(a) Compute the determinant of the coefficients
(b) Solve the system for 𝒛𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛𝟐
Solution:- Given
𝑖𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 1 + 𝑖
2𝑧1 + 2 − 𝑖 𝑧2 = 1
𝑖 1
∆=
2 2−𝑖
∆= 𝑖 2 − 𝑖 − 2 = 2𝑖 − 𝑖 2 − 2 = 2𝑖 + 1 − 2
∆= 2𝑖 − 1
1+𝑖 1
∆1 =
1 2−𝑖
∆1 = 1 + 𝑖 2 − 𝑖 − 1 = 2 − 𝑖 + 2𝑖 − 𝑖 2 − 1
∆1 = 2 + 𝑖
𝑖 1+𝑖
∆2 =
2 1
∆2 = 𝑖 − 1 + 𝑖 2 = 𝑖 − 2 − 2𝑖
∆2 = −2 − 𝑖
∆1 2+𝑖
𝑧1 = = 2𝑖−1
∆
2+𝑖 2𝑖+1 4𝑖+2+2𝑖 2 +𝑖
= 2𝑖−1 × 2𝑖+1 = 4𝑖 2 −1
5𝑖+2−2 5𝑖
= = = −𝑖
−4−1 −5
∆2 −2−𝑖
𝑧2 = =
∆ 2𝑖−1
−2−𝑖 2𝑖+1 −4𝑖−2+2𝑖 2 −𝑖
= × 2𝑖+1 =
2𝑖−1 4𝑖 2 −1
−5𝑖−2+2 −5𝑖
= = =𝑖
−4−1 −5
(2) Solve the following system for 𝒛𝟏 , 𝒛𝟐 &𝒛𝟑
𝟑𝒛𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟑 = 𝟎
𝟐𝒛𝟏 − 𝒛𝟑 = 𝟏
𝒛𝟐 + 𝟐𝒛𝟑 = 𝟐
Solution:-
3 1 −1
∆= 2 0 −1 = 3 0 + 1 − 1 4 + 0 − 1 2 − 0
0 1 2
∆= 3 − 4 − 2 = −3
0 1 −1
∆1 = 1 0 −1
2 1 2
∆1 = 0 0 + 1 − 1 2 + 2 + 1 1 − 0
∆1 = 0 − 4 − 1 = −5
 3 0 −1
∆2 = 2 1 −1 = 3 2 + 2 − 0 4 + 0 − 1 4 − 0
0 2 2
∆2 = 12 − 0 − 4 = 8
3 1 0
∆3 = 2 0 1 = 3 0 − 1 − 1 4 − 0 + 0 2 − 0
0 1 2
∆3 = −3 − 4 + 0 = −7
∆1 −5 5
𝑧1 = = −3 = 3
∆
∆2 8 −8
𝑧2 = = −3 =
∆ 3
∆3 −7 7
𝑧3 = = −3 = 3
∆
 Practical-8

1) (I) Verify 𝝋 𝒙 = 𝒆−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 is solution of 𝒚′ + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟎

Solution: 𝜑 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝜑 ′ 𝑥 = (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)𝑒 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
If 𝜑 𝑥 is solution of 𝑦 ′ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑦 = 0,then 𝜑 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝜑(𝑥) = 0
Now 𝜑 ′ 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝜑 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑒 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑒 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
= 0 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆.
Hence verified
(II) Verify 𝝋 𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙 is solution of 𝒚′′ + 𝟒𝒚 = 𝟎
Solution: 𝜑 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
𝜑′ 𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 , 𝜑 ′′ 𝑥 = −4𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 ,
If 𝜑 𝑥 is solution of 𝑦 ′′ + 4𝑦 = 0,then 𝜑 ′′ (𝑥) + 4𝜑(𝑥) = 0
Now 𝜑 ′ 𝑥 + 4𝜑 𝑥 = −4𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
= 0 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆.
Hence verified
2) Consider the equation 𝒚′ + 𝟓𝒚 = 𝟐
𝟐
(a) Show that the function 𝝋 is given by 𝝋 𝒙 = 𝟓 + 𝒄𝒆−𝟓𝒙
is solution, where c is any constant.
(b) Assuming every solution has this form, find that solution satisfying 𝝋 𝟏 = 𝟐
Solution: Given 𝑦 ′ + 5𝑦 = 2
2
(a) 𝜑 𝑥 = 5 + 𝑐𝑒 −5𝑥
If 𝜑 𝑥 is solution of 𝑦 ′ + 5𝑦 = 2,then 𝜑 ′ (𝑥) + 5𝜑(𝑥) = 2
2
𝜑 𝑥 = 5 + 𝑐𝑒 −5𝑥 , 𝜑 ′ 𝑥
= −5𝑐𝑒 −5𝑥
2
Now 𝜑 ′ 𝑥 + 5𝜑 𝑥 = −5𝑐𝑒 −5𝑥 + 5[5 + 𝑐𝑒 −5𝑥 ]
= −5𝑐𝑒 −5𝑥 + 2 + 5𝑐𝑒 −5𝑥 ]
= 2 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆.
⇒ 𝜑 𝑥 is solution of the given equation
(b) Given 𝜑 1 = 2
2
+ 𝑐𝑒 −5 = 2
5
2 8
𝑐𝑒 −5 = 2 − =
5 5
8 5
𝑐= 𝑒
5
2 8 2
∴ 𝜑 𝑥 = + 𝑒 5 𝑒 −5𝑥 = [1 + 4𝑒 5(1−𝑥) ]
5 5 5
 Practical-9
1) Find all solutions of the equation 𝒚′ + 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙
Solution: The given equation is 𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
This equation is of the type 𝑦 ′ + 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑏(𝑥)
Solution of such type of equation is given by
𝜑 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
From given equation 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
∴ 𝜑 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑒 −𝑥

= 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥 1
= 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑐 is any constant
2 2
2) Consider the equation 𝑳𝒚′ + 𝑹𝒚 = 𝑬, where 𝑳, 𝑹, 𝑬 are constants
(a) Solve this equation
(b) Find the solution 𝝋 satisfying 𝝋 𝟎 = 𝑰𝟎 ,where 𝑰𝟎 is given positive constant
Solution: The given equation is 𝐿𝑦 ′ + 𝑅𝑦 = 𝐸
𝑅 𝐸
𝑦′ + 𝑦 =
𝐿 𝐿
This equation is of the type𝑦 ′ + 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑏(𝑥),
𝑅 𝐸
From given equation 𝑎 = 𝐿 , 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝐿
(a) Solution of such type of equation is given by
𝜑 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
𝑅 𝑅 𝐸 𝑅
= 𝑒 −𝐿 𝑥 𝑒 𝐿𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑒 −𝐿 𝑥
𝐿
𝐸 −𝑅 𝑥 𝑅 𝑅
= 𝑒 𝐿 𝑒 𝐿 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑒 −𝐿 𝑥
𝐿
𝐸 −𝑅𝐿 𝑥 𝑅𝐿 𝑥
𝑒 𝑒 𝑅 𝐸 𝑅
= 𝐿 + 𝑐𝑒 −𝐿 𝑥 = + 𝑐𝑒 −𝐿 𝑥
𝑅 𝑅
𝐿
(b) 𝜑 0 = 𝐼0
𝐸
+ 𝑐𝑒 0 = 𝐼0
𝑅
𝐸
𝑐 = 𝐼0 − 𝑅
𝐸 𝐸 𝑅
𝜑 𝑥 = + (𝐼0 − )𝑒 −𝐿 𝑥
𝑅 𝑅
𝐸 𝑅 𝐸 𝑅 𝑅 𝐸 𝑅
= + 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝐿 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝐿 𝑥 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝐿 𝑥 + (1 − 𝑒 −𝐿 𝑥 )
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
 Practical-10
1. Find all solution of the following equation:
(i)𝑦 ′′ − 4𝑦 = 0
Solution:-Given equation is
𝑦 ′′ − 4𝑦 = 0
The characteristics polynomial is
𝑝 𝑟 = 𝑟2 − 4
= 𝑟+2 𝑟−2
∴ 𝑟1 = −2, 𝑟2 = 2 are the roots of the characteristic polynomial.
∴ Φ x = 𝑐1 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 are any constants is solution of given equation
(ii) 𝒚′′ + 𝒚′ − 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟎
Solution:- Given equation is
𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 0
The characteristic polynomial is
𝑝 𝑟 = 𝑟2 + 𝑟 − 2
= 𝑟+2 𝑟−1
∴ 𝑟1 = −2 & 𝑟2 = 1 are the roots of 𝑝 𝑟
∴ Φ x = 𝑐1 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 are any constants.
2. Find the solution of the initial value problems:
𝒚′′ − 𝟐𝒚′ − 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟎, 𝒚 𝟎 = 𝟎, 𝒚′ 𝟎 = 𝟏
Solution:-The equation is 𝑦 ′′ − 2𝑦 ′ − 3𝑦 = 0
The characteristic polynomial is
𝑝 𝑟 = 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟 − 3
= 𝑟−3 𝑟+1
𝑟1 = 3 & 𝑟2 = −1 are roots of 𝑝 𝑟
Φ1 𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 & Φ2 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥
Any solution is of the form
Φ x = C1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑥
But Φ 0 = 0
𝐶1 𝑒 0 + 𝐶2 𝑒 0 = 0
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 0 ……………………… (I)
′ 3𝑥 −𝑥
Φ x = 3𝐶1 𝑒 − 𝐶2 𝑒
But Φ′ 0 = 1
3𝐶1 𝑒 0 − 𝐶2 𝑒 0 = 1
3𝐶1 − 𝐶2 = 1 ………………………. (II)
Solving (I) and (II)
1 1
𝐶1 = and 𝐶2 = −
4 4
1 1
Φ x = 4 𝑒 3𝑥 − 4 𝑒 −𝑥
3. Find all solution of the equation 𝒚′′ − 𝒚′ − 𝟐𝒚 = 𝒆−𝒙
Solution:- The characteristic polynomial is:
𝑝 𝑟 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟 − 2
= 𝑟−2 𝑟+1
= 𝑟1 = 2, 𝑟2 = −1 are roots.
Φ1 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 &Φ2 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 are solution of 𝐿 𝑦 = 0
Let Ψp be particular solution of 𝐿 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥
Ψp = u1 Φ1 + 𝑢2 Φ2 , where 𝑢1 &𝑢2 satisfies the equation
𝑢1′ Φ1 + 𝑢2′ Φ2 = 0
𝑢1′ Φ1′ + 𝑢2′ Φ2′ = 𝑏
𝑢1′ . 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑢2′ 𝑒 −𝑥 = 0 …………………… (I)
′ 2𝑥 ′ −𝑥 −𝑥
𝑢1 2. 𝑒 + 𝑢2 . −𝑒 =𝑒 ……………………. (II)
0 𝑒 −𝑥
∆𝑢 1′ 𝑒 −𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑢1′ = = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
∆
2𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
0 1
𝑒 −𝑥 ×𝑒 −𝑥
1 −1 −3𝑥 −1
= 1 1 = 𝑒 . −1−2
𝑒 2𝑥 .𝑒 −𝑥
2 −1
1
𝑢1′ = 3.𝑒 −3𝑥

1 1
𝑢1 = 3 ∫ 𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 9 . 𝑒 −3𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥 0
∆𝑢 2 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑢2′ = ∆ = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
2𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
1 0
𝑒 2𝑥 .𝑒 𝑥 1
= 2𝑥 −𝑥 12 11 = −1−2
𝑒 .𝑒
2 −1
1
𝑢2′ = − 3
1 1
𝑢2 = − ∫ − 3 𝑑𝑥 = − 3 𝑥
Ψp x = 𝑢1 Φ1 + 𝑢2 Φ2
1 1
= − 9 . 𝑒 −3𝑥 . 𝑒 2𝑥 + − 3 𝑥 . 𝑒 −𝑥
1 1
= − 9 𝑒 −𝑥 − 3 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥
1 1
Solution of given differential equation is Ψ x = c1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 − 9 𝑒 −𝑥 − 3 𝑥. 𝑒 −𝑥