GRAMMER NOTES
SENTENCES
Types of Sentences According to Meaning
1. Declarative Sentence
o Definition: A sentence that gives information or states a fact.
o Hint to Recognize: Ends with a period (.)
o Example: The sun rises in the east.
2. Interrogative Sentence
o Definition: A sentence that asks a question.
o Hint to Recognize: Ends with a question mark (?)
o Example: Where do you live?
3. Imperative Sentence
o Definition: A sentence that gives a command, request, or instruction.
o Hint to Recognize: Can start with a verb and may end with a period
(.) or exclamation mark (!)
o Example: Close the door.
4. Exclamatory Sentence
o Definition: A sentence that expresses strong emotions like surprise,
happiness, or anger.
o Hint to Recognize: Ends with an exclamation mark (!)
o Example: What a beautiful day!
5. Optative Sentence
Definition: A sentence that expresses a wish, prayer, or blessing.
Hint to Recognize: Often begins with "may" or "wish" and ends with a
period (.) or an exclamation mark (!).
Example: May you live a long and happy life!
Types of Sentences According to Structure
1. Simple Sentence
o Definition: A sentence with only one subject and one predicate (one
complete idea).
o Hint to Recognize: Contains only one independent clause.
o Example: She loves reading.
2. Compound Sentence
o Definition: A sentence made up of two independent clauses joined
by a conjunction (and, but, or, so).
o Hint to Recognize: Has two simple sentences connected with a
conjunction.
o Example: I was tired, but I finished my homework.
3. Complex Sentence
o Definition: A sentence with one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause.
o Hint to Recognize: Contains a subordinating conjunction (because,
although, if, when).
o Example: I stayed at home because it was raining.
4. Compound-Complex Sentence
o Definition: A sentence that has at least two independent clauses and
one or more dependent clauses.
o Hint to Recognize: Combination of both compound and complex
sentence features.
o Example: She went to the park because she loves nature, and she
took her dog with her.
PHRASES
1. Noun Phrase
Definition: A group of words that acts as a noun in a sentence. It includes a
noun and its modifiers.
Hint to Recognize: Contains a noun as the main word.
Example: The beautiful garden is full of flowers.
2. Adjective Phrase
Definition: A group of words that describes a noun or pronoun. It works like
an adjective.
Hint to Recognize: Answers “what kind?” or “which one?” about a noun.
Example: The house with the red roof is mine.
3. Adverb Phrase
Definition: A group of words that modifies a verb, adjective, or another
adverb. It tells how, when, where, or why something happens.
Hint to Recognize: Answers questions like “how?”, “when?”, or “where?”
Example: She spoke in a polite manner.
4. Prepositional Phrase
Definition: A group of words that begins with a preposition and includes an
object. It acts as an adjective or adverb.
Hint to Recognize: Starts with a preposition (in, on, at, with, etc.).
Example: The cat is under the table.
CLAUSES
Types of Clauses
1. Independent Clause
Definition: A group of words that has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. It
can stand alone as a sentence.
Hint to Recognize: Makes sense on its own.
Example: She loves to read.
2. Dependent (Subordinate) Clause
Definition: A group of words that has a subject and a verb but does not express a complete
thought. It needs an independent clause to complete its meaning.
Hint to Recognize: Begins with subordinating conjunctions (because, although, when, if, etc.) or
relative pronouns (who, which, that).
Example: Because she loves to read, she buys many books.
Types of Dependent Clauses
3. Noun Clause
Definition: A dependent clause that acts as a noun in a sentence.
Hint to Recognize: Often begins with words like "what," "that," "how," or "why."
Example: What she said made everyone laugh.
4. Adjective Clause
Definition: A dependent clause that describes a noun or pronoun.
Hint to Recognize: Begins with relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that).
Example: The book that I borrowed was very interesting.
5. Adverb Clause
Definition: A dependent clause that acts as an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or another
adverb.
Hint to Recognize: Answers questions like "when?", "why?", "how?", or "under what
condition?".
Example: I stayed home because it was raining.
Here is the complete and well-organized list of Parts of Speech and Their Types for your
exam preparation. You can easily copy and use it for revision.
Parts of Speech and Their Types
1. Noun
Definition:
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.
Types of Nouns:
1. Proper Noun – Names a specific person, place, or thing. (Example: New York is a big city.)
2. Common Noun – Names general people, places, or things. (Example: The city is crowded.)
3. Concrete Noun – Can be seen, touched, or smelled. (Example: I have a book.)
4. Abstract Noun – Names ideas, emotions, or qualities. (Example: Happiness is important.)
5. Countable Noun – Can be counted. (Example: I bought three apples.)
6. Uncountable Noun – Cannot be counted. (Example: She drinks milk every day.)
7. Collective Noun – Names a group. (Example: A team of players won the match.)
8. Singular Noun – Refers to one person or thing. (Example: A dog is barking.)
9. Plural Noun – Refers to more than one person or thing. (Example: The dogs are barking.)
10. Compound Noun – Made of two or more words. (Example: Toothpaste, mother-in-law, ice
cream.)
11. Possessive Noun – Shows ownership. (Example: This is John’s book.)
2. Pronoun
Definition:
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun to avoid repetition.
Types of Pronouns:
1. Personal Pronoun – Refers to people or things. (Example: She is my best friend.)
2. Possessive Pronoun – Shows ownership. (Example: This book is mine.)
3. Demonstrative Pronoun – Points to specific things. (Example: That is my house.)
4. Interrogative Pronoun – Used to ask questions. (Example: Who called you?)
5. Relative Pronoun – Introduces dependent clauses. (Example: The boy who won is my cousin.)
6. Reflexive Pronoun – Refers back to the subject. (Example: She made the cake herself.)
7. Indefinite Pronoun – Refers to people or things in a general way. (Example: Someone knocked
on the door.)
3. Verb
Definition:
A verb expresses an action or state of being.
Types of Verbs:
1. Action Verb – Shows action. (Example: She runs fast.)
2. Linking Verb – Connects the subject to more information. (Example: He is a doctor.)
3. Auxiliary (Helping) Verb – Helps the main verb. (Example: She has finished her work.)
4. Transitive Verb – Requires an object. (Example: She bought a book.)
5. Intransitive Verb – Does not require an object. (Example: He sleeps peacefully.)
6. Regular Verb – Forms past tense with -ed. (Example: Walk → Walked.)
7. Irregular Verb – Forms past tense in an irregular way. (Example: Go → Went.)
8. Finite Verb – Changes with subject and tense. (Example: She writes every day.)
9. Non-Finite Verb – Does not change with subject or tense. (Example: To swim is fun.)
10. Modal Verb – Expresses ability, permission, necessity. (Example: You must study.)
4. Adjective
Definition:
An adjective describes a noun or pronoun.
Types of Adjectives:
1. Descriptive Adjective – Describes quality. (Example: She has blue eyes.)
2. Quantitative Adjective – Shows quantity. (Example: I have three pens.)
3. Demonstrative Adjective – Points to a specific noun. (Example: This book is mine.)
4. Interrogative Adjective – Used in questions. (Example: Which dress do you like?)
5. Proper Adjective – Derived from a proper noun. (Example: I love Italian food.)
6. Compound Adjective – Made of two or more words. (Example: A well-known author.)
7. Distributive Adjective – Refers to individual items. (Example: Each student got a prize.)
8. Possessive Adjective – Shows ownership. (Example: This is my book.)
5. Adverb
Definition:
An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
Types of Adverbs:
1. Adverb of Manner – Describes how. (Example: She sang beautifully.)
2. Adverb of Place – Describes where. (Example: He went outside.)
3. Adverb of Time – Describes when. (Example: We will leave tomorrow.)
4. Adverb of Frequency – Describes how often. (Example: She always arrives on time.)
6. Preposition
Definition:
A preposition shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word.
Types of Prepositions:
1. Preposition of Time – Shows when. (Example: We will meet at 5 PM.)
2. Preposition of Place – Shows location. (Example: The phone is on the table.)
3. Preposition of Direction – Shows movement. (Example: He walked towards the park.)
4. Preposition of Manner – Shows how. (Example: She wrote with a pen.)
5. Preposition of Cause/Purpose – Shows reason. (Example: He was late because of traffic.)
7. Conjunction
Definition:
A conjunction connects words, phrases, or clauses.
Types of Conjunctions:
1. Coordinating Conjunction – Connects equal parts. (Example: She was tired, but she kept
working.)
2. Subordinating Conjunction – Connects a dependent clause. (Example: I stayed home because it
was raining.)
3. Correlative Conjunction – Works in pairs. (Example: Either you win or you lose.)
8. Interjection
Definition:
An interjection expresses strong emotion.
Example: Wow! That’s amazing!
Basic Rules for changing active into passive voice
Tense Active Voice Passive Voice
Present Simple She writes a letter. A letter is written by her.
Past Simple She wrote a letter. A letter was written by her.
Future Simple She will write a letter. A letter will be written by her.
Present Continuous She is writing a letter. A letter is being written by her.
Past Continuous She was writing a letter. A letter was being written by her.
Future Continuous She will be writing a letter. ✖ (Rarely used in passive)
Present Perfect She has written a letter. A letter has been written by her.
Past Perfect She had written a letter. A letter had been written by her.
Future Perfect She will have written a letter. A letter will have been written by her.
Summary Table for active passive voice
Active Passive Transformation Example
Rule
Present Simple am/is/are + past participle She writes a book. → A book is written by her.
Past Simple was/were + past participle They built a house. → A house was built by
them.
Future Simple will be + past participle He will complete the work. → The work will be
completed by him.
Present am/is/are + being + past She is reading a book. → A book is being read
Continuous participle by her.
Past Continuous was/were + being + past He was painting a picture. → A picture was
participle being painted by him.
Present Perfect has/have been + past They have finished the task. → The task has
participle been finished by them.
Past Perfect had been + past participle She had done the work. → The work had been
done by her.
Future Perfect will have been + past He will have repaired the car. → The car will
participle have been repaired by him.
Modals modal + be + past She can write the letter. → The letter can be
participle written by her.
Direct Speech to Indirect Speech
Step 1: Identify the Reporting Verb
Common reporting verbs include said, told, asked, requested, ordered, exclaimed, suggested,
etc.
Step 2: Change the Pronouns
Pronouns are changed according to the subject and object of the reporting speech.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
He said, "I am tired." He said that he was tired.
She said, "We love reading." She said that they loved reading.
Step 3: Change the Tense
If the reporting verb is in the past tense, shift the tense of the reported speech one step back.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
He said, "I am busy." He said that he was busy.
She said, "I was reading." She said that she had been reading.
They said, "We have finished our work." They said that they had finished their work.
He said, "I will help you." He said that he would help me.
Step 4: Change Time and Place Words
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
today → that day She said, "I will go today." → She said she would go that day.
tomorrow → the next day He said, "I will call you tomorrow." → He said he would call me the next
day.
yesterday → the previous She said, "I met her yesterday." → She said she had met her the
day previous day.
now → then He said, "I am busy now." → He said he was busy then.
this → that She said, "I love this book." → She said she loved that book.
3. Tense Changes from Direct to Indirect Speech
Direct Speech Tense Changes to (Indirect Speech)
Present Simple (am, is, are, do, does) Past Simple (was, were, did)
Present Continuous (is doing) Past Continuous (was doing)
Present Perfect (has/have done) Past Perfect (had done)
Present Perfect Continuous (has/have been doing) Past Perfect Continuous (had been doing)
Past Simple (did, was, were) Past Perfect (had done, had been)
Past Continuous (was doing) Past Perfect Continuous (had been doing)
Future Simple (will do) Future-in-the-Past (would do)
Future Perfect (will have done) Future-in-the-Past Perfect (would have done)
4. Rules for Different Types of Sentences
A. Statements (Declarative Sentences)
Use that after the reporting verb.
Change pronouns, tense, and time words as needed.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
He said, "I am tired." He said that he was tired.
She said, "We love music." She said that they loved music.
B. Questions (Interrogative Sentences)
Remove question marks.
Use if/whether for yes/no questions.
Use question words (what, where, how, why) for WH-questions.
Change tense and pronouns as needed.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
He asked, "Do you like ice cream?" He asked if I liked ice cream.
She asked, "Where do you live?" She asked where I lived.
He asked, "Did she call you?" He asked if she had called me.
C. Imperative Sentences (Commands & Requests)
Use to + verb for positive commands.
Use not to + verb for negative commands.
Reporting verbs: ordered, requested, advised, suggested, warned, etc.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
He said, "Open the door." He told me to open the door.
She said, "Don't shout!" She told me not to shout.
The teacher said, "Study well." The teacher advised us to study well.
D. Exclamatory Sentences (Exclamations & Strong Feelings)
Use exclaimed with joy/sorrow/wonder/surprise, etc.
Remove exclamation marks.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
He said, "Wow! What a beautiful He exclaimed with wonder that it was a beautiful
painting!" painting.
She said, "Alas! I failed the exam." She exclaimed with sorrow that she had failed the exam.
5. Special Cases: No Change in Tense
Tense does NOT change if:
✔ The reporting verb is in the present or future tense.
✔ The statement expresses a universal truth or habitual action.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
She says, "I am happy." She says that she is happy. (Reporting verb in present)
The teacher said, "The sun rises in the The teacher said that the sun rises in the east. (Universal
east." truth)
Letter Writing
Examination Hall,
School A.B.C ,
City XYZ
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The Editor,
Newspaper A.B.C
City XYZ
Subject:
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Yours Obediently,
XYZ
Application Writing
Examination Hall,
City ABC.
School DEF.
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The Principal,
School DEF.
City ABC.
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Subject:
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Respected Sir,
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Yours Sincerly,
XYZ
Email Writing
From:abc@[Link]
To:def@[Link]
10 feb 2025
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Subject:
Respected/Dear,
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Yours Sincerly,
XYZ
