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Course № M-3008

Terminal Units

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B40 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Types of Terminals

Types of Terminals
B
Single Duct together with the necessary change-
over circuitry, makes this possible.
This basic terminal consists of casing, Controls can be pneumatic, electric,
a damper, a damper actuator, and analog electronic, or direct digital
associated controls. In response to electronic. Accessories such as round
Engineering Guidelines

control signals from a thermostat or other outlets, multiple outlets, and sound
source, the terminal varies the airflow attenuators may be added. The single
through a single duct handling hot or cold duct terminal is most often used in an
air. In some applications the same interior zone of the building, for
terminal is used for both heating and Figure 47. Elevation - Single
cooling only. Duct
cooling; a dual function thermostat,

Dual Duct, Non-Mixing stratification in the discharge duct.

(When stratification occurs, the
Essentially the same as two single duct several outlets served by the terminal
terminals side-by-side, this terminal may deliver air at noticeably different
modulates the flow of hot and cold air in temperatures.) The non-mixing dual
two separate streams supplied by a dual duct terminal is best used in an
duct central air handling unit. Because exterior zone, in which zero-to-low
there is no provision for mixing the two airflow can be tolerated as the
airstreams, this terminal should not be temperature requirement shifts from Figure 48. Plan View - Dual Duct,
used for simultaneous heating and cooling to heating.
cooling, which would result in Non-Mixing

Dual Duct, Mixing airflow changes first, and a change in

cold airflow follows to maintain a
Here the terminal is designed constant total (mixed) volume. When
specifically for mixing hot (or tempered equipped with DDC controls by TITUS,
ventilation) and cold air in any both hot and cold inlets have velocity
proportion. When equipped with sensors, with the summation of flows
pneumatic controls, there is a velocity computed by the microprocessor. No
sensor in the hot air inlet, but none in discharge velocity sensor is used. This
the cold air inlet. A velocity sensor at dual duct terminal is often used in an Figure 49. Plan View - Duct Duct,
the discharge measures the total flow of exterior zone of a building or to ensure
air and sends the signal to the cold air Mixing
ventilation rates.
controller. In the mixing cycle, the hot

exterior zone with moderate heating

Single Duct, with Heating Coil requirements. Since the terminal
This is the single duct terminal described normally handles its minimum CFM in
above, with a heating coil added. The coil the heating mode, a dual minimum
may be of either the hot water or the CFM or “flip-flop” control can be added
electric type. The hot water coil is usually for increased heating airflow. Separate
modulated by a proportioning valve minimum CFM setpoints are standard
controlled by the same thermostat that with most DDC controls (available
controls the terminal. Control for the optionally on most other control types) Figure 50. Elevation - Single
electric coil is either 100% on-off or in and should be considered in design. A
steps of capacity, energized by Duct, with Heating Coil
higher minimum CFM in heating mode
contactors in response to the room will improve overhead air distribution
thermostat. The single duct terminal performance.
with heating coil is most often used in an

Fan Powered, Parallel Type airflow, which is usually less than that
for cooling, the fan can be sized smaller
(Variable Volume) than in the series flow type terminal
In this terminal a fan is added to (see below). During the cooling cycle,
recirculate plenum air, for heating only. the fan is off and cool primary air is
The heating cycle occurs generally when supplied from the central system. A
the primary air is off or at minimum flow. backdraft damper prevents reverse flow
Heat is picked up as the recirculated air is through the fan. The flow of the primary
drawn from the ceiling space and the fan air is regulated by variable air volume Figure 51. Plan View - Fan
motor. Additional heat can be provided by controls. Used in exterior zones. Powered, Parallel Type (Variable
a hot water or electric coil on the terminal. Volume)
Because the fan handles only the heating
 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Types of Terminals B41

Types of Terminals (Continued)

B
Fan Powered, Series Type pressure can be lower than in the
parallel flow terminal (above). The fan,
(Constant Volume) however, is sized to handle the total
The fan runs continuously, fed by a airflow. These are often used in
mixture of primary and plenum air. The applications where constant

Engineering Guidelines
more primary air is forced in, the less background sound and continuous
plenum air is drawn in. The result is airflow are desired.
variable volume from the central system, Figure 52. Plan View - Fan
constant volume (and sound) to the room. Powered, Series Type (Constant
Because the central system need only Volume)
deliver air as far as the fan, the inlet static

Low Temperature Fan it enters the room. A commonly utilized

solution is to mix it with recirculated air
Terminals with a fan powered terminal. The most
The fan terminal, with its inherent common application uses a Series Flow
mixing, is well suited to handle the very unit, but many applications have been
cold air delivered by systems designed utilized with Parallel units with a
for air much colder than with constant running fan.
conventional 55° F supply systems.
In order to use standard diffusers, the
primary air must be raised to a
conventional supply temperature before

Fan Powered, Low Profile enough space to allow extra floors

to be included in a high-rise structure.
This series or parallel type terminal has Ceiling space can be as little as
a vertical dimension of only 10.5” for all 12" to 14” deep. The low profile
sizes, to minimize the depth of ceiling terminal is also useful in buildings
space required. Notice in the diagram at constructed with precast concrete
the right that the recirculating fan is laid channel floors. The terminal can fit into
flat on its side, shaft vertical. In the channel space with no extra depth
localities where building heights are required. (Series type shown.) Figure 53. Plan View - Fan
limited, the low profile terminal saves
Powered, Low Profile

Fan Powered, Access Floor The terminal can fit into the floor
plenum without any modifications to
Profile (Constant Volume) the pedestal system.
This series type terminal is designed to
fit around the pedestal support grid of
access, or raised, floor systems. In a
typical access floor the grid is 24”x24”.
Figure 54. Plan View - Fan
Powered, Access Floor Profile
(Constant Volume)
B42 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Types of Controls

Types of Controls
B
Reaction to Duct Note: Excessive airflow may lead to excessive noise.
Pressure independent control has less opportunity for
Pressure Controls variable (and unwanted) sounds in the occupied spaces.
Engineering Guidelines

Pressure Independent
With this type of control the terminal
maintains the flow rate required to handle
the heating or cooling load, regardless of
system pressure fluctuations. It is the best
choice where the system pressure will vary
extensively and where precise control is
essential. Key components in pressure
independent control are the velocity sensor,
which furnishes a continuous reading of the
air velocity through the terminal, and the
velocity controller, which processes this
information along with signals from the
thermostat. In the chart (Figure 55), vertical
lines AB and EF represent minimum and
maximum CFM settings which are
adjustable at the controller. Line CD
represents any CFM setting maintained by
the controller in response to the thermostat.
The damper will open and close as needed
to hold the CFM constant up and down this
vertical line for the full range of pressure
drops shown. Notice that the vertical CFM
lines are cut off by the diagonal line AE,
which represents the pressure drop from
inlet to outlet with the damper wide open.
This is the minimum DP shown in our data.
Figure 55. Pneumatic Pressure Independent
Pressure Dependent
A terminal with this type of control is
designed for those applications where
neither pressure independence nor CFM
limit regulation is required. An example is a
variable volume makeup air supply in which
the downstream duct pressure is held
constant by other controls. The terminal
consists essentially of a casing, a damper,
and a damper actuator. There is no
controller and no velocity sensor; the
damper moves in direct response to the
thermostat or other signal input. The line AB
(Figure 56) shows the typical performance
characteristic. It represents a given damper
setting, with the flow rate varying as the
square root of the static pressure drop
through the terminal. This, of course, is
typical of any damper or fixed orifice. Lines
CD and EF represent random additional
settings as the damper opens to the full
open position line GH. Line GH is the
minimum pressure loss of the assembly.
Figure 56. Pneumatic Pressure Dependent
 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Types of Controls B43

Types of Controls (continued)

Electric Systems
Electric controls operate at low voltage, B
usually 24 VAC, supplied by a
Most of the control types shown here transformer which is often built into the
have certain principle elements in control box of the terminal. The room
common: thermostat has single-pole-double-throw
contacts so that (in the cooling mode) a

Engineering Guidelines
Room Thermostat rise in temperature drives the damper
or Sensor actuator in the opening direction; a fall
in temperature reverses the actuator.
The thermostat contains not only a
Since the electric system has no
temperature sensing element, but Figure 57. Pneumatic System
velocity sensor and no controller, there
also a means of changing the
is no compensation for duct pressure
setpoint. The room sensor used with
fluctuations. Operation of the terminal is
the direct digital control system is
pressure dependent, the thermostat and
simply an electronic temperature
room response time are typically much
sensor; setpoint changes are handled
less than the actuator response time,
along with other signal processing in
and excessive room temperature
the digital controller.
variations are a likely result.
Velocity Sensor Analog Electronic Systems
Mounted in the inlet of the terminal,
Like the electric controls, analog
this device senses air velocity, which
electronic controls operate at low
can easily be converted to airflow
voltage, usually 24 VAC, supplied by a
rate. The sensor’s signal provides
transformer which is often built into the
feedback to monitor and directs the
control box of the terminal. These
operation of the controller and damper
controls, however, also include a Figure 58. Electric Pressure
actuator. Dependent System
velocity sensor of either the thermistor
Controller type, or pneumatic velocity sensor with
electronic transducer, together with an
Commands from the thermostat or electronic velocity controller that is
room sensor, together with feedback pressure independent. The electronic
from the velocity sensor, are thermostat can control both cooling and
processed in the controller to heating operations. Because of the
regulate the damper actuator. pressure independent operation and
Operation is pressure independent. integrated thermostat, excellent room
temperature control can be achieved.
Damper Actuator
The damper actuator opens and Direct Digital Electronic
closes the damper to change the Systems
airflow, or to hold it constant, as
Here again the power source is a low
dictated by the controller.
voltage supply. Signals from a
pneumatic or electronic velocity sensor,
Pneumatic systems together with signals from the room
Figure 59. Analog Electric Pressure
Independent System
In a pneumatic control system, the temperature sensor, are converted to
various components are powered by digital impulses in the controller, which
compressed air, usually at 15–25 psi, is a specialized microcomputer. The
from a central system. The thermostat controller not only performs the reset
receives air at full pressure directly and pressure independent volume
from the main air supply. In response control functions, but it also can be
to room temperature, the air pressure adjusted and programmed either locally
is modulated to the controller, which or remotely for multiple control
regulates the damper actuator. The strategies, including scheduling. In
sensor and controller compensate for addition, it can link to other controllers
changes in duct pressure so that and interface with security, lighting, and
operation is pressure independent. other equipment. Control can be
centralized in one computer.

Figure 60. Direct Digital Electronic

Pressure Dependent System
B44 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Control Operation in Terminals

Control Operation in
B
Terminals
Damper Operation
Linearity (Figure 61) is the ideal
Engineering Guidelines

characteristic for most damper

applications. How nearly linear the
operation is depends upon the
percentage of the overall system
pressure drop contributed by the wide
open damper. Pressure independent
control operations eliminate the effect
of nonlinear dampers, but simulate the
effect of a true linear damper to the
system. For a linear damper
characteristic, the damper is sized to
contribute about 10% of the overall
system resistance. Also (Figure 62),
actuator torque must be sufficient to
close the damper under all design Figure 61. Linear Damper Operation Figure 62. Damper Torque
conditions. In TITUS terminals, the Requirement
torque is always more than adequate.

Direct Acting/Reverse Acting

Pneumatic Thermostat
Action
In the direct acting pneumatic
thermostat (Figure 63), a room
temperature increase causes a
corresponding increase in thermostat
output. In the reverse acting thermostat
(Figure 64), the sequence is the
opposite. Because of these
characteristics, direct acting
thermostats are often used for cooling,
reverse acting for heating. (With
electronic systems, this term has no
application.) Figure 63. Direct Acting Thermostat Figure 64. Reverse Acting
Action Thermostat Action

Direct Reset/Reverse Reset

Pneumatic Velocity
Controller Action Reverse
Reset
In the direct reset pneumatic velocity Thermostat
controller (Figure 65), an increase in
thermostat output pressure causes a
corresponding increase in controller
CFM setting. The damper will open and
close to maintain this CFM when duct
pressures change. In the reverse reset
controller (Figure 66) the same action
results from a decrease in controller
CFM setting.

Figure 65. Direct Reset Pneumatic Figure 66. Reverse Reset Controller
Velocity Controller
 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Control Operation in Terminals B45

Control Operation in Terminals (Continued)

B
Pneumatic Thermostat-
Controller Combinations
For systems supplying cold air when a
direct acting pneumatic thermostat

Engineering Guidelines
signals a direct acting controller
(Figure 67), an increase in room
temperature produces an increase in
CFM setting. A reverse acting
thermostat with a reverse reset
controller produces the same result. A
direct acting thermostat with a reverse
reset controller or a reverse acting
thermostat with a direct reset controller
(Figure 68) will produce a decrease in Figure 67. DA Pneumatic Figure 68. RA Thermostat with
CFM as the room temperature Thermostat Signaling DA Controller Reverse Reset Controller or RA
increases. With warm supply air, the Combination Thermostat with Direct Reset
logic is reversed. Controller Combination

Actuator Terminology Normally Open Pneumatic Control/Actuator

Pneumatic actuators have an internal This describes a pneumatic operator Combinations
spring which is overcome by control air which is configured so that on loss of Controllers and actuators work in
pressure. When air pressure is less air pressure the damper in the unit will concert to control space temperatures.
than the spring tension, the actuator open fully. These applications are With pneumatic controls the most
will retract. Depending on how it is typically ones where all like units are common combinations are DANO
connected to a damper, the damper desired to be open for control (Direct Acting Normally Open) and
may open or close on increase in purposes such as smoke removal or RANC (Reverse Acting Normally
control signal. Electronic actuators, to prevent excessive pressure on Closed). With most pneumatic controls
however, are typically "fail stopped" system start-up. special controllers are used for direct
unless they have a return spring which and reverse acting and any
is activated by a loss of control signal. Normally Closed combinations other than DANO or
These are several times the cost of When air pressure is removed, the RANC require extra components and
"fail stopped" actuators. When actuator will cause the damper in the increase air consumption. (With the
normally open or normally closed unit to go fully closed. This is typically TITUS II controller, no extra
actuators are specified in an electronic specified when an area is to be components are required as the unit is
control project, the requirement is most isolated. switchable.)
often in error.
B46 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Operation of a Velocity Controller

Operation of a
B
Velocity Controller
Definitions of Terms
Engineering Guidelines

The controller setpoint is the CFM

setting that the control system is calling
for at any given moment. At that
setpoint the damper opening may vary
widely to compensate for any duct
pressure changes reported by the inlet
sensor, and thus hold the CFM
constant.
With pneumatic systems, the setpoint,
11 psi in the example (Figure 69), can
be reset by the action of the thermostat
anywhere between the maximum and
minimum CFM settings of the controller.
The corresponding thermostat output
pressures are called the start and stop
points. The range of possible setpoints
between the start and stop points is
called the reset span, 8 to 13 psi in the
example shown here.
The thermostat may also control an
auxiliary piece of equipment, such as a
proportioning valve on a hot water coil,
shown here modulating over a range of
3 to 8 psi, in sequence with the reset Figure 69. Set Point Example
span of the controller. The overall range
over which the thermostat controls
these devices is its proportional band or
total throttling range, 3 to 13 psi in this
example.

Thermostat Sensitivity
This is the change in output signal
caused by a change in room
temperature. This rating (Figure 70) is
usually 1° F = 2.5 psi for pneumatic
systems. Electronic systems have a
wide variance in output responses.

Hysteresis
This is the failure of an object to return
to its original position after a force has
moved or deflected it. For example, in Figure 70. Thermostat Sensitivity Figure 71. Hysteresis Example
some velocity controllers (Figure 71) Example
the CFM setting increases along the
lower curved line and decreases along
the upper curved line. At the setpoint,
the CFM may be either A or B.
 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Fan Terminal Flow Control B47

Operation of a Velocity Controller (Continued)

B
Pneumatic Feedback
Signals from the thermostat determine
the CFM setpoint of the controller. The
duct velocity acting on the velocity

Engineering Guidelines
sensor forms a feedback (closed) loop
(Figure 72) that allows the controller
to monitor the airflow resulting from its
settings and make corrections
continuously. This is a form of closed
loop control and is used on both
pneumatic and electronic pressure
independent systems.
In the TITUS ll pneumatic controller
there is also an internal feedback
loop that works in conjunction with Figure 72. Pneumatics Feedback
a positive positioning reset
mechanism to eliminate hysteresis
(see Figure 71, page B46).

Fan Terminal Flow Control

Engineers designing air systems try to match the airflow
capacity of fan powered terminals to the needs of the
space. Exact matches are rare, however. The design may
not allow an exact match, a product other than the one
which is the subject of the design might be selected, or
system balancing might require a different airflow to meet
field conditions. The two commonly used methods of
trimming fan airflow are:
1) Mechanical Trimming
2) Voltage Adjustment

Series Fan Shift

With Series fan terminals, the fan output is intended to
remain constant over a range of primary inlet damper flow
rates. With proper design, this is normally so. With Figure 73. Forward Curved Fan Performance Curve
improper design, or with additional inlet attenuators added
to a terminal, the fan may see a different external pressure In operation, the mechanical device will raise the static
when in full induction mode than when in full cooling. This pressure the fan operates against by either restricting the
results in a variation in the quantity of air delivered to the free area downstream of the fan or restricting the free flow
space, or “Fan Shift.” The consequences of fan shift of air drawn into the fan. A forward curved fan riding the fan
depend on individual zone characteristics and building curve will reduce airflow accordingly (Figure 73).
design. If diffusers are selected such that they may add
background masking sound at design flow, variations in Although the rpm of the fan will increase, less work will be
flow may be an annoyance to the occupants. If a designed performed. This will result in a reduction of the amp draw of
ventilation rate is assumed, this may vary if fan shift the fan motor. Since voltage remains constant, the overall
happens. (TITUS terminals are designed to minimize fan power consumption of the fan is reduced. The power
shift.) reduction from mechanical trimming is less, however, than
the power reduction from voltage adjustment. When
Mechanical Trimming mechanical trimming is used, the sound levels of the fan
terminal will increase. When the dampering occurs
Mechanical trimming involves the use of a mechanical
downstream of the fan, the velocity of the discharge air
device, such as a damper, to adjust the fan airflow to meet
must rise, thereby increasing the discharge sound power
the design requirements. Typically, these are used in
levels. Additional sound contributions are made by the fan.
conjunction with a multi-tap motor to provide a greater
The increased rpm of the fan results in greater tip speed.
operating range and keep the energy consumption and
This occurs with either dampering method, raising the level
sound levels as low as possible. Mechanical trimming
of both the radiated and discharge sound.
offers a lower first cost versus a voltage adjustment, but at
increased operating costs and increased sound. Multi-tap
motors are not always effective in changing flow.
B48 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Fan Speed Control

Fan Terminal Flow Control (Continued)

B
Voltage Adjustment Fan Speed Control
Voltage adjustment of fan powered terminals typically
involves the use of a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). An
SCR uses a triac to phase proportion (chop) the electrical The rpm of the motor is reduced by the SCR, lowering the
Engineering Guidelines

sine wave. tip speed of the fan. Since the free area downstream of the
fan is not reduced, the velocity either meets design
In effect, the SCR switches power off 120 times a second conditions or is lowered if the airflow is reduced below
on a 60 Hertz cycle. This reduces the voltage to the motor, design for balancing purposes. There is no increase in
slowing its speed. In operation, the SCR responds to the sound from air disturbances.
current but controls voltage. Thus, while an SCR’s triac
may be energized at zero current, the current sine wave
generally lags the voltage sine wave with an induction
motor. This results in the idealized voltage sine wave
shown below (Figure 74). As the SCR is used to further
reduce fan speed, the true RMS value of the voltage is
reduced.
As voltage to the motor is reduced, the motor tries to
compensate and the motor’s amp draw rises slightly. The
amperes will continue to increase until 50% of the current
sine wave is phase proportioned. After this point, the amp
draw will decrease. The increased amp draw is small
relative to the reduction in voltage. As a result, comparing
power consumption of the mechanical trimming method
with the voltage adjustment method is analogous to
comparing the power consumption of inlet guide vanes on
central air handlers with speed inverters (Figure 75 and
76).

Figure 75. Watt Reduction Versus CFM

A Note on Nameplate Ratings

The amp draw can increase above the nameplate
rating of the motor! The motor's nameplate
specifies the amp draw for one set of design
conditions. Since the voltage to the motor is
reduced, the nameplate rating is no longer
applicable. If proper care is taken in the design,
Figure 74. Idealized Voltage Sine Wave Resulting from an specification, and selection of the motor by the
SCR terminal manufacturer, the increased amp draw
will pose absolutely no problem in operation or
longevity. Thousands of fan powered terminals
shipped with SCRs over the years serve as
confirmation.
TITUS accounts for the increased amp draw in the
specification and selection of motors used for fan
powered terminals. As a result, TITUS specifies
unit fusing adequate to handle the maximum amp
draw possible under all operating conditions. This
differs from the motor nameplate; it is essential
that electric circuit fuses/overcurrent protection are
sized according to the nameplate of the terminal,
not the motor nameplate.
 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Fan Speed Control B49

Fan Speed Control (Continued)

B
Catalog Fan Curves
The fan curves in a catalog represent the operating range
of the fan powered terminal. Fan operation is dependent
on the static pressure on the fan, so fan curves show

Engineering Guidelines
airflow vs. static pressure. As the static pressure
increases, airflow decreases. A typical fan curve will show
maximum and minimum airflow for a fan powered terminal.
In Figure 77, the top curve represents the maximum
airflow that the fan and motor can provide. This
corresponds to the recommended maximum operating
RPM of the motor. The bottom curve shows the minimum
airflow that the fan and motor can provide. This
corresponds to either the minimum operating RPM of the
motor or the minimum voltage of the SCR fan speed
controller.
The SCR minimum is designed to protect the motor from
operating below its recommended RPM. Most standard
fan powered terminal motors must operate above a
manufacturer’s specified RPM to effectively self-lubricate.
However, the relationship between RPM and SCR voltage
is dependent of static pressure. At minimum voltage on
the SCR, the motor RPM will be different at different static
pressures. Because of this, there is a possibility that at
minimum SCR voltage, the RPM will be below the motor
minimum recommended operating RPM. When this
happens, the cataloged fan curve will use minimum RPM
to set the minimum fan curve, not minimum SCR voltage.
To ensure proper motor operation, always operate a fan
powered terminal with the cataloged fan curve.

Figure 76. Watt, Volt, and RPM Relationships

1600

A Note on Meter Usage

1400
Many digital multi-meters (DMMs) will provide
erroneous readings when attempting to measure 1200
current or voltage near an SCR. These meters are
designed for normal, smooth sine waves. The
SCR, by changing the shape of the sine wave, 1000
throws off the readings from these meters. To
measure the current voltage, a true RMS DMM
CFM

800
designed for these conditions must be used.

600

400

200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Static Pressure - Inches of Water

Figure 77. Typical Fan Curve

B50 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • ECM Motors

ECM Motors - Fan

B
Powered Terminals
Pressure Independent - Energy Efficient Energy Savings Potential
The ECM motor, as applied to the TITUS TQS fan powered
Analog Speed Settings terminal, offers significant energy savings over time to the
Engineering Guidelines

ECM Motor Technology owner when compared to conventional induction motors.

The ECM motor is an ultra high efficiency, brushless TITUS has evaluated an actual field trial and confirmed
DC motor with a unique microprocessor based motor through bench testing an example of the potential energy
controller. Motor efficiencies of 70% or better across savings when using the ECM motor. The following charts
the entire operating range of the motor saves show the watt reduction associated with the 1/2 hp and 1 hp
considerable electrical energy when compared to ECM motor when compared to standard TQS units of
conventional induction motors. The motor controller, equivalent application range.
when tuned to the fan powered terminal, provides a
large turn down ratio and constant volume airflow
regardless of changes in downstream static pressure
operating against the fan. With the introduction of the TQS Size 6 - 1hp ECM Motor
ECM motor, factory setting of the fan CFM is now
1200
possible.
1000
Separate controls are required to enable field 800
adjustment of fan speed. The fan speed control allows Watts ECM
adjustments to be made three ways. 600 SCR

400
• Manually with a screwdriver, similar to the SCR
control 200

0
• Remotely (as an option) through the DDC controls 1263 1350 1601 1786 1849 2081 2162 2200
using a laptop at the unit CFM

• Remotely through the Building Management

System Note: TQS Size 6 with 1hp ECM motor watt
comparison to standard permanent split capacitor
motor. The average watt reduction over the above
Harmonics
range is 335 watts.
Power for a given motor is drawn through the line in
the form of a pure sine wave. This sine wave contains Figure 78. Watt Reduction with ½ hp ECM Motor
a fundamental frequency, in the US typically 60 Hz.
When there exists other pure sine waves, each with
individual frequencies, other than the fundamental
TQS Size 4 - 1/2hp ECM Motor
frequency, they are called harmonics. These waves
cause distortion or “noise” in the power line. 600
Therefore, harmonic distortion is a collection of pure
500
sine waves, including the 60 Hz fundamental
frequency, which when summed together point by point 400
Watts

ECM
in time creates distortion in the incoming line. 300
SCR
Due to the way a standard split capacitor motor draws 200

power, they have slightly fewer harmonic frequencies 100

as compared to the ECM motor. The ECM motor, 0
unlike the standard split capacitor motor, draws peak 509 752 1000 1415
power only when needed, resulting in less electrical CFM
noise generation.
As of 1999, the most stringent of limitations for Note: TQS Size 4 with ½ hp ECM motor kW
harmonics is published in the CEI Standard 61000-3-2 comparison to standard permanent split capacitor
and governs equipment sold and manufactured in motor. The average watt reduction over the above
Europe. These values set the ceiling for allowable range is 178 watts.
harmonic levels. The critical maximum or peak amp
values for a given harmonic level occur in the third Figure 79. Watt Reduction with 1 hp ECM Motor
harmonic closely followed by that of the fifth harmonic.
Published data for a 1hp ECM without filtering
capability violates the CEI limits. TITUS has developed
technology to decrease the harmonic frequencies while
continuing to deliver peak power as it is requested. The
TITUS ECM motor meets the CEI criteria, as well as
specified national and international harmonic
limitations.
 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Direct Digital Control B51

ECM Motors (Continued)

When evaluating this reduction in watts for energy usage the B

following table shows, at various usage rates, the annual Direct Digital Control
savings per motor. Annual savings assume a run time of
3000 hours per year (250 days at 12 hours/day).
Applying Computers to Control

Engineering Guidelines
With many years' experience, design engineers have
Table 9. Annual Savings per Motor established the basic principles of temperature control for
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.
Usage KW/hr reductions These control strategies have been applied utilizing
Rate 0.2872 0.35 0.405 conventional pneumatic, electric, or analog electronic
devices.
$0.05 $43.08 $52.50 $60.75
Recent advances in micro-technology have made it
$0.06 $51.70 $63.00 $72.90 possible to apply the power and precision of computers to
HVAC control. Microprocessors, which cost less than ever
$0.07 $60.31 $73.50 $85.05
before and offer superior computing power, are now
$0.08 $68.93 $84.00 $97.20 suitable for application to individual air handlers, packaged
heating/cooling units, VAV terminals, or the entire HVAC
$0.10 $86.16 $105.00 $121.50 system.
$0.12 $103.39 $126.00 $145.80
Direct Digital Control
$0.14 $120.62 $147.00 $170.10 Microprocessor-based controllers inherently perform direct
digital control (DDC) and typically replace the conventional
pneumatic or analog electronic controls. Digital controllers
Also, reduction in demand charges must also be considered. measure signals from sensors (input), process these
Typically, demand charges are calculated during a 15- signals in software (through the microprocessor), and
minute peak window. Some utilities will qualify the peak initiate a corrective action to a controlled device (outputs)
demand to only the summer months and use this peak as (Figure 80). A more technical definition is provided in the
the monthly charge throughout the remainder of the year ASHRAE 1995 Systems and Applications Handbook.
while other utilities will calculate demand charges using that
months peak kW requirement. The savings associated with
reduced demand charges are substantial, as demand
charges are usually several dollars per kW. As an example,
a typical multi-story office application may require 200 fan A direct digital controller receives electronic
signals from the sensors, converts the
terminals.
electronic signals to numbers, and performs
Each fan terminal equipped with an ECM motor may have mathematical operations on these numbers
approximately 0.4 kW reduction in power. This translates to inside the computer. The output from the
an 80 kW reduction in demand and with a demand rate of computer takes the form of a number, and can
be converted to a voltage or pneumatic signal
$10.00 per kW equates to a potential $800 per month
to operate the actuator.
reduction in the demand charges. While this model is
simplistic, it is indicative of the payback potential of the
motor. Utilities will vary not only in price but also in
calculation methods with contract kW's versus actual kW
usage so actual savings must be calculated according to
local market conditions. Advantages of DDC
DDC systems offer several potential advantages over
Coupling the usage and demand savings associated with conventional counterparts.
the ECM motors can provide a substantial savings
throughout the life of the building. • DDC systems provide improved comfort and greater
energy efficiency through precise and accurate control.
Pneumatic and Analog systems utilizing proportional
(P) control have the inherent characteristic of offset
(Figure 81). Microprocessor based controls can
eliminate offset by adding the integral (I) or reset
action. Furthermore, addition of the derivative (D)
action can result in a faster response and greater
stability (Figure 82), but requires significant tuning.
• DDC systems require less maintenance than
conventional systems. Since there are no moving
parts, periodic preventive maintenance (PM) tasks
such as calibration, lubrication, cleaning, and
adjustments are seldom required.
• Control strategies can be modified quickly and easily
without the need to rewire, repipe, or install additional
components.
B52 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Direct Digital Control

Direct Digital Control (Continued)

B
Engineering Guidelines

Figure 80. Direct Digital Controller Figure 81. Inherent Offset - Lost Energy Dollars and
Sacrificed Comfort

• Since microprocessor controllers are software based,

multiple control sequences can be preprogrammed in
memory thus allowing a single controller to be fully
interchangeable between different equipment. For
example, an application specific VAV controller may be
used to control single duct, dual duct, or fan powered
terminals by simply choosing the appropriate operating
sequence from a software library maintained on board
every controller (Figure 83).
• While functioning completely independent, digital
controllers perform all essential functions necessary to
control different pieces of HVAC equipment without Figure 82. Offset Completely Eliminated - Improved Comfort
interconnecting to other computers. In this way each and Less Energy Usage
piece of HVAC equipment has its own digital controller
in the same way conventional systems would provide
individual control panels.

Figure 83. Frequently Used Control Sequences

 Terminals, Controls, and Accessories • Direct Digital Control B53

Direct Digital Control (Continued)

B
DDC Distributed Processing

Using a concept commonly referred to

Engineering Guidelines
as distributed processing, DDC
controllers can function as standalone
devices. In this way if one controller
fails, others throughout the system can
continue to function unaffected. The
controllers are connected over a system
communication bus or local area
network (LAN) for system wide sharing
of information. This information is used
to perform sophisticated building control
strategies not possible with conventional
noncommunicating systems. The
network also allows system access
locally through a personal computer or
remotely via modem over telephone
lines (Figure 84).

Figure 84. System Access via Network

B54 Terminals,
Terminals,Controls,
Controls,and
andAccessories
Accessories➤ Engineering
• Sizing Basic
Data
Terminals

Sizing Basic Terminals The selection of an appropriate water coil should also
be considered at this time. In some cases, a terminal may
B
from Capacity Tables need to be increased in size in order to obtain the desired
heat output from the coil. With single duct units, the water
coil air pressure drop should be subtracted from the duct
pressure when determining sound generation. (The sound
Certified Air Terminals produced by the damper is proportional to the pressure
To provide engineers with sound power data which can be
Engineering Guidelines

drop across the damper and discharge water coils may

compared on an even basis, leading air terminal reduce that pressure drop.) Other significant downstream
manufacturers joined together under the Air Conditioning pressure drops should be considered, and their pressure
and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) to develop an industry drop subtracted as well.
standard for rating air terminals and certifying performance
data. The result was ARI Standard 880, currently dated Sizing Parallel Fan Powered Terminals
1994, Air Terminals, and the 880 Certification Program.
Standard 880 specifies the procedure, using a reverberant Parallel flow (variable volume) fan powered terminals are
chamber, for developing sound power data. The selected based on their capacity to handle the primary
certification program ensures manufacturers’ equipment airflow. The same rules which apply to the selection of
performance meets their claims. single duct terminals can be used, except that water coils
are not in the primary airstream path, and will not affect
Compliance with 880 is assured through third party testing. sound levels. The pressure drop of the water coils,
If a manufacturer fails to match claimed performance, the however, which are on the fan inlet in TITUS parallel fan
manufacturer must immediately rerate the terminal or lose units, must be added to the expected discharge pressure
the ability to use the ARI 880 seal. Another standard, ARI at the fan flow rate when entering the fan curve tables.
885, was developed at the same time to assist the engineer
in using certified product data. Note that ARI-885-90 has The fan is selected based on the minimum airflow
been revised to ARI-885-98. This is covered in detail in a requirements for the space or the heating load required. In
following section dedicated to acoustics. most cases the fan can be downsized from the cooling flow
requirement considerably, reducing both first cost and
Terminal selection involves a series of trade-offs. The operating cost. The fan is selected from the fan curves. The
designer needs to try to balance all of the constraining downstream static pressure of the secondary air may not
factors and select the terminal which meets overall be the same as the primary air, however. If the secondary
needs best. airflow requirements are less than the primary air
requirements, the static pressure will be reduced. The
following equation can be used to determine the static
pressure at reduced airflows. (Do not forget to add water
Engineers who specify ARI Certified air terminals are coil pressure drops to the fan requirement).
assured that the manufacturer’s performance meets the
manufacturer’s claims. This is protection for the engineer,
the building owner, and the building occupant. Ps2 = Ps1 (V2 / V1)2
where: Ps1 = Primary Air Static Pressure
Ps2 = Secondary (Fan) Air Static
Pressure
Sizing Single Duct Terminals V1 = Primary Air Velocity
The starting point for sizing single duct terminals is to V2 = Secondary (Fan) Air Velocity
identify the type and model of controller. This is necessary
because some controllers are more accurate at lower
velocities than others. To select a TITUS parallel fan powered terminal, refer to
the published fan curves and primary air pressure drop
Once the type of control is identified, the minimum and curves, together with the application and sound power data.
maximum primary airflows should be considered against
the published CFM range. The trade-offs start here. Some In the parallel flow type of unit when the primary air is ON,
engineers will select terminals near the bottom of the CFM the fan is typically OFF, and vice versa. As shown in the
range to reduce sound levels since large inlets reduce face Figure 86, the primary air and the fan discharge air follow
velocity. Others select terminals near the top of the CFM parallel paths into a common plenum. Therefore both
range to hold down equipment costs. Still other engineers airflows will encounter the same downstream resistance at
believe that one should remain comfortably in the middle to a given flow rate.
avoid potential control problems resulting from low
Since the primary and secondary airflows come from two
velocities and sound problems occurring at high velocities.
different sources—and often at two different specified flow
All TITUS products operate extremely well within the rates—the volume vs. pressure relationship in each of
published CFM ranges. Therefore, low velocity control these airflows must be checked to ensure adequate flow
concerns can be eliminated. This leaves sound and first rates under actual job conditions.
cost as the key issues. If the terminal is relatively small to
begin with and will be located over a kitchen or hallway,
sound will probably not be of concern and the designer may
choose to slightly undersize the terminal. If, on the other
hand, the terminal is located over office space, the designer
may slightly oversize the terminal.
 Terminals,
Terminals, Controls,
Controls,and
andAccessories
Accessories➤ Engineering
• Sizing Basic
Data
Terminals B55

Sizing Basic Terminals from Capacity Tables (Continued) Secondary Air (Fan): From the fan curves, a size 4,
without coils, terminal will handle 1150 CFM at 0.30” static
pressure, with the proper setting of the standard SCR B
Example: Select a Model DTQP for a maximum of speed control. The system curve of the downstream duct
1400 CFM of primary air with 1.00” wg inlet static pressure. and diffusers (a square curve defined by the point
The fan airflow required is 1150 CFM. The downstream 1150 CFM at 0.30” static pressure) intersects the minimum
resistance offered by the duct and diffusers has been speed static pressure curve of the fan at about 875 CFM
determined to be 0.30” static pressure at 1150 CFM.

Engineering Guidelines
and 0.17” static pressure. This is the minimum airflow for
Primary Air: From the chart on page R46, a size 4 with a that duct, without dampering.
12” inlet will handle 1400 CFM of primary air with a
minimum static pressure drop of 0.22” through the primary
air section. But since the downstream resistance is 0.30” at
1150 CFM,
2
(1150
1400 ) x 0.30” = 0.44” sp

The overall primary air static pressure drop is

0.22”+ 0.44”= 0.66” sp
Since a 1.0” static pressure is available at the inlet, the
selection will work. The damper in the primary air section
will do some throttling to hold the maximum air flow to
1400 CFM.

Figure 85. Schematic Diagram of Airflow in Parallel Flow (Variable Volume)

Models

Figure 86. Actual Arrangement of Components Shown in the Previous

Schematic Diagram
B56 Terminals,
Terminals,Controls,
Controls,and
and
Accessories ➤ Engineering
Accessories • Sizing Series
DataFan Powered Terminals

Sizing Series Fan Powered Terminals To select a TITUS series fan powered terminal unit, refer to
the published fan curves and primary air pressure drop
B Compared to single duct terminals, series flow (constant curves together with the application and sound power data.
volume) fan powered terminals add the additional factor of An abbreviated table is shown at the right for use with the
fan CFM requirements. The designer must consider both example discussed here.
the primary airflow and the fan. Series terminals are
selected based on the capacity of their fans. The secondary In the series flow type of unit, the fan runs continuously in
(or fan) CFM should be equal to or slightly more than the the standard version. With the optional night shutdown and
Engineering Guidelines

primary air to ensure primary air does not short circuit night setback controls, the fan can be cycled ON and OFF
through the induced air port into the plenum, thereby when the primary air is OFF.
wasting energy.
As shown in the diagrams below, the primary air is drawn
Before selecting the fan, the static pressure downstream of into the fan inlet along with secondary (recirculated) air
the terminal must be determined. This is the resistance of from the room. The maximum primary airflow must always
the ducts and diffuser(s) at design airflow rates. be equal to, or less than, the total airflow through the fan.
Once the downstream static pressure is known, the When the primary air section reduces its airflow in
designer can select the fan based on the fan curves (these response to a reduced demand for cooling, the fan makes
are shown throughout the catalog with the performance up the difference by drawing more recirculated air from the
data for each fan powered terminal). The designer should room. As a result, the flow rate to the room is constant.
find the intersection of the static pressure line on the
horizontal axis and the fan CFM on the vertical axis. The primary air section discharges into the unit casing near
Selecting toward the upper end of the range will ensure that the fan inlet, where the static pressure is slightly below
first costs are kept low and the fan motor efficiency is high. atmospheric. For this reason, the available inlet pressure
Selecting below the indicated minimum flow will result in need only be enough to overcome the internal pressure
shortened motor life as the bearings in the motor are drop through the primary air damper itself.
centrifugally lubricated.
Example: Select a Model DTQS for a maximum of
If a water coil is needed, the designer must use the curves 1200 CFM of primary air at 0.50” wg inlet static pressure.
provided for a one or two row coil. These curves account The fan airflow is 1200 CFM. The downstream resistance
for the additional static pressure generated by the coil. The offered by the duct and diffusers is 0.30” at 1200 CFM.
static pressure added for an electric coil is negligible and
Primary Air: From the table on page R11, a size 4 will
may be disregarded. Neither has an appreciable effect on
handle 1200 CFM of primary air with a minimum static
sound levels.
pressure drop of .2” through the primary air section. Since
Inlet size must also be selected. Fan powered terminals 0.50” static pressure is available at the inlet, the selection
come with varying inlet sizes. In general, inlets should be will work.
selected toward the bottom of the range. This reduces the
Secondary Air (Fan): From the published fan curves, a
face velocity of the inlet and minimizes the sound
size 4 terminal will handle 1200 CFM at 0.30” static
generated by the primary air valve.
pressure, with the proper setting of the standard SCR
speed control.

Figure 87. Schematic Diagram of Airflow in Constant

Volume (Series Flow) Models

Figure 88. Actual Arrangement of Components Shown in

the Previous Schematic Diagram
 Terminals,
Terminals, Controls,
Controls,and
andAccessories
Accessories➤ Engineering
• Typical Problems
Data B57

Typical Problems
B
Oversizing Terminal
The direct result of oversizing is low air velocity.
With the velocity too low, the damper must operate

Engineering Guidelines
in a pinched-down condition most of the time,
making control difficult. The inlet velocity can also
be too low for effective operation of the sensor and
controller. Too low a velocity through an electric
heater will cause the safety airflow switch to shut
down the heater. (Figure 89) Oversizing fan
terminals results in low fan motor rpm and the Figure 89. Low Velocity Effects
potential for under-lubrication of the motor bearings,
resulting in shortened motor life, and additional
sound from larger motors.

Capacity Concentrated in Too

Few Terminals
When one large terminal serves a space that should
be served by two or more smaller ones, comfort
problems can result. There may be noticeable
temperature differences between rooms, since the
thermostat is located in just one room as at the right.
Also, for a given air velocity, the larger the terminal Figure 90. Too Few Terminals Effect
the more sound power it generates. (Figure 90)

Insufficient Space
Carefully planning the locations of the terminals
avoids problems with installation, performance, and
maintenance.
In the example shown at the right, the control side of
the terminal is against the wall, making connections
difficult and service almost impossible. The cramped
location also creates the need for close-coupled duct
elbows, which reduce performance (see below).
(Figure 91) Figure 91. Installation Affecting Performance

Improper Discharge Conditions

The duct connections at the discharge end of the
terminal have a major effect on pressure drop. A tee
close to the discharge is especially to be avoided,
along with transition pieces and elbows. Another
common error is running too much flex duct, as at
the right. It would have been better to continue the
rectangular duct to the last diffuser, then install short
flex branches. (Figure 92)

Improper Inlet Conditions Figure 92. Improper Discharge Conditions

The arrangement of duct at the terminal inlet affects
both pressure drop and control accuracy.
The conditions shown at the right will create
turbulence at the inlet. This makes it difficult for the
sensor to measure airflow accurately. Although
TITUS velocity sensors correct for a considerable
amount of turbulence, the best practice is to use
straight duct at the inlet the same size or larger than
the inlet. (Figure 93)

Figure 93. Improper Inlet Conditions

B58 Terminals,
Terminals,Controls,
Controls,and
and
Accessories ➤ Engineering
Accessories • Typical Problems
Data

Typical Problems (Continued)

B
Incompatibility with Power Source
In fan powered terminals, electrically or
electronically controlled terminals, and all terminals
with electric heating coils, the order to the factory
should be carefully checked against the electrical
Engineering Guidelines

characteristics of the power source at the point of

connection.
Not only must the voltage, phase, and frequency
match, but the distinction between 3 phase–3 wire
Figure 94. Power Source Compatibility and 4 wire wye must be observed. (Figure 94)

Excessive Air Temperature Rise

Hot water or electric heating coils should be
selected for just enough air temperature rise to
handle the required heating load. The ASHRAE
Handbook recommends a maximum of 15° F
between room and discharge to avoid stratification.
This will help to avoid an excessive discharge
temperature at the outlets, which creates an air
distribution problem. The buoyancy of overheated
air causes it to stratify in the upper part of the room
Figure 95. Buoyancy of Overheated Air rather than allowing room air mixing for proper
temperature equalization. (Figure 95)

Excessive Air Leakage

Leakage from the branch duct upstream and
downstream from the terminal, as well as from the
terminal itself, can be serious. In some installations
it is found to be as much as 10% or more of the
total airflow.
Most of this leakage can be avoided by careful
fabrication and installation and the use of top quality
terminals. (Figure 96)
Figure 96. Possible Air Leakage
Improper Support Of Terminal
Many terminals are light enough to need no support
other than the duct work itself. However, the larger
sizes, units with electric coils and fan powered
models, are heavy enough to require additional
support. A practical method is to use hanger straps
screwed to the sides of the terminal. The bottom
should be left clear where there are access panels.
(Figure 97)

Wrong Type of Insulation

Figure 97. Terminal Support Installations in hospitals, clean rooms, and
laboratories often require a special insulation liner to
prevent air erosion or microbial growth. (Figure 98)
In the past, Mylar and Tedlar were often specified in
these installations. Neither, however, meet current
safety codes in many cities. Foil faced insulations,
such as Micro-Loc and Steri-Loc, provide the
required covering, meet all safety codes, and
actually provide some sound attenuation. The
new TITUS Fibre-Free insulation provides both
sound attenuation and resistance to erosion and
mold growth.

Figure 98. Anti-erosion Skin Effects

 Terminals,
Terminals, Controls,
Controls,and
andAccessories
Accessories➤ Engineering
• Typical Problems
Data B59

Typical Problems (Continued)

B
Non-Compliance with Local Codes
Some localities have stringent codes of their own,
with requirements beyond those of NEC, UL, and
CSA. An example is the primary fusing in the control
transformer at the right. (Figure 99)

Engineering Guidelines
Installation Techniques—Duct
Connections
The inlet duct slips over the inlet collar of the
terminal. It should be fastened and sealed according Figure 99. Primary Fusing in the Control Transformer
to the job specifications.
The diameter of the inlet duct must be equal to the
listed size of the terminal. For example, a duct that
measures 8" in diameter must be fitted to a size
8 terminal. The inlet collar of the terminal is made
1
/8” smaller than nominal size in order to fit inside
the duct (Figure 100).
Note: A duct should never be inserted inside the
inlet collar of the terminal.
For optimum control accuracy, a straight section
of unrestricted duct at least 11/2 diameters long Figure 100. Terminal Inlet Collar Fitting Properly
should be installed at the inlet (Figure 101). Where
this condition does not exist, field adjustment of
the airflow setting on the velocity controller may
be required.
If space does not permit using the 11/2 diameter
length of straight duct, a hard duct elbow up to 90°
can be installed at the inlet of the TITUS terminal
without altering the factory maximum or minimum
airflow setting by more than 10% (Figure 102).
The outlet end of the TITUS terminal is designed for
a slip and drive connection. Unless a round duct Figure 101. Unrestricted Duct Properly Install at the Inlet
adapter is furnished, a rectangular outlet duct
should be fitted to match the size of the terminal
casing. It should be fastened and sealed according
to the job specifications.
If a round outlet adapter is furnished, it should be
fastened and sealed by the same method used for
the inlet.
Close coupling the terminal inlet to the side of the
main supply duct is not recommended. Where this
condition is unavoidable, a flow straightening device
(Figure 103) should be installed between the main
supply duct and the inlet to the terminal. Even with Figure 102. 90 Degree Hard Elbow Duct Installed to Inlet
the flow straightening device, the terminal may still
require some field adjustment of the factory airflow
settings at the velocity controller.
Air leakage adds significantly to the operating cost
of an HVAC system. Important savings are realized
by carefully fitting and sealing all duct joints and
specifying tightly constructed TITUS [Link]
TITUS box has very low damper and casing loss
leakage. These values can be found on page Q26.

Figure 103. Flow Straightening Device Placement

B60 Terminals,
Terminals,Controls,
Controls,and
and
Accessories ➤ Engineering
Accessories • Typical Problems
Data

Typical Problems (Continued)

B
The example in Figure 104 shows how many
dollars can be lost in the leakage from just one
terminal together with its connected duct work.
Multiply that amount by the hundreds or thousands
of terminals that may be in one building, and the
Engineering Guidelines

seriousness of the loss is apparent.

This is a conservative example, in that the leakage
is only 5%; a much higher percentage is found in
many installations. Also, the compressor, pumps,
and fans may not run as efficiently as indicated Figure 104. Possible Air Leakage
here, and the cost of electric power in many parts of
the country is greater than $0.06 per kilowatt hour.

Example of Leakage Costs

A 10” terminal handles 1150 CFM. The central The amount of leakage in the branch duct serving
system cools air from 80° F dry bulb / 67° F wet the terminal, the connections to the terminal, the
bulb to 53° F dry bulb / 51.5° F wet bulb before terminal itself, and the duct downstream from the
sending it to the terminal. terminal is 5% of the 1150 CFM being handled, or
about 58 CFM.

Cost of Refrigeration Cost of Fan Operation

The total heat removed from the system is If the static pressure across the fan is 5” wg and
the fan static efficiency averages 75%, the leakage
31.65 Btu/# at 80/67 minus 21.10 Btu/# at converts to
53/51. = 10.45 Btu/# of dry air.
58 CFM x 5
The amount of leakage given in this example is = .0.061 bhp
6356 x 0.75
58 CFM.
The loss of refrigeration energy through leakage is Assuming that the motor efficiency multiplied by
the power factor averages 0.80,
58 CFM x 10.45 Btu/# x 4.5 = 2727 Btu/hr.
0.061 x 746
= .0.0569 kw
Assuming a cooling system EER of 7.5 overall 0.080 x 1000
(reference ASHRAE Standard 90), in a space
where the system operates 24 hours a day, 365 0.0569 x $0.06 x 24 x 365 x 0.40 = $11.96,
days a year, (worst case) the cost of wasted fan power.

2727 Combined cost equals

= .0.3636 kWh input
7.5 x 1000 $76.44
$11.96
At a power cost of $0.06 per kwh, 0.3636 x $0.06 x $88.40 per year for one terminal.
24 x 365 = $191.11
If the system operates at 40% capacity, averaged
over one year, $191.11 x 0.40 = $76.44, the cost
of wasted refrigeration power alone, again worst
case, assuming continuous operation.
 Terminals,
Terminals, Controls,
Controls,and
andAccessories
Accessories➤ Engineering
• Pressure Measurement
Data B61

Some Basic
B
Concepts–Pressure
Measurement

Engineering Guidelines
Three categories of pressure are
connected with air handling:
1. Static pressure may be thought of
as the pressure in a tire or storage
tank. It is exerted in all directions
equally.
2. Velocity pressure, as its name
implies, is entirely a function of air
velocity and its direction. It is the
pressure you feel against your
hand if you hold it outside the
window of a moving car.
3 Total pressure is the sum of static
pressure and velocity pressure. It
and static pressure are the
pressures actually sampled by
velocity sensors in terminals and by
commonly used measuring devices,
as described next.
The interaction of static, velocity, and
total pressures is illustrated by
Figure 105. The Pitot tube, which is
used to measure velocities and
pressures, is really a tube within a tube.
The inner, or impact, tube senses both
the velocity pressure and static pressure
combined (total pressure). The outer
tube, which communicates with the
airstream through small holes in its wall,
avoids the impact of the air movement
and senses only static pressure.
The U-tube manometer, connected to
both parts of the Pitot tube, has the
effect of subtracting static pressure
from total pressure to give a reading of
velocity pressure.
Once the velocity pressure is known,
the velocity can be calculated easily:

2
Pv = ( 4005
V
) or V = 4005 Pv

where V = Air Velocity

and
Pv = Velocity Pressure

Knowing both the velocity and the cross-

sectional area of the duct, the flow rate
is then

CFM = Area x Velocity

Figure 105. Static, Velocity, and Total Pressures Interaction

B62 Terminals,
Terminals,Controls,
Controls,and
and
Accessories ➤ Engineering
Accessories • The Fan Laws
Data

The Fan Laws 1000

Fan Law 1
B 900
The Fan Laws are basic tools in air handling. Three of the 800
700
most common relationships are illustrated as follows.
600

rpm
Example: 500
400
Engineering Guidelines

A fan handles 40,000 CFM at 2” static pressure. It runs 300

at 760 rpm and draws 18 brake horsepower. The fan is 200
increased to 800 rpm. What are the new CFM, sp, 100
and bhp? 0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
CFM
1. Airflow rate varies directly with shaft speed.
Figure 106. Fan Law - Airflow
CFM1 = rpm 1
CFM2 = rpm 2
Fan Law 2
1000
CFM2 = (CFM1 x rpm 2) / rpm 1
900
= (40,000 x 800) / 760 800
= 42,105 700
600
[Link] varies as the square of shaft speed.

rpm
500

P1 = rpm12 400
300
P2 = rpm22 200
100
0
P2 = P1 x rpm22 / rpm12 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
= 2 x (800)2 / (760) 2 Ps, In wg
= 2.22" Figure 107. Fan Law - Pressure
3. Horsepower varies as the cube of shaft speed.
bhp1 = rpm13 Fan Law 3
1000
bhp2 = ((bhp1) x (rpm2)3 / (rpm1)3 900
= ((18) x (800)3) / (760)3 800
700
= 21.0 600
rpm

500
The relationships stated here apply when the air density 400
remains constant and when there is no change in the 300
fan or the system. They are based on Fan Laws 1, 2, 200
and 3. For a complete presentation of the Fan Laws, 100
0
see the ASHRAE Handbook, Systems and Equipment,
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
1992.
bhp
Each fan design has its characteristic set of Figure 108. Fan Law - Brake Horsepower
performance curves. Those shown in Figure 109 are
typical of a centrifugal fan with forward curved blades in
the wheel, as commonly used in fan powered terminals. System Curve
For a full discussion of the characteristics of the various 3.5
types of fans, see the ASHRAE Handbook, Systems
and Equipment, 1996. 3
The solid curve represents a fan running at constant B
speed, as it is throttled from free delivery to close-off. 2.5
Total Pressure

The broken line square curve represents the pressure

drop through the complete air handling system in which 2
the fan operates. Intersection (A) is the operating point A
of the fan. 1.5

The dashed line represents another system pressure 1

curve which intersects at point B. This point is a poor
operation point as instability will likely reset.
0.5

0
1000 3000 5000 7000 9000 11000 13000
Volume Flow Rate

Figure 109. Centrifuge Fan Performance Curves

 Terminals,
Terminals, Controls,
Controls,and
andAccessories
Accessories➤ Engineering
• Equations Data
and Definitions B63

Equations and Definitions

Table 10. Units of Measurements B

Formulas and Definitions Power

VP = (fpm / 4,005)2 W = Watts
(Q) CFM = Cubic Feet per Minute

Engineering Guidelines
A = Amps
TP = Total Pressure
SP = Static Pressure hp = Horsepower
VP = Velocity Pressure V = Volts
(V) fpm = Feet per Minute
∆P = Differential Pressure E1 = Efficiency
∆Ps = Static Differential Pressure PF = Power Factor
∆PT = Total Differential Pressure
(A) Area Factor = Dimension in Square Feet
VP = TP - SP Power DC Circuits
TP = SP + VP W = VxA
SP = TP - VP
CFM = fpm x Area Factor A = W/V
∆PT = TP1 - TP2 hp = V x A x E / 746
∆Ps = SP1 - SP2
∆P = (CFM / K)2 E = 746 x HP / W
fpm = CFM / Area Factor
K = CFM/ (∆P)
Power AC Circuits (Single Phase)
PF = W / (V x A)

Water Coils A = 746 x HP / (V x E x PF)

E = 746 x HP / (V x A x PF)
MBH = 1,000s of Btus per Hour
Btu = British Thermal Unit kW = V x A x PF / 1,000
gpm = Gallons per Minute
hp = V x A x E x PF / 746
∆T = Temperature Differential
Air ∆T = 927 x MBH / CFM
H20∆T = 2.04 x MBH / gpm
Power AC Circuits (3 Phase)
PF = W / (V x A x 1.732)
A = 746 x HP / (1.732 x V x E x PF)
Electric Coils
E = 746 x HP / (V x A x PF x 1.732)
kW = Kilowatts
kW = V x A x PF x 1.732 / 1,000
Air ∆T = Temperature Differential,
Leaving Air - (minus) hp = V x A x 1.732 x E x PF / 746
Entering Air Temperature
kW = CFM x DT / 3,160
∆T = kW x 3160 / cfm

Reheat Coils:
Several types of terminal devices are available with reheat coils, both hot water and electric. When determining the heat
requirement for a terminal, the engineer will often start with the known zone heating demand, typically expressed in BTUH,
or more conveniently, MBH (thousands of BTU’s). The room load requirements for heating are then used to determine the
Room Entering Air temperature (EATr) by the equation:
BTUH (room) = 1.085 * (EATr - Tr) * Q
Where;
EATr = The temperature (°F) entering the room
Tr = Room setpoint temperature or average temperature
Q = Flowrate ( CFM) (typically 30 - 50% of the cooling CFM)
By solving for the EATr, the coil BTUH requirements can then be determined. The room entering air temperature (EATr)
now becomes the required LAT of the VAV box (ignoring any duct heat losses). The coil can now be sized according to:
BTUH (coil) = 1.085 * (LAT - EATc) * Q
Where;
LAT = The coil leaving air temperature
EATc = Coil entering air temperature, (primary or mixed air)
Q = Flowrate ( CFM)
Now that the coil requirements are known, published catalog data may be used to select the proper hot water or electric
coil.