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LOADS

What are Load Combinations and how

to calculate them?
By Laurin Ernst Updated June 6, 2023

As buildings and structures must withstand the heaviest storms, accidental events and combined loading scenarios, engineers
multiply loads with safety factors and combine different loads in so-called Load combinations to make sure that the structure
doesn’t collapse.

We’ll show step-by-step, how load combinations work, what different types we use and how to calculate them.

Here’s a quick summary of what we cover in this article

What are load combinations?

Loads acting on a flat roof – Example
ULS load combinations
SLS load combinations
Load Combinations FAQ
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What are load combinations?

Load combinations combine different loads like snow, wind, dead, seismic and live load to represent a “real scenario”. A real
scenario is for example the resulting force for a heavy wind storm. By setting up all possible load combinations we will find the
worst-case scenario for a structural member which is in many cases the biggest load.

Load combinations according to Eurocode consist mostly of 3 components:

The characteristic load value (snow, wind, dead, seismic, live load)
Partial factor γ
Factor for combination value of variable loads Ψ 0

So let’s look at an example 😎

Loads acting on a flat roof – Example

Example flat roof

Flat roof
First, let’s define some symbols and values for We
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gk 1.08 kN/m2 Characteristic value of dead load

qk 1.0 kN/m2 Characteristic value of live load

sk 1.0 kN/m2 Characteristic value of snow load

wk -1.0 kN/m2 Characteristic value of wind load

ULS load combinations

ULS stands for ultimate limit state. Due to ULS load combinations, structural members are designed for bending, shear,
buckling, etc.

❗
Please be aware that the safety factors and load combinations can vary a lot from country to country, but also from
material to material. In timber design for example there is an additional factor called k mod taking the load duration and
material strength into account. This factor is not included in this post, but we will take a closer look when we dimension a
timber beam. So use the list to understand how load combinations work, but double check with your National Annex if
additional combinations are required.

If you want to save time, then check out our load combination generator which automatically creates the ULS load combinations.
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According to Eurocode EN 1990 (6.10) the load combinations can be written as

LC1 γg ∗ gk

LC2 γg ∗ gk + γq ∗ qk

LC3 γg ∗ gk + γq ∗ qk + Ψ0.s ∗ γq ∗ sk

LC4 γg ∗ gk + Ψ0.q ∗ γq ∗ qk + γq ∗ sk

LC5 γg ∗ gk + γq ∗ qk + Ψ0.s ∗ γq ∗ sk + Ψ0.w ∗ γq ∗ wk

LC6 γg ∗ gk + Ψ0.q ∗ γq ∗ qk + γq ∗ sk + Ψ0.w ∗ γq ∗ wk

LC7 γg ∗ gk + Ψ0.q ∗ γq ∗ qk + Ψ0.s ∗ γq ∗ sk + γq ∗ wk

LC8 γg ∗ gk + γq ∗ sk

LC9 γg ∗ gk + γq ∗ wk

LC10 γg ∗ gk + γq ∗ sk + Ψ0.w ∗ γq ∗ wk

LC11 γg ∗ gk + γq ∗ wk + Ψ0.s ∗ γq ∗ sk
 LC12 Hi friends!
γg ∗ gk + γq ∗ qk + Ψ0.w ∗ γq ∗ w We
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LC13 γg ∗ gk + γq ∗ Ψ0.q ∗ qk + γq ∗ wk

LC14 γg.inf ∗ gk + γq ∗ wk

Where

γg Partial factor for permanent loads from EN 1990 Table A1.2(B)

γq Partial factor for variable loads from EN 1990 Table A1.2(B)

γg.inf Partial factor for permanent loads (lower value) from EN 1990 Table A1.2(B)

Ψ0.q Factor for combination value of live load from EN 1990 Table A1.1

Ψ0.s Factor for combination value of snow load from EN 1990 Table A1.1

Ψ0.w Factor for combination value of wind load from EN 1990 Table A1.1

❗
The factor for the combination value should be taken from the National Annex if it exists.

For the case of the flat roof, we get the following values

γg 1.35 (unfavourable)

γq 1.5

Ψ0.q 0

Ψ0.s 0.7 (Sweden)

Ψ0.w 0.6

Which we now can put in the Load combinations.

❗
Careful here…
We can only add up the loads here because we use the example of a flat roof where the load direction is the same for all
4 loads which are used here. If we had a sloped roof (like purlin or rafter roof) then we would need to work with the
angles.

If you are unsure of how to apply the different loads to roofs, then check out my post about loads and how to apply them (link)
😁

LC1 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
1.46
kN

m
2
 LC2 1.35 ∗ 1.08
kN

m
2
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kN

m
2
Click here 2.96
kN

m
2

LC3 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.7 ∗ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
4.0
kN

m
2

LC4 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
2.96
kN

m
2

LC5 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.7 ∗ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.6 ∗ 1.5 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 3.1
kN

m
2

LC6 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ Ψ0 ∗ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.6 ∗ 1.5 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 2.1
kN

m
2

LC7 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.7 ∗ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 1.0
kN

m
2

LC8 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
2.96
kN

m
2

LC9 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) −0.04
kN

m
2

LC10 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.6 ∗ 1.5 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 2.06
kN

m
2

LC11 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) + 0.7 ∗ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
1.0
kN

m
2

LC12 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.6 ∗ 1.5 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 2.06
kN

m
2

LC13 1.35 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ 0 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) −0.04
kN

m
2

LC14 1.0 ∗ 1.08

kN

m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ f rackN m
2
+ 1.5 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
−0.42
kN

m
2

Puhhh that was quite a lot of typing. Forgive me if I did a typo somewhere 🙏

Don’t worry, you do not have to do this manually every time because luckily most FE programs do that for us.

But if we were to dimension a timber beam for bending now manually we would use the biggest value of the Load combinations
which is 4.0 kN/m2 (LC3) and transform it first in a line load (kN/m)

Assuming that the beams have a spacing of 0.8m we get the following line load:

kN kN
4.0 ∗ 0.8m = 3.2
2
m m

That line load can now be applied to our static system

ULS Design load on simply supported beam.

Perfect. So now we can go ahead and dimension a beam in the next blog post.
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SLS load combinations

SLS stands for Serviceability limit state. Due to SLS load combinations structural members are designed for deflection, cracks
in concrete, …

❗
As in ULS design, the load combinations vary from country to country. Please double-check with your National annexes.

First, let’s look at the characteristic SLS load combination.

❗
The characteristic SLS load combination is used to calculate for example the cracking moment of concrete or the
deflection of timber elements.

According to EN 1990 (6.14b) the characteristic load combinations can be written as

LC1 gk

LC2 gk + qk

LC3 gk + qk + Ψ0.s ∗ sk

LC4 gk + qk + Ψ0.w ∗ wk

LC5 gk + qk + Ψ0.s ∗ sk + Ψ0.w ∗ wk

LC6 gk + Ψ0.q ∗ qk + sk + Ψ0.w ∗ wk

LC7 gk + Ψ0.q ∗ qk + Ψ0.s ∗ sk + wk

LC8 gk + sk

LC9 gk + wk

LC10 gk + sk + Ψ0.w ∗ wk

LC11 gk + wk + Ψ0.s ∗ sk

LC12 gk + Ψ0.q ∗ qk + sk

LC13 gk + Ψ0.q ∗ qk + wk

.. and if we put in the values, we get ..

LC1 1.08
kN

m
2
1.08
kN

m
2

LC2 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 1.0
kN

m
2
2.08
kN

m
2

LC3 1.08
kN

m2
+ 1.0
kN

m2
+ 0.7 ∗ 1.0
kN

m2
2.78
kN

m2
 LC4 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 1.0
kN

m
2
Hi(−1.0
+ 0.6 ∗ friends! kN

m
We) are now live with our newsletter.
2
Click here 1.48
kN

m
2

LC5 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.7 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.6 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 2.18
kN

m
2

LC6 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.6 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 1.48
kN

m
2

LC7 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.7 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 0.78
kN

m
2

LC8 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 1.0
kN

m
2
2.08
kN

m
2

LC9 1.08
kN

m
2
+ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 0.08
kN

m
2

LC10 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.6 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 1.48
kN

m
2

LC11 1.08
kN

m
2
+ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) + 0.7 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
0.78
kN

m
2

LC12 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 1.0
kN

m
2
2.08
kN

m
2

LC13 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 0.08
kN

m
2

Now let’s move on to the quasi-permanent SLS load combination.

❗
The frequent SLS load combination is used to calculate for example the quasi permanent Moment which will lead to part
of the long term deflections of concrete beams or precast slabs.

According to EN 1990 (6.16b) the quasi-permanent load combinations can be written as.

LC1 gk

LC2 gk + Ψ2.q ∗ qk

LC3 gk + Ψ2.q ∗ qk + Ψ2.s ∗ sk

LC4 gk + Ψ2.q ∗ qk + Ψ2.w ∗ wk

LC5 gk + Ψ2.q ∗ qk + Ψ2.s ∗ sk + Ψ2.w ∗ wk

LC6 gk + Ψ2.s ∗ sk

LC7 gk + Ψ2.w ∗ wk

LC8 gk + Ψ2.s ∗ sk + Ψ2.w ∗ wk

Where

Ψ2.q 0

Ψ2.s 0.2 (Sweden)

Ψ2.w 0

.. and if we put in the values, we will get ..

 LC1 1.08
kN

m
2
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kN

m
2

LC2 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
1.08
kN

m
2

LC3 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.2 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
1.28
kN

m
2

LC4 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 1.08
kN

m
2

LC5 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0.2 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 1.28
kN

m
2

LC6 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 0.2 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
1.28
kN

m
2

LC7 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 1.08
kN

m
2

LC8 1.08
kN

m
2
+ 0.2 ∗ 1.0
kN

m
2
+ 0 ∗ (−1.0
kN

m
2
) 1.28
kN

m
2

Alright, this post got longer than I thought 😅

We haven’t covered the accidental and frequent load combinations, but once we have an example where we need them we will
also explain them.

With the knowledge we have got now, we can dimension our first timber beam in the next post. Hope to see you there 😁

Load Combinations FAQ

Why are load combinations important?
Load combinations are important because they help ensure the structural integrity and safety of a building or structure. For
example, without considering load combinations, a structure may be designed to withstand only one type of load (e.g. snow) but
could fail under a different type of load (e.g. wind). In addition, loads usually never act alone; instead, multiple loads act
simultaneously, and load combinations consider this event.

How does the load combination affect the structural design?

Load combinations affect the structural design because the maximum expected loads determine the strength and safety of a
structure. By considering different load combinations, you can ensure that a structure can withstand the most severe loads and
remain safe for its intended use.

#featured #Loadcombination

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