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Introduction
What is Vibration?

In the simplest form vibration can be considered to be the oscillation or

repetitive motion of an object around an equilibrium position. The
equilibrium position is the position the object will attain when the force acting
on it is zero.

What is Vibration analysis?

Vibration analysis is a non-destructive technique, which helps early detection
of machine problems by measuring/evaluating vibration.

Vibrations are caused by movement of components within the machine due to

internal or external excitation. Any small change in the machine behavior
shall change the vibration pattern of the machine. Hence vibration
monitoring and analysis provides reliable information on machine operating
condition.

Knowing the severity of the problem appropriate corrective action can be

taken at the most appropriate time.

Detection by Vibration Analysis:

Most of the mechanical troubles in a machine cause vibration. By analyzing

vibration most of the problems of rotating machines can be identifies such
as:

1. Unbalance (Static, Couple, Quasi-Static).

2. Misalignment (Angular, Parallel, Combination).
3. Eccentric Rotor, Bend Shaft.
4. Mechanical Looseness, Structural Weakness, Soft Foot.
5. Resonance, Beat Vibration.
6. Mechanical Rubbing
7. Problems of Belt Driven Machines.
8. Journal Bearing Defects.
9. Antifriction Bearing Defects (Inner race, Outer race, Cage, Rolling
elements).
10. Hydrodynamic & Aerodynamic Forces (Blade or Vane, Flow turbulence,
Cavitation).
11. Gear Problems (Tooth wear, Tooth load, Gear eccentricity, Backlash,
Gear misalignment, Cracked or broken tooth).
12. Electrical Problems of AC & DC Motor.

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Measurable vibration characteristics:

A machine condition and mechanical problems are determined by measuring

and analyzing its vibration characteristics like – frequency, amplitude
(displacement, velocity, acceleration), phase and processed signals like shock
pulse, high frequency detection, spike energy, spectral emission energy etc.

The simplest possible vibratory motion that can exist is the movement in one
direction of a mass controlled by a spring. Such a mechanical system is
called a single degree of freedom spring mass system. If the mass is
displaced a certain distance from the equilibrium point and released the
spring will return it to equilibrium, but by then the mass will have some
kinetic energy and will overshoot the rest position and deflect the spring in
the opposite direction. It will then decelerate to a stop at the other extreme
of its displacement where the spring will again begin to return it toward
equilibrium. The same process repeats over and over with the energy
sloshing back and forth between the spring and the mass – from kinetic
energy in the mass to potential energy in the spring and back.

Time Period – The time required for one cycle, or one round “round trip” from
one zero crossing to next zero crossing in the same direction. The period is
measured is measured in seconds or mill seconds, depending on the speed.

Frequency – The frequency is the number of cycles that occur in one second,
and is simply reciprocal of the time period. Units: Cycles per seconds (CPM
or Hz), Cycle per minute (CPM).

Amplitude– It is the magnitude of vibration signal.

Units: Micron, mm/sec and mm/sec2.

Physical significance of vibration characteristics:

Indicates Physical significance
Frequency What is Vibrating? Why it is Identify the source of the
Vibrating? Vibration.
Amplitude How much is it Vibrating? Identify the severity of the
problem.
Phase Angle How is it Vibrating? Identify the cause of the Vibration.

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Vibration amplitude measurement

Simple Spring Mass System

Max. Acc
Mim Vel

Upper
Max. Vel

Displacement
Mim Acc
Neutral

Lower
Max. Acc
Mass Mim Vel

Physical
Amplitude Indicates Units
Significance
Displacement Total distance travel by Microns, Mils Stress
the mass Indicator
Velocity Rate of change of Mm/sec, Inch/sec Fatigue
displacement. Indicator
Acceleration It is the rate of change of M/sec2, inch/sec2 Force
velocity. Indicator

scales of amplitude measurement:

Relation:
Amplitudes Measurement
Peak A
Peak to Peak 2a
Pk RMS 0.707a
RMS
Av Pk-Pk Average 0.637a
This relation is only true for
pure sinusoidal wave

Peak Amplitude (Pk): It is the maximum excursion of the wave from the zero
or equilibrium point.

Peak – Peak Amplitude (Pk-Pk): It is the distance from a negative peak to a

positive peak. In the case of the sine wave, the Pk-Pk is exactly twice the

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peak value because the waveform is symmetrical, but this is not necessary
the case with all vibration waveforms.

Root Mean Square Amplitude (RMS): It is the square root of the average of
the squared values of the waveform, the RMS value is 0.707 times the peak
value, but this is only true for sine waves. The RMS value is proportional to
the area under the cure – if the negative peaks are rectified, i.e., made
positive, and the area under the resulting curve averaged to a constant level,
that level would be proportional to the RMS value.

The RMS value of a vibration signal is an important measure of its amplitude.

As mentioned before, it is numerically equal to the square root of the average
of the average of the squared value of amplitude.
These areas are equal

To calculate this value, the instantaneous amplitude values of the waveform

must be squared and these squatted values averaged over a certain length of
time. This time interval must be at least one period of the wave in order to
arrive at the correct value. The squared values are all positive, and thus so
are their average. Then the square root of this average value is extracted to
get the RMS value.

Average Amplitude (Av): It is the average value for the waveform. The
average of the purse sine wave form is zero (It is as much positive as it is
negative. However, most waveforms are not pure sinusoidal waveforms.

When to use Displacement, Velocity & Acceleration?

Amplitude Frequency Range
If the range is not selected properly
Displacement 0 - 600 CPM
then entire vibration data collection
Velocity 600 - 60 KCPM
will not be correct. Velocity should be
Acceleration Above - 60 KCPM
taken always due to its constant
linear sensitivity for a wide frequency range.

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What is the advantage of using Velocity?

Displacement
10

.1
Velocity

.01

.001
Acceleration

1 10 100 1000 10000 Frequency

HZ

1. Flat frequency range compared to displacement & acceleration.

2. Almost all machines generate fault frequency between 10Hz to 1000Hz.
3. Velocity indicates fatigue.
4. Velocity is the best indicator of vibration severity.

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What is Phase?

Phase is a measure of relative time difference between two sine waves. It

provides information how one part of the machine vibrates compared to
other. Even though phase is truly a time difference, it is almost always
measured in terms of angle.

The concept of phase

Time Delay = ¼ Period = 900 of angle

In this example, the lower curve is shifted 90 degrees with respect to the
upper curve. This is a time lag of one-fourth of the period of the wave. You
could also say the upper waveform has a 90 degree phase lead.

Phase can also be measured with reference to a particular time. An example

of this is the phase of an imbalance component in a rotor with reference to a
fixed point on the rotor, such as a key way. To measure this phase, a trigger
pulse must be generated from a certain reference point on the shaft. This
trigger can be generated by a tachometer or some type of optical or magnetic
probe that senses a discontinuity on the rotor, and is sometimes called a
"tach" pulse.

The phase angle can be measured from

the reference position either in the
direction of rotation or opposite to the
direction of rotation, i.e., phase lag or
lead, and different equipment
manufacturers use different conventions.
In the DLI Balance program software for
the DC-7, either direction may be selected
at the operator's preference.

The phase difference between two

waveforms is often called a phase shift. A phase shift 3600 is a time delay of
one cycle or one period of the wave, which actually amounts to no phase shift
at all. A phase shift of 900 is a shift of ¼ of the wave. Phase shift may be
considered positive or negative, i.e., one waveform may be delayed relative

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to another one or one waveform may be advanced relative to other. These

conditions are called phase lag and phase lead respectively.

How Phase Angle is measured?

The Phase Angle is the angle (in degrees) the shaft travels from the start of
data collection to when the sensor experiences maximum positive force. For
example, the phase angle is 900 if the sensor experiences its maximum
positive at 900 after data collection was initiated by the tachometer.

The below setup uses an accelerometer sensor to sense the force of the
unbalance and a tachometer to sense shaft position. A notch is placed in the
rotating shaft. The tachometer generates a pulse when the notch passes the
tachometer’s position. This pulse initiates data collection.

The setup below uses an accelerometer sensor to sense the force of

unbalance and a tachometer to sense the shaft position. A notch is placed in
the rotating shaft. The tachometer generates a pulse when the notch passes
the tachometer’s position. This pulse initiates data collection.

Accelerometer
Tachometer

Tachometer
Force

Notch

Heavy Spot Time

00

Figure 1

In figure1, the Tachometer senses the notch in the shaft and triggers data
collection. At this point force equals zero.

Accelerometer
900 Max. Positive
Tachometer Force

Heavy
Force

Spot

Tachometer Time
notch 00

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Figure – 2

In figure 2, the high spot (heavy spot) rotates 900 to the sensor position. At
this point the unbalance force produces the highest positive reading from the
sensor.

As the high spot is approaching the sensor position, its force is considered to
be in the positive direction.

Accelerometer 900
Tachometer
1800
Heavy

Force
spot

Tachometer Time
notch
00

Figure 3

In figure 3, the high spot rotates 90 additional degrees, the force experience
by the sensor is again zero.

Accelerometer
900
Tachometer

Heavy
Force

Spot

Tachometer Time
notch 2700
00

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Figure 4

In figure 4, the high sport rotates 90 additional degrees opposite the sensor
position. At this point the unbalance force produces the highest negative
reading from the sensor.

As the high spot is moving away from the sensor position, its force is
considered to be in the negative direction.

Accelerometer 900

Tachometer

3600

Force
Heavy
spot

Tachometer Time
notch
00

Figure 5 2700
In figure 5, the high sport rotates 90 additional degrees to complete its 3600
revolution, the force experienced by the sensor is again zero.

During the 3600 shaft rotation, the sensor experiences its maximum positive
force when the shafts heavy sport is 900 from its initial position its position
when data collection was initiated by the tachometer.

This measurement’s phase angle = 900.

Physical Significance of Phase Angle:

Analysis of the measured phase angle between two points give valuable
insight on how the machine is vibrating. It is confirmatory tool for above
problems shown below:
This relationship provides valuable information for analyzing root cause of
machine problems like:
1. Unbalance (Static, Couple, Quasi-Static).
2. Shaft orbit and Shaft position.
3. Misalignment (Angular, Parallel Combination).
4. Eccentric Rotor, Bend Shaft.
5. Mechanical Looseness, Structural Weakness, Soft Foot.
6. Resonance.
7. Cocked bearing.

Phase is a useful tool for balancing.

It is not having any correlation with Bearing defects, Gear defects and
Electrical defects.

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Vibration Units
So far, we have been looking at the displacement of a vibrating object as a
measure of its vibration amplitude. The displacement is simply the distance
from a reference position, or equilibrium point. In addition to varying
displacement, a vibrating object will experience a varying velocity and a
varying acceleration. Velocity is defined as the rate of change of
displacement, and in the English system is usually measured in units of
inches per second. Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity,
and in the English system, is usually measured in units of G, or the average
acceleration due to gravity at the earth's surface.

The displacement of a body undergoing simple harmonic motion is a sine

wave as we have seen. It also turns out (and is easily proved
mathematically), that the velocity of the motion is sinusoidal. When the
displacement is at a maximum, the velocity will be zero because that is the
position at which its direction of motion reverses. When the displacement is
zero (the equilibrium point), the velocity will be at a maximum. This means
that the phase of velocity waveform will be displaced to the left by 90
degrees compared to the displacement waveform. In other words, the
velocity is said to lead the displacement by a 90-degree phase angle.

Remembering that acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, it can be

shown that the acceleration waveform of an object undergoing simple
harmonic motion is also sinusoidal, and also that when the velocity is at a
maximum, the acceleration is zero. In other words, the velocity is not
changing at this instant. Then, when the velocity is zero, the acceleration is
at a maximum -- the velocity is changing the fastest at this instant. The sine
curve of acceleration versus time is thus seen to be 90 degrees phase shifted
to the left of the velocity curve, and therefore acceleration leads velocity by
90 degrees.

These relationships are shown here:

'

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Note here that the acceleration is 180 degrees out of phase with the
displacement. This means the acceleration of a vibrating object is always in
the opposite direction to the displacement!

It is possible to define another parameter that is the rate of change of

acceleration, and it is called "jerk". Jerk is what you feel when your car
comes to a stop if you maintain a constant brake pedal pressure. It is really
the sudden cessation of the deceleration. Elevator manufacturers are
interested in measuring jerk, for it is the variation in acceleration that
elevator passengers are especially sensitive to.

Summary of Amplitude Units:

In the English system of measurements, displacement is usually measured in

mils (thousandths of an inch), and the peak-to-peak value is used by
convention.

Velocity is usually measured in inches per second, and the convention is to

use the peak value or the RMS value. The peak value is the most commonly
used, not because it is better, but because of long tradition.

Acceleration is usually measured in Gs, where 1 G is the acceleration due to

gravity at the earth's surface. The G is not actually an acceleration unit -- it is
simply an amount of acceleration we experience as inhabitants of the earth.
Acceleration is sometimes measured in inches per second per second
(in/sec2), or m/sec2, that are true units. One G is equal to 386 inches/sec2
or 9.81 meters/sec2.

The process of converting a signal from displacement to velocity or velocity to

acceleration is equivalent to the mathematical operation of differentiation.
Conversely, the conversion from acceleration to velocity or velocity to
displacement is mathematical integration. It is possible to perform these
operations in vibration measuring instruments and thus to convert from any
system of units to any other one. From a practical standpoint however,
differentiation is an inherently noisy process, and is seldom done.
Integration, on the other hand, can be done very accurately with inexpensive
electrical circuitry. This is one reason that the accelerometer is the de facto
standard transducer for vibration measurement, for its output is easily
integrated once or twice in order to display velocity or displacement.
Integration is not suitable, however, for signals of very low frequencies
(Below 1 Hz), for in this region the noise level increases and the accuracy of
the integration process itself suffers. Most commercially available integrators
operate correctly above one Hz, which is sufficiently low for almost all
vibration applications.

Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

A vibration signal plotted as displacement vs. frequency can be converted
into a plot of velocity vs. frequency by a process of differentiation, as we
have defined earlier. Differentiation involves a multiplication by frequency,
and this means the vibration velocity at any frequency is proportional to the
displacement times the frequency. For a given displacement, if the frequency
is doubled, the velocity will also double, and if the frequency is increased

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tenfold, the velocity is also increased by a factor of ten.

In order to obtain acceleration from velocity, another differentiation is

required, and this results in another multiplication by frequency. The result is
that for a given displacement, the acceleration is proportional to the
frequency squared. This means that the acceleration curve slopes upward
twice as steeply as the velocity curve.

To illustrate these relationships, consider how easy it is to move your hand

back and forth over a distance of one foot at one cycle per second, or 1 Hz..
It might be possible to attain the same hand displacement at 5 or 6 Hz. But
consider how fast your hand would be moving if it had the same 1 foot
displacement at 100 Hz, or 1000 Hz!
Now consider the great force that would be required to move your hand a
foot at these higher frequencies. Force equals mass times acceleration
according to Newton, so the force required goes up as the square of the
frequency. This is the reason we never see high acceleration levels combined
with high displacement values. The very large forces that would be required
are simply not found in practice.

From these considerations, it can be seen that the same vibration data
plotted in displacement, velocity, and acceleration will have very different
appearances. The displacement curve will greatly emphasize the lowest
frequencies, and the acceleration curve will greatly emphasize the highest
frequencies at the expense of the lowest ones.

The relationship between levels of displacement, velocity, and acceleration

versus frequency in Standard English units of mils peak-to-peak, inches per
second peak, and G RMS are expressed by the following equations:

The "Bump Test" -- The machine is impacted with a heavy mass such as a
wooden four by four or the booted heel of the foot of a football player while
recording vibration data. If a resonance is there, the machine vibration will be
at the natural frequency as it dies away.

The "Run Up" or "Coast Down" -- The machine is turned on, or turned off,
while taking vibration data and tachometer data. The time wave form will
show maxima when the RPM matches natural frequencies.

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"Variable Speed Test" -- With a machine whose speed can be varied over a
wide range, the speed can be varied while taking vibration and tachometer
data. The data are interpreted as in the run up test.

The figure below shows an idealized response curve of a mechanical

resonance. The behavior of a resonant system when subjected to an external
force is interesting and somewhat counter intuitive. It depends strongly on
the frequency of the excitation force. If the forcing frequency is lower than
the natural frequency -- in other words to the left of the peak -- then the
system behaves like a spring, and the displacement is proportional to the
force. The spring of the spring-mass combination making up the resonant
system is dominant in determining the response of the system. In this
spring-controlled region, the system behaves in agreement with our intuition,
responding with greater motion as greater force is applied to it, and the
motion is in phase with the force.

In the region above the natural frequency, the situation is different. Here, the
mass is the controlling element, and the system looks like a mass to an input
force. This means its acceleration is proportional to the applied force, and the
displacement is relatively constant with changing frequency. The
displacement is out of phase with the force in this region -- when you push
against the system, it moves toward you and vice versa!

At the resonance itself, the system looks completely different to an applied

force. Here, the mass and spring elements effectively cancel each other out,
and the force sees only the damping, or friction, in the system. If the system
is lightly damped, it is like pushing on air. When you push on it, it recedes
from you on its own. Consequently, you cannot apply much force to the
system at resonance, and if you continue to try, the vibration amplitude
builds up to very high values. It is the damping that controls the motion of a
resonant system at its natural frequency.

Examples of resonance in machines are

the so-called critical frequencies of
rotating shafts.

The phase angle between the excitation

source vibration and the response of the
structure is always 90 degrees at the
natural frequency

In the case of long rotors such as

turbines, the natural frequencies are called "critical frequencies" or "critical
speeds," and care must be taken that these machines are not operated at
speeds where 1X or 2X correspond to these critical frequencies.

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Definition of Linearity
A system is said to be linear if it meets the following two criteria:

1. If input x to the system results in output X, then an input of 2x will

produce output of 2X. In other words, the magnitude of the system output is
proportional to the magnitude of the system input.

2. If input x produces output X, and input y produces output Y, then an input

of x + y will produce an output of X + Y. In other words, the system handles
two simultaneous inputs independently, and they do not interact within the
system. Implicit in these criteria is the fact that a linear system will not
produce any frequencies in the output that are not present in the input.

Note that there is nothing in these criteria that says the system output is the
same as the system input, or even that it resembles the system input. For
instance, the input could be an electric current, and the output could be a
temperature. In the case of mechanical structures such as machines, we will
consider the input to be a vibratory force and the output to be the measured
vibration itself.

Linear and Non-Linear Systems

To assist in understanding the transmission of vibration through a machine,
it is instructive to investigate the concept of linearity and what is meant by
linear and non-linear systems. Thus far, we have discussed linear and
logarithmic amplitude and frequency scales, but the term "linear" also refers
to the characteristics of a system which can have input and output signals. A
"system" is any device or structure that can accept an input or stimulus in
some form and produce a corresponding output or response. Examples of
systems are tape recorders and amplifiers, which operate on electrical
signals, and mechanical structures, whose inputs are vibration forces, and
whose outputs are vibration displacements, velocities, or accelerations

Non-Linearities in Systems

Absolutely perfect linearity does not exist in any real system. There are many
different types of non-linearity, and they exist in varying degrees in all
mechanical systems, although many actual systems approach linear
behavior, especially with small input levels. If a system is not perfectly linear,
it will produce frequencies in its output that do not exist in its input. An
example of this is a stereo amplifier or tape recorder that produces
harmonics of its input signal. This is called "harmonic distortion", and it
degrades the quality of the music being reproduced. Harmonic distortion
almost always gets much worse at high signal levels. An example of this is a
small radio that sounds relatively "clean" at low volume levels, but sounds
harsh and distorted at high volume levels.

Many systems are very nearly linear in response to small inputs, but become
non-linear at higher levels of excitation. Sometimes a definite threshold
exists in which input levels only a little above the threshold result in gross

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non-linearity. An example of this is the "clipping" of an amplifier when its

input signal level exceeds the voltage or current swing capacity of its power
supply. This is analogous to a mechanical system where a part is free to
move until it hits a stop, such as a loose bearing housing that can move a
little before being stopped by the mounting bolts.

Non-Linearities in Rotating Machines

As has been discussed, the vibration of a machine is actually its response to

forces caused by moving parts in the machine. We measure the vibration at
various locations on the machine, and deduce from these vibrations the
magnitude of the forces. In measuring the frequency of the vibration, we
assume the forces occur at the same frequency as the response, and that the
measured levels are proportional to the magnitudes of the forces. This
rationale assumes that the machine is linear in its response to forcing
functions, and this is a reasonable assumption for most machines.

However, as a machine wears and clearances increase, or if it develops

cracks or loose parts, its response will no longer be linear, and the result is
that the measured vibration can be quite different in character from the
forcing functions. For instance, an unbalanced rotor imparts a sinusoidal force
at a frequency of 1X to the bearing, and this force does not contain any other
frequency. If the mechanical structure of the machine is non-linear, this
sinusoidal force will be distorted, and the resulting vibration will occur at
harmonics of 1X as well as 1X. The extent and magnitude of the harmonic
content of the vibration is a measure of the degree of non-linearity of the
machine. For instance, the vibration of a journal bearing contains greater and
greater numbers and magnitudes of harmonics as the bearing clearance
increases.

Flexible couplings are non-linear when misaligned, and this is the reason their
vibration signature contains a strong second harmonic of 1X. Worn couplings
that are misaligned often produce a strong third harmonic of 1X. When forces
acting at different frequencies interact in a non-linear way in a machine, the
result is the generation of sum and difference frequencies -- new frequencies
that are not present in the forcing functions themselves. These sum and
difference frequencies are the sidebands found in spectra of defective
gearboxes, rolling element bearings, etc. In the case of a gearbox, one
forcing frequency is the gear mesh and another is the rpm of the gear. If the
gear is eccentric or otherwise misshapen, the rpm will modulate the gear
mesh resulting in sidebands. Modulation is always a non-linear process,
creating new frequencies that do not exist in the forcing functions.

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The three curves shown above display the same information, but the
emphasis is changed. Note that the displacement curve is difficult to read at
higher frequencies, and acceleration has enhanced higher frequency levels.
The velocity curve is the most uniform in level over frequency. This is typical
of most rotating machinery, but in some cases the displacement or
acceleration curves will be the most uniform. It is a good idea to select the
units so the flattest curve is attained -- this provides the most visual
information to the observer. Velocity is the most commonly used vibration
parameter for machine diagnostic work.

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Vibration Transducers
The vibration transducer is a device that produces an electrical signal of the
vibratory motion it is subjected to a good transducer should not add any
spurious components to the signal and should produce signals uniformly over
the frequency range of interest.

Different types of transducers respond to different parameters of the

vibration source like
Proximity Probe Displacement
Velocity Probe Velocity
Accelerometer Acceleration

1. Proximity Probe

The Proximity Probe, also called an Eddy Current Probe or Displacement

Transducer, is a permanently mounted unit and requires a signal conditioning
amplifier to generate an output voltage proportional the distance between the
transducer end and the shaft. It operates on magnetic principle and thus
sensitive to magnetic anomalies in the shaft. Care should be taken that the
shaft is not magnetized to assure the output signal is not contaminated. It is
important to realize that the transducer measures relative displacement
between the bearing and the journal and does not measure total vibration
level of the shaft or the housing. The displacement transducer is very
commonly installed in large machines with journal bearings where it is used
to detect bearing failure and to shut the machine down before catastrophic
failure occurs.

These transducers are frequently used in pairs oriented 900 apart and can be
connected to the vertical and horizontal plates of an oscilloscope to display
the orbit or path of the journal as it migrates around in the bearing.

The frequency response of the displacement transducer is upto 1000Hz.

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2. Velocity Probe

The velocity probe was one of the first

vibration transducers to be built. It
consists of a coil of wire and magnet so
arranged that if the housing is moved the
magnet tends to remain stationary due to
its inertia and the coil induces a current
that is proportional to the velocity of
motion. The unit thus produces a signal
directly proportional to the vibration
velocity. It is self generating and needs no
conditioning electronics in order to operate
and it has a relatively low electrical output impedance making it fairly
insensitive to noise induction.

In spite of all these advantages, the velocity transducer has many

disadvantages, which makes it nearly obsolete for new installation, although
there are many thousands of them still in use to day. It is relatively heavy,
complex and expensive. It has poor frequency response,extending from
about 10Hz to [Link] spring and the magnet makeup low frequency
resonant system with a natural frequency of about 10Hz. This resonance
needs to be highly dampened to practical design is temperature sensitive and
this causes the frequency response and phase response to be temperature
dependent.

3. Accelerometer

The Piezo-electric accelerometer can be considered the standard vibration

transducer for machine vibration measurement. It is made in several
different configurations, but the illustration of the compression type.

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The seismic mass is clamped to the base by an axial bolt bearing down on a
circular spring. The piezo-electric element is squeezed between the mass
and its base. When a piezo-electric material experiences a force, it generates
an electric charge between its surfaces. There are any such materials, with
quartz being one of the most commonly used.

There are also synthetic ceramic piezo materials that work well and in some
cases, work at higher temperatures then quartz is able to do. If the
temperature of a piezo material is increases, finally the so called “Curie point”
or “Curie Temperature” is reached and the piezo electric property is lost.
Once this happens, the transducer is defective and not repairable.

When the accelerometer is moved in the up and down direction, the force
required to move the seismic mass is born by the active element. According
to Newton’s second law, this force is proportional to the acceleration of the
mass. The force on the crystal produces the output signal, which is therefore
proportional to the acceleration of the transducer. Accelerometers are
inherently extremely linear in an amplitude sense, meaning they have a very
large dynamic range. The smallest acceleration levels they can sense are
determined only by the electrical noise of the electronics and the highest
levels are limited only by the destruction of the piezo element itself.

The piezo-electric accelerometer is very stable over long periods of time and
will maintain its calibration if it is not abused. The two ways that
accelerometers can be damaged are subjecting them to excessive heat and
dropping onto a hard surface. If dropped more than a few feet onto a
concrete floor or steel deck, the accelerometer should be re-calibrated to be
sure the crystal is not cracked. A small crack will cause the sensitivity to be
reduced and also will greatly affect the resonance and thus the frequency
response. It is a good idea to calibrate accelerometers about once a year if
they are in service with portable data collectors.

The frequency range of the accelerometer is very wide, extending from very
low frequencies in some units to several tens of kilohertz. The high-
frequency response is limited by the resonance of the seismic mass coupled
to the springiness of the piezo element. These resonance produces a very
high peak in the response at the natural frequency of the transducer and this
is usually somewhere near 30 KHz for commonly used accelerometers. A rule
of thumb is that an accelerometer is usable upto about 1/3 of its natural
frequency. Data above this frequency will be accentuated by the resonant
response, but may be used if the effect is taken into consideration.

The resonant frequency of an accelerometer is strongly dependent on its

mounting, with a stud mounting being by far the best. Anything else will
reduce the effective frequency range of the unit.

Most accelerometers used in industry today are of the “ICP” type, meaning
they have in internal integrated circuit preamplifier. This is powered by a DC
polarization of the signal lead itself, so no extra wiring is needed. DC power
should be available to this type of transducer. The ICP accelerometer will

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have a low-frequency cut-off due to the amplifier itself and this is usually at 1
Hz if very low frequency data is required.

When an ICP accelerometer is connected to the power source, it takes a few

seconds for the amplifier to stabilize and during this time, any data the unit is
collecting will be contaminated. For this reason, there must be a time delay
built into data collectors to assure the unit is stable.

When mounting an accelerometer, it is important that the vibration path from

the source to the accelerometer is as short as possible, especially if rolling
element-bearing vibration is measured.

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FFT Analysis
(Fast Fourier Transform)
Background

This section will cover the operation and theory of the FFT analyzer, which is
the most commonly used piece of signal analysis equipment in the vibration
field. Many workers think of the FFT analyzer as a "magic box," into which
you put a signal and out of which comes a spectrum. The assumption usually
is that the spectrum tells the truth -- the box cannot lie. We will see that this
assumption is valid in many cases, but we will also see that we can be
misled, for there are several pitfalls in the process of digital signal analysis.
One of the purposes of this section is to help you avoid falling into any of the
pitfalls, and if you do, how to crawl out smelling like a rose.

FFT analysis is but one type of digital spectrum analysis, but we will not
concentrate on the other types because they do not apply directly to the VMS
program.

Spectrum Analysis

Spectrum analysis, which is defined as the transformation of a signal from a

time-domain representation into a frequency-domain representation, has its
roots in the early 19th century, when several mathematicians were working
on it from a theoretical basis. But it took a practical man, an engineer with a
good mathematical background, to develop the rationale upon which almost
all our modern spectrum analysis techniques are based. That engineer was
Jean Baptiste Fourier, and he was working for Napoleon during his invasion of
Egypt on a problem of overheating cannons when he derived the famous
Fourier Series for the solution of heat conduction. It may seem a far cry from
overheating cannons to frequency analysis, but it turns out that the same
equations apply to both cases. Fourier later generalized the Fourier series
into the Fourier Integral Transform. The advent of digital signal analysis
naturally led to the so-called Discrete Fourier Transform and the Fast Fourier
Transform or FFT

Forms of the Fourier Transform

There are four forms of the Fourier Transform, as follows:
Fourier Series -- Transforms an infinite periodic time signal into an infinite
discrete frequency spectrum.
Fourier Integral Transform -- Transforms an infinite continuous time signal
into an infinite continuous frequency spectrum
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) -- Transforms a discrete periodic time
signal into a discrete periodic frequency spectrum
Fast Fourier Transform -- A computer algorithm for calculating the DFT
They will be discussed in more detail in the next section

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The Fourier series

The Fourier Series operates on a time signal that is periodic, i.e., a time
signal whose waveform repeats over and over again out to infinite time.
Fourier showed that such a signal is equivalent to a collection of sine and
cosine functions whose frequencies are multiples of the reciprocal of the
period of the time signal. The rather unexpected result is that any wave
shape whatsoever, as long as it is not infinite in length, can be represented,
as the sum of a collection of harmonic components, and the fundamental
frequency of the harmonic series is 1 divided by the length of the wave
shape. The amplitudes of the various harmonics are called the Fourier
coefficients, and their values can be calculated easily if the equation for the
wave shape is known. They can also be calculated graphically from the wave
shape itself. A certain physics class is known to have done this with the
silhouette of Marilyn Monroe. They posted the MM coefficients on the bulletin
board as an "in" joke

Fourier Coefficients

The calculation of the Fourier coefficients is defined as a mathematical

transformation from the time domain to the frequency domain. One
important fact emerges from the Fourier Series, and that is that the original
waveform can be reconstructed from the frequency coefficients; in other
words it is possible to transform from the frequency domain back to the time
domain without loss of information. The Fourier series is perfectly adequate
for performing frequency analysis on periodic waveforms; that is to say on
deterministic signals.

FFT mathematically converts complex time signal to its component

frequencies.

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Leakage

The FFT analyzer is a batch processing device; that is it samples the input
signal for a specific time interval collecting the samples in a buffer, after
which it performs the FFT calculation on that “batch” and displays the
resulting spectrum.

F
Energy “leaks” from
the central spectral
line to adjacent lines

If a sinusoidal signal waveform is passing through zero level at the beginning

and end of the time record, i.e., if the time record encompasses exactly an
integral number of cycles of the waveform, the resulting FFT spectrum will
consist of a single line with the correct amplitude and at the correct
frequency. If, on the other hand, the signal level is not at zero at one or both
ends of the time record, truncation of the waveform will occur, resulting in a
discontinuity in the sampled signal. This discontinuity is not handled well by
the FFT process and the result is a smearing of the spectrum from a single
line into adjacent lines. This is called “Leakage”; it is as if the energy in the
signal “leaks” from its proper location into the adjacent lines.

The shape of the “leaky” spectrum depends on the amount of signal

truncation and is generally unpredictable for real signals.

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Windows

In order to reduce the effect of leakage, it is necessary to see to it that the

signal level is zero at the beginning and end of the time record. This done by
multiplying the data samples by a so-called windowing or weighting function,
which can have several different shapes. The most common forms of
windows and their uses are considered next.

It there is no windowing function used, this is called Rectangular, Flat or

Uniform windowing. In the figure shown at the left, the effect of the data
truncation can be seen as discontinuities in the windowed waveform. The
FFT analyzer only knows what is in the time window, or time record. It
assumes the actual signal contains the discontinuities and they are the cause
of the leakage seen in the previous figure. Leakage could be avoided if the
input waveform zero crossings were synchronized with the sampling times,
but this is impossible to achieve in practice.

Windowing for Transient Signals

In the case where the input signal is a transient, it will be definition begin and
end at zero level and as long as it is entirely within the time record, no
truncation will occur and the analysis will be correct because the FFT sees the
entire signal. It is very important that the entire transient fit into the record
and the record length is dependent upon the frequency range of the analysis.
Most FFT analyzers allow the user to see the time record and the screen, so it
can be assured that this condition is met.

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The Hanning Widow

The Hanning window, named after its inventor, has the shape of one cycle of
a cosine wave with 1 added to it so it is always positive. The sampled signal
values are multiplied by the Hanning function and the result is shown in the
figure. Note that the ends of the time record are forced to zero regardless of
what the input signal is doing.

While the Hanning window does a good job of forcing the ends to zero, it also
adds distortion to the waveform being analyzed in the form of amplitude
modulation, i.e., the variation in amplitude of the signal over the time record.
Amplitude Modulation results in sidebands in the spectrum and in the case of
the Hanning window, these sidebands or side lobes, as they are called
effectively reduce the frequency resolution of the analyzer by 50%. It is as if
the analyzer frequency lines are made wider. The measured amplitude of the
Hanning weighted signal is also incorrect because the weighting process
removes essentially half of the signal level. This can be easily corrected,
however, simply by multiplying the spectral levels by two and the FFT
analyzer does this job. This process assumes the amplitude of the signal is
constant over the sampling interval. If it is not, as is the case with transient
signal, the amplitude calculation will be in error.

The measured amplitude of the Hanning weighted signal is also incorrect

because the weighting process removes essentially half of the signal level.
This can be easily corrected, however, simply by multiplying the spectral
levels by two, and the FFT analyzer does this job. This process assumes the
amplitude of the signal is constant over the sampling interval. If it is not, as
is the case with transient signal, the amplitude calculation will be in error, as
shown in the figure below.

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The Hanning window should always be used with continuous signals, but
must never be used with transients. The reason is that the window shape will
distort the shape of the transient, and the frequency and phase content of a
transient is intimately connected with its shape.

The measured level will also be greatly distorted. Even if the transient were
in the center of the Hanning window, the measured level would be twice as
great as the actual level because of the amplitude correction the analyzer
applies when using the Hanning weighting.

A Hanning weighted signal actually is only half there, the other half of it
having been removed by the windowing. This is not a problem with a
perfectly smooth and continuous signal like a sinusoid, but most signals we
want to analyze, such as machine vibration signatures are not perfectly
smooth. If a small change occurs in the signal near the beginning or end of
the time record, it will either be analyzed at a much lower level than its true
level, or it may be missed altogether. For this reason, it is a good idea to
employ overlap processing. To do this, two time buffers are required in the
analyzer. For 50% overlap, the sequence of events is as follows: When the
first buffer is half full, i.e., it contains half the samples of a time record, the
second buffer is connected to the data stream and also begins to collect
samples. As soon as the first buffer is full, the FFT is calculated, and the
buffer begins to take data again. When the second buffer is filled, the FFT is
again calculated on its contents, and the result sent to the spectrum-
averaging buffer. This process continues on until the desired number of
averages is collected.

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Analog to Digital Conversion

The first step in performing an FFT analysis is the actual sampling process,
which is illustrated here:

Analog to Digital Conversion

The sampling is an analog, not digital, process and is accomplished with a

"sample and hold" circuit. The output of this circuit is a sequence of voltage
levels that are fed into an analog to digital converter (ADC). Here the voltage
levels are converted into digital words representing each sampled level. The
accuracy of the sampled levels depends in part on the number of bits in the
digital words. The greater the number of bits, the lower the noise level and
the greater the dynamic range will be. Most FFT analyzers use 12-bit words
and this produces a dynamic range of about 70 dB (3,100:1). Fourteen bit
words can achieve 80 dB (10,000:1) dynamic range.

It can be seen here that the sampling rate determines the highest frequency
in the signal that can be encoded. The sampled waveform cannot know
anything about what happens in the signal between the sampled times.
Claude Shannon, the developer of the branch of mathematics called
information theory, determined that to encode all the information in a signal
being sampled, the sampling frequency must be at least double the highest
frequency present in the signal. This fact is sometimes called the Nyquist
criterion.

Averaging

One of the important functions of the FFT analyzer is that it is easily able to
do averaging of spectra over time. In general, the vibration signal from a
rotating machine is not completely deterministic, but has some random noise
superimposed on it. Because the noise is unpredictable, it alters the
spectrum shape and in many cases can seriously distort the spectrum. If a
series of spectra are averaged together, the noise will gradually assume a
smooth shape and the spectral peaks due to the deterministic part of the
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signal will stand out and their levels will be more accurately represented. It
is not true that simply averaging FFT spectra will reduce the amount of the
noise – the noise will be smoothed but its level will not be reduced.

There are two types of averaging in general use in FFT analyzers, called
linear averaging and exponential averaging. Linear averaging is the adding
together of a number of spectra and then dividing the total by the number
that were added. This is done for each line of the spectra and the result is a
true arithmetic average on a line by line basis. Exponential averaging
generates a continuous running average where the most recently collected
spectra have more influence on the average than older ones. This provides a
convenient form to examine changing data but still have the benefit of some
averaging to smooth the spectra and reduce the apparent noisiness of them.

Synchronous Averaging

Synchronous averaging, also sometimes redundantly called “Time

Synchronous averaging”, was discussed earlier as a method of background
noise reduction in spectra of complex signals. Now, we will look at it as a
means of greatly increasing the information we can extract from the time-
domain vibration waveform.

Synchronous averaging is a fundamentally different process than the usual

spectrum averaging that is generally done in FFT analysis. It is used to
greatly reduce the effects of unwanted noise in the measurement. The
waveform itself is averaged in a time buffer before the FFT is calculated, and
the sampling of the signal is initiated by a trigger pulse input to the analyzer.
If the trigger pulse is synchronized with the repetition rate of the signal in
question, the averaging process will gradually eliminate the random noise
because it is not synchronized with the trigger. However, the signal that is
synchronous with the trigger will be emphasized, as shown below:

Time synchronous averaging,

also called time domain
averaging, is a completely
different type of averaging,
where the waveform itself is
averaged in a buffer before the
FFT is calculated. In order to do
time domain averaging, a
reference trigger pulse must be
input to that analyzer to tell it
when to start sampling the signal. This trigger is typically synchronized with
an element of the machine, which is of interest.

The average gradually accumulates those portions of the signal that are
synchronized with the trigger and other parts of the signal, such as noise, are
effectively averaged out. This is the only type of averaging, which actually
does reduce noise.

An example of the use of time domain averaging is measurement of machine

vibration in the presence of excessive background vibration, for instance

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arising from nearby operating machines or other noise sources. In this case,
the trigger is derived from a tachometer connected to the main shaft. The
tachometer is set up to provide one pulse per revolution of the shaft and
everything in the spectrum which is related to the rotating parts is
emphasized and all other signals are reduced. This is a good way to reduce
the effect of line voltage effects. For instance, in a 3000-rpm machine, the
50Hz line frequency will be close to the rpm and the second harmonic of line
will be close to 2X. if the spectrum has insufficient resolution to separate the
two components, the information on run speed components is contaminated.
Time domain averaging will quickly reduce the line-induced components and
leave the rotation components intact.

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Machine Vibration Monitoring

Introduction

It has been shown many times over that the vibration signature of an
operating machine provides far more information about the inner workings of
the machine than any other type of non-destructive test. A bearing that has
a small developing defect will cause a telltale change in the machine
vibration, as will an imbalance condition, a mis-alignment, or any of myriads
of other faults. Vibration analysis, properly applied, allows the technician to
detect small developing mechanical defects long before they become a threat
to the integrity of the machine and thus provides the necessary lead time to
schedule maintenance to suit the needs of the plant measurement. In this
way, plant management has control over the machines, rather than the other
way around.

History of Vibration Analysis used for Machinery Maintenance

The first vibration analyzer was the human brain coupled with the senses of
touch and hearing and it is till one of the finest when properly trained. Many
knowledgeable machine operators and maintenance people are able to
diagnose machine problems by feel and by use of the trusty broom handle or
screwdriver to conduct the sound from a bearing to the ear. The human
hearing mechanism is extremely adept at pattern recognition and is often
able to pick out the distinctive signature caused by a defect such as a spall on
a race of ball bearing.

For added consistency and for remembering time histories, we need to attach
numbers to the vibration measurements and to keep records, and these are
the areas where the human vibration analyzer tails. It was inevitable that
mechanical and electronic methods would be developed for this purpose.

The first vibration meters were introduced in the 1950s, and they measured
the overall, or “broadband” level of machine vibration, either in peak-to-peak
mils (thousands of an inch) of vibratory displacement, or in inches per
seconds (IPS) of vibration velocity. A little later, tunable analog filters were
added to the meters in order to discriminate between different frequency
components, and thus to produce a sort of vibration spectrum.

The 1970s brought forth the personal computer and the advent of digital
signal processing that led to the FFT analyzer and it made quick work of
calculating a frequency spectrum from a recorded vibration signal. The first
such analyzers were quite bulky, weighing as much as 75 pounds and this
made them more suited as laboratory instruments than portable units for
field use.

The 1980s saw the exploitation of the microprocessor on a single silicon chip
and the battery powered truly portable digital signal analyzer quickly followed
this. It is this device, coupled with a computer program that stores the data
and takes care of the logistics of vibration data collection that has
revolutionized the application of vibration analysis to machinery diagnostics.
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Practical Aspect of Vibration Measurement

1. Test Point Location

NO
NO
In general, it is desirable to locate
the test transducer as close as
possible to the bearing with solid CORRECT
metal between the bearing and the
sensor. Avoid bearing caps, which
are of thin metal and are thus poor
conductors of vibration energy. If NO
possible, pick test point locations so
that there is no metal-to-metal joint
between the bearing and the sensor.
The joint between the end bell and
stator housing of a motor is an
example of this. Fan housings on the
ends of motors are also to be
avoided.

In general, it has been found that for motors of less than about 50 HP, one
test point is adequate, but for motors over 50 HP, each bearing should be
detected as early as possible, each bearing should have its own test point, if
possible.

Another consideration is the integrity of the path between the bearing itself
and the transducer. If the motor and the bell are a solid casting, it will
effectively transmit vibration with little loss of high frequencies.

2. Vibration Sensor Orientation

In any machinery-monitoring program, it is extremely important that the

data is collected in exactly the same manner each time a measurement is
taken. This is to assure that the data is repeatable and can be trended over
time. For this reason, it is not recommended that hand-held transducers be
used. By far the most reliable data is collected when the transducer is stud
mounted to the machine surface.

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Triaxial Measurements

To assist in the determination of machine problems, it is very helpful to have

vibration data from each measurement point in three directions. These
directions are called Axial, Radial, and Tangential. Axial is the direction
parallel to the shaft in question, radial is the direction from the transducer to
the center of the shaft, and tangential is 90 degrees from radial, tangent to
the shaft.

It is extremely important that the data should be collected in exactly the

same manner each time a measurement is taken. This is to assure that the
data is repeatable and can be trended over time. For this reason, it is not
recommended that hand-held transducers be used. By far the most reliable
data is collected when the transducer is stud mounted to the machine surface
or magnetic base should be used.

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Vibration sensor Mounting

The following diagrams will illustrate some basic methods for mounting
vibration transducers during the data collection

First, Select the measuring location.

The below figure shows the Secondly, mount the transducer with
proper contact to the machine surface.

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Precautions to be taken while handling vibration transducers:

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Vibration Data Collection

1. Test Conditions

The vibration signature of a machine is strongly dependent on the operating

parameters as well as its physical condition. These operating parameters
include running speed, load, pump discharge pressure, compressor delivery
pressure etc.

The machine must be in its normal operating condition when vibration data is
collected. If this is not the case, the vibration signature will not match the
vibration signatures previously recorded and trending vibration levels over
time becomes impossible. Running speeds of induction motors depend on
the load and should not vary from one collection time to the next by more
than a few percent. This means that load conditions must be as nearly as
possible the same.

The vibration level contributed by extraneous sources, such as nearby

machines, must also be the same for each data collection time. Do not
collect data with adjacent machines turned off it the previous spectra were
recorded with them running. This is especially true with strong background
vibration levels, as in the engine room of a ship. Propulsion diesels must be
operating at the same speed for each data collection session!

2. Operating Conditions

It is imperative that when collecting data, the test RPM is very near the RPM
that was used for the previous tests. In turbine-driven equipment, the speed
should be verified by the use of a portable stroboscopic or other tachometer
and it must be running at a constant, not varying speed!

Gauge pressures should reflect normal operating conditions. Pump testing

with discharge valves closed is discouraged, but if a pump must be tested in
a recalculating condition, the recalculation valve may be partially closed to
attain a normal discharge pressure.

3. Warm-Up

All machines should be tested in a fully warmed-up condition. Machine

temperature will affect alignment and operating clearances due to thermal
expansion. A cold machine will have a different vibration signature than a
warmed-up machine, sometimes extremely different.

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4. Visual Inspection

Visual inspection of an operating machine while testing is important, for

valuable clues to machinery condition can often be uncovered. RPM
discharge pressure etc. should be noted. The following items should be
checked:

Are there any unusual noises present?

Do any bearings feel hotter than normal?
Can you feel any excessive vibration level?
Is there anything unusual about the operation of the machine?
Are there any fluid or steam leaks obvious?
Do the gauge readings look normal?
Does the machine operator have any comments on machine condition?

Vibration-Based Machine Diagnostics

The following sections address the use of vibration analysis on the detection
of machine faults and diagnosing the detected faults. The emphasis on the
use of spectrum analysis and spectrum comparison, but this does not
diminish the usefulness of time domain analysis. Time domain (waveform)
analysis is somewhat more specialized than spectrum analysis and is
generally used for the more difficult diagnostic problems.

The Concept of Spectrum Comparison

In the analysis of the majority of machinery vibration signatures, the

absolute level of spectrum components is not as valid an indicator of machine
problems as is the rate of change in level of the components. For instance, a
certain machine may have a bearing tone in its vibration spectrum at a level
of 0.5 mm per second RMS and the machine might run for years with this
tone at the same level. The presence of the tone is a positive indication that
an abnormality does exist in the bearing, but the bearing loading may not be
severe enough to cause rapid degradation. On the other hand, another
machine may exhibit a bearing tone at 0.3 mm/s and it might increase to 0.4
mm/s in one month and to 0.5 mm/s in another month. This is cause for
concern, because a 0.2 mm/s increase of the vibration level. This rate of
increase is an exponentially rising vibration level and it means the rate of
bearing damage is increased by the presence of the damage itself. This is an
instance of positive feedback and in such situations; small problems can
become big ones very quickly. Note that the absolute levels in this case are
very small – the rate of increase is far more important than the magnitude of
the fault itself.

Vibration Measurement Parameters

It is possible to examine the same vibration signal in terms of Acceleration,

Velocity, or Displacement. Velocity at any frequency is proportional to the
displacement times the frequency and the acceleration at any frequency is
proportional to velocity times frequency which means it is also equal to
displacement times frequency squared.

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From these relationships displacement strongly emphasizes the lowest

frequencies and acceleration strongly emphasizes the highest frequencies.
When looking at the vibration spectrum of a given machine, it is desirable to
display the parameter that has the most uniform level over the frequency
range in question. This will maximize the dynamic range of the measured
signal. For most rotating equipment of medium size, it will be found that
vibration velocity produces the most uniform spectrum and for this reason it
is usually chosen as the default parameter for machine monitoring.

Machinery Testing Schedule

It is important to begin a vibration-monitoring program of manageable size

and then gradually expand it as you gain experience. The most important
machines to monitor should be those that are critical to the plant’s
productivity and/or have a poor maintenance record. Variable speed
machines, extremely complex machines and reciprocating machines should
not be included at first.

For a successful monitoring program, machinery measurements must be

carried out on a scheduled periodic basis. Most equipment should be tested
monthly, with certain less important machines on a 3-month schedule.
Weekly testing is common for critical machines. In any case, it is important
to tailor your measurement schedule to suit the machines and their condition.
As experience is gained, it will be easy to revise the testing schedule
accordingly.

Trending

Trending is the storage of vibration signatures recorded at specific time

intervals and plotting the changes in vibration levels at the forcing
frequencies Vs time. An upward, trend in level indicates a developing
problem.

The simplest way to utilize the concept of vibration trending is to establish a

representative vibration spectrum of a normally operating machine as a
reference and compare this reference to spectra measured at later times on
the same machine. This spectrum is called base line spectrum. The
comparison of the spectra is made possible by order normalization, which will
be discussed shortly. When performing the spectral comparison there are
several important points that need to be addressed:

The operating conditions of the machine when measuring the new

vibration data must match as closely as possible the conditions under
which the reference spectrum was recorded. Otherwise, the spectra
will not be comparable and gross errors can be made.
The vibration data must be recorded in exactly the same way that the
reference data were measured. The transducer must be mounted in
exactly the same location and its calibration must be accurate. If
possible, the same transducer should be used for all successive
measurements on the machine.
When taking vibration data with an FFT analyzer or data collector, it is
important to average several instantaneous spectra together to reduce

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random variations and the effects of extraneous noise in the measured

signal. The number of spectral averages recorded to produce the
spectra must be sufficient to produce a uniform and steady signature.
Usually from six to ten averages will do this, but on some machines
with a relatively high random noise content in their vibration signature,
longer averaging times may be needed. A rule of thumb is to record a
spectrum with several averages and then immediately record another
one with twice as many averages. If the spectra are significantly
different, the number of averages should be doubled again and another
spectrum recorded. If the latter two spectra are similar, then the
previous number of averages is adequate for this machine.

The Reference Spectrum

When performing trending, it is extremely important to be sure that the

reference spectrum to which the subsequent test spectra will be compared is
truly representative of the machine. Ideally, this reference would be a
spectrum that represents the machine in perfect or at least stable, working
order. This is difficult when the machine is new or recently rebuilt because
there is no way of knowing in advance what condition the machine is in.

Forcing Frequencies

Motor

Gear
Cprsr

The value of vibration analysis of machinery is based on the fact that specific
elements in the rotating parts of any machine will produce forces in the
machine that will cause vibration at specific frequencies. One of the most
important of the forcing frequencies is the RPM of the shaft, and it arises
from the fact that any rotor will always have a certain amount of residual
unbalance. This imparts a radial centrifugal force on the bearings, causing
the structure to vibrate at the IX, or fundamental frequency. The so-called

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bearing tones, which are characteristics of each bearing geometry, are forces
generated by defects in the races and rolling elements of the bearing itself.
Gear tooth-mesh frequencies come from the individual impacts of gear teeth
against each other and the tooth-mesh frequency is equal to the number of
teeth on the gear times the gear RPM. Vane pass or blade pass frequencies
are similar to tooth mesh and are equal to the number of vanes in an impeller
or number of blades in a fan times the RPM. Each forcing frequency will
create a peak in the vibration spectrum, the amplitude of the peak being
dependent on the severity of the condition that causes it. Thus the frequency
indicates the type of problem and the amplitude indicates its severity.

Following is an example of forcing frequency calculation for a gear-driven

machine:

Let us assume that the motor/gear/fan components have the following

element counts:

Machine Component Elements of Component Number of elements

Motor Cooling Fan Fan Blades 11
Motor Rotor Rotor Bars 42
Drive Pinion Gear Teeth 36
Driven Gear Gear Teeth 100
Fan Fan Blades 9

In this case of a multiple shaft machine, we must consider that the

fundamental frequencies of the motor and fan shafts are different. Let us
asume that the motor is again running at 1780 RPM. To calculate the fan
shaft RPM, we must first find the reduction ratio of the gearbox. To find this
we would look at the number of gear teeth on each of the gears. Divide the
drive pinion tooth count by the driven gear tooth count:

Drive Pinion Tooth Count/Drive Gear Tooth Count = Gear Ratio

36
Or = 0.36
100

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Next, multiply this ratio by the motor shaft RPM to find the fan shaft RPM.

0.36 x 1780 = 640.8

We would now say that the fundamental frequency of the motor is 1780 CPM
and the fundamental frequency of the fan is 640.8 CPM.

We multiply the number of elements on each component by the fundamental

frequency of the shaft from which it rotates. The components that are on the
motor shaft will be multiplied by 1780 CPM and the components on the fan
shaft will be multiplied by 640.8 CPM. To make this easier, let us separate
the components with their corresponding shafts:

Motor Shaft Elements Forcing Frequency, CPM

Rotation 1 1,780
Motor Cooling Fan 11 19,580
Motor Rotor 42 74,760
Drive Pinion 36 64,080

Fan Shaft Elements Forcing Frequency

Rotation 1 640.8
Driven Gear 100 64,080
Fan 9 5,767.2

If the machine was completely linear in its response, these forcing

frequencies would exist by themselves, but as the machine develops
looseness and excessive clearances, its structure becomes non-linear. The
vibration signal generated at forcing frequencies, especially IX run speed,
become distorted, causing harmonics to appear in the spectrum. As the
degree of non-linearity increases, the forcing frequencies themselves interact
with each other, causing amplitude and frequency modulation. The results in
sidebands in the spectrum. For these reasons, harmonics of run speed and
sidebands always indicate machine problems and their number and level are
an indication of the severity of the problem.

The Frequency Axis

When plotting vibration spectra from rotating machines, you have several
choices of units for the frequency axis. Probably the most natural unit is the
cycle per second, or hertz (Hz). Another unit in common use is Revolutions
Per Minute (RPM), or Cycles per Minute (CPM). Hz is converted to CPM by
multiplying by 60. Many people feel that CPM is a convenient scale to use
because the machines are described in terms of RPM. This practice results in
quite large numbers for the frequency axis, however and many other people
prefer to use Hz because the smaller numbers are more convenient.

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Evaluating Machine Vibration Spectra

Most machines have a relatively simple set of vibration forcing frequencies,

determined by the geometry of the machine and its speed. The existence of
other frequenceis than the forcing frequencies, such as harmonics of IX, in
the vibration signature of the machine indicates non-linearities and the
combined magnitude of these new frequencies is a good indicator of the
overall health of the machine. As a machine wears, it clearances typically
become greater and its vibration signature becomes more complex due to
generation of harmonics and sidebands.

In trending the vibration level of a machine over time, a rise in the level of a
forcing frequency indicates a change in the mechanism causing that
particular forcing frequency, but does not necessarily indicate any damage to
the machine. For instance, an increase in IX at a motor bearing indicates an
increasing unbalance condition, but if harmonics of IX begin to appear, this
indicates damage, such as bearing clearance increases, looseness or cracking
of the structure. Therefore, a strong IX vibration means the rotor should be
balanced, but the appearance of harmonics of IX means the bearing and
surrounding structure also be inspected for damage.

Time Domain Analysis

Time Domain Analysis is simply the use of the waveform instead of the
spectrum to help diagnose machine problems. The spectra of an impulse or
transient and of a random signal may look almost exactly alike. This is true
even though the parent time signals are very different in character.

The waveform immediately shows the difference, however, and therefore it is

a good idea for the analyst to examine the waveform when the spectrum may
not provide all the information needed to make a complete diagnosis.

What can we learn from the Waveform?

Rolling element bearings where the rollers encounter a crack or small spall in
a race may cause impacts Vs Random Noise – Impacts. If there is a lot of
external noise present, the spectrum may not show a well-defined peak at
the bearing tone frequency.

Truncation or Flattening of the signal – In many cases of looseness, such as a

bearing pillow block which rises up a little during part of the rotation and then
contacts the base for the rest of the cycle, the waveform will be flattened on
one side. This will result in harmonics in the spectrum, but other types of
waveform distortion will also produce harmonics. The waveform gives a quick
identification of this kind of looseness where motion is restricted in one
direction.

Low-frequency events – In some cases the vibration signal might have a

discontinuity once in a while that when transformed into the frequency
domain will be so low in frequency it will not be clearly seen in the spectrum.

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An example of this is a low-speed gearbox, which has one broken or cracked

tooth on the large gear.

Beats – Beats, which occur frequently in electric motor vibration signatures

and in general vibration signatures of groups of similar machines running at
almost the same speed, are difficult to see in the frequency domain
because such a high-resolution spectrum is needed to resolve the two
frequencies. If beats are suspected, a long recording of the time signal should
be made and examined. Beats will immediately show up if present.

Random Impacts – A loose machine component that hits something at a rate

that is unrelated to machine speed.

Time Synchronous Averaging

In the previous chapter on Frequency Analysis, time synchronous averaging

was discussed as a method of background noise reduction in spectra of
complex signals. Another application of time synchronous averaging is in the
waveform analysis of machine vibration, especially in the case of gear drives.

Consider a gearbox containing a pinion with 13 teeth and a driven gear with
31 teeth. If a tachometer is connected to the pinion shaft and its output is
used to trigger an analyzer capable of time synchronous averaging, the
averaged waveform will gradually exclude vibration components from
everything except the events related to the pinion revolution. Any vibration
caused by the driven gear will be averaged out and the resulting waveform
will show the vibration caused by each individual tooth on the pinion.

From Accelerometer
One revolution
13T 31T of pinion

Gear in good condition

FFT Analyzer

Vibration input
Trigger input
Gear with damaged tooth

Averaged Wave Forms

Note that the lower averaged waveform shows one damaged tooth on the
pinion. This same basic setup can be used to examine the driven gear rather
than the pinion. A frequency divider is placed in the tachometer output, and
if its division ratio is 13:31, its output pulses will coincide with each
revolution of the driven gear. Then, the time-averaged waveform will show
the teeth of the driven gear rather than the pinion.

The technique can be applied to gearboxes with multiple gears as long as the
numbers of teeth on each gear are known, and the frequency divider has the
capability of performing the proper division.

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13T 31T

One revolution
of pinion
From Accelerometer

13.31 ratio Gear in good condition

Frequency
Divider
FFT Analyzer

Vibration input Misaligned driven gear

Tachometer pulses Trigger input
one per revolution of
the driven gear
Badly worn driven gear

Averaged Wave Forms

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Amplitude Demodulation
What is Amplitude Modulation?

Amplitude modulation is defined as the multiplication of one time-domain

signal by another time-domain signal. The signals may or may not be
complex in nature, i.e., either or both signals may contain harmonics
components. It is impossible to have amplitude modulation unless at least
two different signals are involved. The signals may be electrical in nature, or
they can be vibration signals. Modulation is inherently a non-linear process,
and always gives rise to frequency components that did not exist in either of
the two original signals

Amplitude Modulated Wave Form

If the amplitude-modulated signal shown here is passed through a frequency

analyzer, the following spectrum is the result. The highest peak is the carrier
frequency. The right-hand peak is the “upper sideband”, and has a frequency
of the carrier frequency plus the modulating frequency. The left-hand peak or
“lower sideband” has a frequency of the carrier minus the modulating
frequency. The sidebands are sometimes called “sum and difference”
frequencies because of their symmetrical spacing around the carrier.

Amplitude modulation also occurs in sound reproducing equipment, where it

is called Intermodulation Distortion. The sum and difference frequencies are
not in musical harmony with the tones that cause them, making
intermodulation a particularly noticeable form of sound distortion.

Spectrum of Modulated Wave Form

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Rectified Wave Form

Recovered Modulating Signal

This process of demodulation is exactly what happens in an AM radio -- the

carrier is a very high frequency signal generated by the radio station, and the
modulating signal is the voice or music that constitutes the program. The
radio receives the modulated carrier, amplifies it, and rectifies (“detects”) it
to recover the program.

Amplitude Modulation in Machine Vibration Signatures

Many machines produce vibration signatures, which contain amplitude

modulation, and as we have seen in the previous section, amplitude
modulation causes sidebands to occur in the vibration spectrum. Several
types of machine problems can be diagnosed by detailed examination of
these sidebands. Examples of machines that produce amplitude modulation
are gearboxes, where the tooth mesh frequency is modulated by the turn
speed of each gear and rolling element bearings, where bearing tones can be
modulated by turn speed or the fundamental train frequency of the bearing.

In the case of gearboxes, an eccentric gear or bent shaft will cause the tooth
mesh tone to be stronger during the portion of the revolution of the gear
where the radius is increasing – the driven gear is actually being accelerated
in its rotation during this time. The part of the rotation where the radius is
decreasing places less force on the gear teeth and the tooth mesh tone is less
strong. (The tooth mesh tone is also frequency modulated at the same time,
and this also creates sidebands in the spectrum, but for this discussion, we
will only consider amplitude modulation). Any other defect in the gear, such
as a cracked or spalled tooth, will also cause the tooth mesh tone to be
irregular and will result in modulation of the tone and consequent sidebands
in the spectrum.

Since the gears in the gearbox usually rotate at different speeds, the
amplitude modulation due to each gear will be at a different rate, and the
resulting sidebands will be of different spacing. This allows the diagnosis of
gearbox faults narrowed down to specific gears and/or shafts by analyzing
the sideband patterns in the vibration spectra.

In bearings, modulation of the bearing tones occurs in several ways. If the

inner race has a small defect such as a crack, this defect will move in and out
of the bearing load zone at the rate of the shaft RPM. This assumes the inner
race is rotating and that it is in a horizontal machine where gravity imparts a
radial, rather than axial, force on the bearing. The bearing tone will be
strongest when the defect is in the load zone, and weakest when it is out of
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the load zone. This means the inner race ball pass frequency will be
amplitude modulated, and its spectrum will have sidebands spaced apart by
the RPM. In contrast to this, a fault in the outer race, which is stationary, will
always be in the load zone, and no modulation will occur, and no sidebands
around the outer race frequency will be produced.

If a rolling element has a defect, this roller will move in and out of the load
zone also, but will do so at the fundamental train frequency (FTF) rather than
the RPM. This is because the rollers are migrating around in the bearing at
the cage RPM. This condition will produce amplitude modulation of the ball
spin frequency, and spectral sidebands will be spaced apart at the FTF.

Amplitude Demodulation Applied to Bearing Analysis

In bearings, another form of amplitude modulation occurs where the impacts

caused by small spalls or cracks in the races or rolling elements excite
resonance in the races themselves. The resonant frequencies of the races
are generally quite high, usually between 2 kHz and 10kHz. The resonance
have very high damping because of the physical mounting of the bearing,
and this means the bearing will produce a series of very short “pings” at the
rate of the balls passing the defect.

Each ping is at the resonant frequency, and the pings are spaced apart at the
period of the ball pass frequency.

High-Frequency Damped Oscillation

Acceleration Waveform

Crack

If a frequency analysis of the vibration signal corresponding to the waveform

shown here is performed, there will be very little amplitude at the
fundamental frequency and extended groups of low-level harmonics of the
ball pass frequency. This is because the impulses caused by the balls
meeting the crack are very short in time, and they contain very little energy.
The harmonics are also not very energetic, and they tend to be swamped by
random noise in the spectrum, making them hard to find, especially in the
early stages of a developing bearing fault.

The waveforms shown here are idealized and are not truly representative of
data collected from a rotating machine. The machine vibration signature
always contains broadband noise, along with all the forcing frequencies and
harmonics, etc. from internal processes. But the signature will still have
buried in it the signals discussed here, even though they may not be visible.

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An excellent procedure for extracting the significant part of the vibration

signal is amplitude demodulation, as described below:

1. Bearing Vibration Signal Waveform

If we examine the waveform produed by the bearing, it is seen that it

resembles an amplitude modulation. The high-frequency tone of the bearing
resonance is modulated by the impacts of the balls against the outer race
crack.

2. Rectified Bearing Signal Waveform

If this time signal is passed through a full-wave diode rectifier, or “detector”,

the negative-going peaks are converted to positive-going peaks. The
waveform is then one-sided, as above.

3. Envelope of he Bearing Signal

Now, if signal is passed through a low-pass filter, the oscillation due to the
resonance is removed, and only the envelope of the signal remains.

This envelope signal has a repetition rate equal to that of the ball pass
frequency, but it has much more energy at the fundamental frequency
because the pulses are much wider, or longer in duration.

This process of rectification and filtering is actually amplitude demodulation,

and is exactly the same process used in AM ratio receivers to recover the
information in the modulated carrier wave.

This demodulated signal can be then subjected to a frequency analysis, and

the ball pass frequency will be by far the largest component in the spectrum.

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As mentioned earlier, the signals shown are idealized, and very low in level,
and therefore usually are buried in noise. But the actual signal that is
demodulated is the high frequency bearing resonant frequency, and this can
be separated from the broadband vibration machine signature by filtering. In
many cases, a simple two-pole high pass filter tuned to 2kHz is adequate to
extract the modulated resonance component.

Filtering of the signal to be demodulated is extremely beneficial because it

removes all the low frequency noise and spectral components that tend to
mask the bearing tones generated by very small defects. The demodulated
spectrum contains more of this contaminating noise resulting in a very great
improvement in signal-to-noise ratio. This is the most important benefit of
amplitude demodulation as a machine diagnostic tool. The block diagram of
an effective amplitude demodulation scheme is shown below.

Signal In High-Pass Rectifier, Low-Pass To FFT Analyzer

Filter or Detector Filter

Evaluating Demodulated Spectra from Bearings

It is important to keep in mind that they are not the same as normal
vibration spectra. Spectral components in the demodulated spectrum of
bearing at the bearing forcing frequencies do not represent actual vibration
amplitudes at these frequencies. This is because the high-pass filter has
filtered all the vibration energy at these frequencies out of the signal before
the demodulation was performed. The spectrum of the demodulated
vibration signal indicates the influence of the bearing faults on a high-
frequency band of vibration that is not related to the forcing frequencies.
Even though the vibration sensor is an accelerometer, the demodulated
spectrum should not be scaled in acceleration units. This has led to confusion
in the industry as to what is the proper amplitude unit to use in displaying
demodulated spectra.

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Machine Vibration Analysis

Getting Started

Manual Vibration Analysis can be defined as the visual inspection of graphic

vibration spectra and/or waveforms in order to determine the origin and
cause of the vibration, and therefore to diagnose the condition of the
machine or structure experiencing the vibration.

The steps in manual vibration analysis of vibration spectra are:

Detection: Identifying vibration peaks in the spectrum and relating

them to forcing frequencies known to exist in the machine.
Analysis: Determining the identity and severity of machine problems
from the amplitudes and relationships between the frequencies of the
vibration peaks.
Correction: Making the appropriate repair recommendations based on
the severity and diagnosed identity of the machine problem.
Verification: Condition of the machine after repair.

Checking for Data Validity

After determining the shaft rotation rate and locating it on the spectrum the
vibration analyst must check the validity of the spectrum. Such things as
incorrect labeling of accelerometer orientation or position, improper
accelerometer attachment, rapid accelerometer temperature changes and
incorrect machine operating conditions can corrupt data validity.

When data are to be compared to previously collected data from the same
point, similar test conditions must be maintained especially machine speed,
load and operating temperature.

The accelerometer must be securely fastened in place, with no possibility of

rattling or moving around. Any motion of the sensor will add noise to the
signal, usually broadband, but occasionally harmonics of the turn speed. The
accelerometer is also sensitive to rapid temperature changes. If a cold
sensor is mounted on a hot surface, the data will be corrupted during the
time it takes to reach equilibrium temperature.

The integrity of the accelerometer cable is crucial to the collection of valid

data. If the central cable conductor is intermittent or open, the signal will
consist mostly of random noise, and if the shield is intermittent or broken,
the data will contain a series of 50Hz harmonics due to electrical interference.
The 50Hz harmonics are distinguished from electrically induced vibration
signals by the fact that the latter will form a series of harmonics of 100Hz
rather than 50Hz. This is explained in the section on electrically induced
vibration

If an accelerometer is exposed continuously to a higher temperature than

that for which it is rated, it will become desensitized, and the data it senses

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from then on will be worthless. Some accelerometers will operate up to

4000F, but most give up the ghost at about 2000F.

Care must be taken that the accelerometer is not dropped onto a hard
surface lest the piezoelectric element be damaged. If the element is cracked,
the stiffness of the internal assembly will decrease, reducing the resonant
frequency of the accelerometer, and this can greatly change its sensitivity at
high frequencies.

Step-by-step Analysis of Spectra

It is important for the analyst to become familiar with the patterns evident in
the vibration spectra of mechanical equipment. Different machines are quite
distinctive from one another the patterns of one or more sets of harmonics,
bearing tones, belt tones, with or without sidebands, etc. are common to all
rotating machines.

Only after the vibration signatures are verified as to validity and the spectral
peaks, especially the IX harmonic components and non-synchronous
components, are positively identified can the diagnosis of machine problems
begin.

Identifying the Fist Order (IX) Peak

The first step in machine vibration analysis is to identify the machine RPM.
Step 2 is to find the spectral pea corresponding to shaft rotation rate, or the
so-called IX peak. It is important to check to be sure the normalization was
done correctly, as mentioned in the previous section. In multiple-shaft
machines, each shaft will have a characteristic IX peak and these are then
located by the analyst.

A series f harmonics, or integral multiples, of IX often accompany the IX

shaft peak and the helps in finding them. A good confirmation of the first
order peak is the existence of other known forcing functions, such as pump
impeller vane pass. For instance, if a pump has six impeller vanes, there will
usually be a strong spectral peak at 6X, or the sixth harmonic of running
speed. Sometimes harmonics of the impeller vane rate will also be evident.

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Machine Diagnosis

After the vibration signatures are verified as to validity and the spectral
peaks, especially the 1X components positively identified, can the diagnosis
of machine problems begin. The following section discusses a variety of
machine problems and illustrates them with their typical vibration signatures.

In analyzing vibration spectra from rotating machines, it is important to note

that individual faults are seldom seen by themselves. Care must be taken in
the interpretation of vibration signatures since different faults can cause
spectral components at the same frequencies.

Unbalance

There are several types of unbalance conditions; the most important of which
are called static and dynamic. Static unbalance is a condition where the
center of rotation of a rotor does not correspond to its center of mass, or in
other words, its center of gravity does not lie on its axis of rotation. This
results in a centrifugal force applied to the bearing at the IX frequency. This
IX force is proportional to the square of the speed of the rotor, meaning that
high-speed machines require much more accurate balancing than low speed
ones.

Unbalance forces in machines will always produce vibration at the bearings

where the radial and tangential IX components are 900 out of phase. This is
a sure test of unbalance and can be used to help distinguish unbalance from
misalignment.

Calculating the Imbalance Force

where F = the imbalance force, Im = the mass, r = its distance from the pivot, and w
(omega) is the angular frequency, equal to 2p times the frequency in Hz..

From this, it is seen that the force on the pivot is proportional to its distance from the
center of rotation and to the speed squared.

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Sources of unbalance

The following machine problems are among the conditions that will create
unbalance:

• Uneven distribution of mass on the rotor.

• Rotor eccentricity
• Roller deflection, especially in paper machines
• Machining errors
• Uneven mass distribution in electric motor rotor bars or windings
• Uneven erosion and corrosion of pump impellers
• Missing balance weights
• Bowed shaft

Static Unbalance:

The simplest type of unbalance is equivalent to a heavy spot at a single point

in the rotor. This is called a static unbalance because it will show up even if
the rotor is not turning. If placed on a pair of level knife-edges, the heavy
spot will seek the lowest position. Static unbalance results in IX forces on
both support bearings of the rotor, and the forces on both bearings are
always in the same direction. The vibration signals from them are said to be
“in phase” with each other. A pure static unbalance will produce a strong IX
peak in the vibration spectrum, the amplitude of which is proportional to the
severity of the unbalance and the square of the RPM. The relative levels of
the IX vibration at the bearings depend on the location of the heavy spot
along the rotor.

Unbalance in Overhung Machines

In a machine with an out of balance overhung. or cantilevered. Rotor such as

a fan will produce IX vibration in the axial direction as well as some radial
and tangential at the nearest bearing to the rotor. This is because the
unbalance creates a bending moment on the shaft, causing the bearing
housing to move axially. Examples of overhung rotors are close-coupled
pumps, axial flow fans and small turbines.

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Couple Unbalance

A rotor with couple unbalance may be statically balanced -- i.e., it may seem
to be perfectly balanced if placed on knife-edges. But when rotated, it will
produce centrifugal forces on the bearings, and they will be of opposite
phase. A rotor may have static and couple unbalance at the same time, and
this condition is called dynamic unbalance, and this is what is usually found in
practice.

By looking at a spectrum without phase information, static and dynamic

unbalance cannot be distinguished. In order to correct dynamic unbalance, a
multiple-plane balance job is required, while static unbalance can
theoretically be corrected with a single correction weight. However, the
correction weight must be located exactly opposite the unbalance, and this
may not be practical.

Severity of Imbalance

The severity of imbalance depends on both the type and size of the machine
as well as the vibration level. To assess imbalance severity, average 1X levels
for healthy machines of the same type should be used as a comparison. If
the second order peak is as large as the first order, you should suspect
misalignment.

The following levels are guidelines for general use in diagnosing imbalance for
machines running at 1800 or 3600 RPM. Very high-speed machines have
lower tolerance levels.

1X Vibration Level, Diagnosis Repair Priority

VdB
Less than 108 VdB Slight Imbalance No
(0.141 ips) recommendation

108 VdB -- 114 VdB Moderate Desirable

(0.141 – 0.282 ips) Imbalance

115 VdB -- 124 VdB Severe Imbalance Important

(0.316 – 0.891 ips)

More then 125 VdB Extreme Imbalance Mandatory

(>1.00 ips)

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The measured vibration level at 1X depends on the stiffness of the machine

mounting as well as the amount of imbalance, with spring-mounted machines
showing more 1X than solidly mounted machines for the same degree of
imbalance. The overall size of the machine also affects the allowable 1X level
as follows:

1X Vibration Level, Machine Type Repair Priority

VdB
109 VdB (0.158 ips) Small Single-stage Desirable
Pump

118 VdB (0.447 ips) Large Hydraulic Pump Desirable

116 VdB (0.355 ips) Medium Sized Fan Desirable

The tangential and radial 1X levels should be compared. The more nearly
equal they are, the more likely that imbalance is the cause. In any case, the
direction in which the machine has the least stiffness will be the direction of
the highest 1X level.

Imbalance in Vertically Mounted Machines

Vertical machines, such as pumps, are usually cantilevered from their

foundation, and they usually show maximum 1X levels at the free end of the
motor regardless of where the vibration source is. To isolate motor imbalance
from pump imbalance, it may be necessary to break the coupling and run the
motor solo while measuring 1X. If the 1X level is still high the problem is the
motor; otherwise it is the pump.

Imbalance in Overhung Machines

In a machine with an out of balance overhung, or cantilevered, rotor such as

a fan will produce 1X vibration in the axial direction as well as some radial
and tangential at the nearest bearing to the rotor. This is because the
imbalance creates a bending moment on the shaft, causing the bearing
housing to move axially. Examples of overhung rotors are close-coupled
pumps, axial flow fans, and small turbines.

Overhung Rotor Imbalance

The bearing closest to the overhung rotor will usually show the highest radial
1X-vibration levels.

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Sources of Imbalance

The following machine problems are among the conditions that will create
imbalance:

• Uneven dirt accumulation on fan rotors

• Lack of homogeneity in cast parts, such as bubbles, blow-holes,
porous sections
• Rotor eccentricity
• Roller deflection, especially in paper machines
• Machining errors
• Uneven mass distribution in electric motor rotor bars or windings
• Uneven erosion and corrosion of pump impellers
• Missing balance weights
• Bowed Shaft

Misalignment

Misalignment is a condition where the centerlines of coupled shafts do not

coincide. If the misaligned shaft centerlines are parallel but not coincident,
then the misalignment is said to be parallel misalignment. if the misaligned
shafts meet at a point but are not parallel, then the misalignment is called
angular misalignment. Almost all misalignment conditions of machines seen
in practice are a combination of these two basic types.

• High level of coupling wear, and heating of the coupling. Also, thrust
transmission through the coupling when the coupling becomes locked.
• Cracked shafts due to fatigue caused by bending.
• Excessive loading of the bearings.
• Premature bearing failure

Causes of Misalignment

Misalignment is typically caused by the following conditions:

• Inaccurate assembly of components, such as motors, pumps, etc.

• Relative position of components shifting after assembly
• Distortion due to forces exerted by piping
• Distortion of flexible supports due to torque
• Temperature induced growth of machine structure
• Coupling face not perpendicular to the shaft axis
• Soft foot, where the machine shifts when hold down bolts is torqued.

Temperature Effects of Alignment

The best alignment of any machine will always occur at only one
temperature, and hopefully this will be its normal operating temperature. It
is imperative that the vibration measurements for misalignment diagnosis be
made with the machine at normal operating temperature.

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When a machine is aligned, it is important to follow the manufacturer’s

recommended procedure. In some cases, a small deliberate misalignment
will be introduced in order to allow the thermal growth during warm-up.

With certain alignment tools, it is possible to perform alignment checks on a

warm machine, and to save the alignment data so it can be trended over
time. This, in combination with vibration level trending, permits the most
opportune scheduling for alignment procedures.

Parallel Misalignment

Parallel Misalignment

If the machine speed can be varied, the vibration due to imbalance will vary
as the square of the speed. If the speed is doubled, the imbalance
component will rise by a factor of four, while misalignment-induced vibration
will not change in level

Following is a typical vibration spectrum from a misaligned machine.

Angular Misalignment

Angular misalignment produces a bending moment on each shaft, and this

generates a strong vibration at 1X and some vibration at 2X in the axial
direction at both bearings, and of the opposite phase. There will also be fairly
strong radial and/or transverse 1X and 2X levels, but in phase.

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Angular Misalignment

Misaligned couplings will usually produce fairly high axial 1X levels at the
bearings on the other ends of the shafts as well!

General Misalignment

Most cases of misalignment are a combination of the two above described

types, and diagnosis is based on stronger 2X peaks than 1X peaks and the
existence of 1X and 2X axial peaks. Take care that high axial 1X levels are
not caused by imbalance in overhung rotors.

Misalignment produces a variety of symptoms on different types of machines,

and the average vibration signatures for healthy machines should be
consulted to determine allowable 1X and 2X levels.

Temperature Effects on Alignment

The best alignment of any machine will always occur at only one operating
temperature, and hopefully this will be its normal operating temperature. It is
imperative that the vibration measurements for misalignment diagnosis be
made with the machine at normal operating temperature.

Causes of Misalignment

Misalignment is typically caused by the following conditions:

Inaccurate assembly of components, such as motors, pumps, etc.

Relative position of components shifting after assembly

Distortion due to forces exerted by piping

Distortion of flexible supports due to torque

Temperature induced growth of machine structure

Coupling face not perpendicular to the shaft axis

Soft foot, where the machine shifts when hold down bolts are torqued.

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Bent Shaft

Journal Bearings

Most journal-bearing problems will generate spectral peaks at lower

frequencies than 1X, and these are called sub-synchronous peaks.
Sometimes harmonics of these sub-synchronous peaks are also created,
indicating severe degradation of the bearing. Here are some things to look for
in diagnosing journal bearings:

Oil Whirl

Oil

Oil Whirl is a condition in which a strong vibration occurs at between 0.38X

and 0.48X. It never shows up at precisely 0.5X, but is always a little lower in
frequency. It is caused by excessive clearance and light radial loading, which
results in the oil film building up and forcing the journal centerline to migrate
around in the bearing opposite the direction of rotation at less than one-half
RPM. Oil whirl is a serious condition and needs to be corrected when found,
for it can deteriorate fairly quickly to the point where metal-to-metal contact
occurs in the bearing

Oil Whip

Oil Whip is a very destructive condition that sometimes occurs in large multi-
rotor assemblies that are operated above critical speeds. Oil whip occurs
when the oil-whirl excitation component matches a shaft natural frequency.
The resonance excites very large vibration. Oil whip sometimes happens on
start up of machines with long shafts. Since the natural frequency being
excited in the controlling influence in the system, as the speed is increased
the vibration frequency does not change. This is in contrast to simple oil
whirl, whose frequency changes with shaft speed. This provides a good
method of detecting oil whip

The solution for oil whip and oil whirl is suitably small bearing clearances and
adequate radial loading. When bringing a large turbine up to speed, it is
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important to pass through the critical frequencies very quickly to prevent the
buildup of oil whip.

Resonance

Every mechanical system has a series of natural frequencies, each of which

has its own damping characteristics. These natural frequencies will lie
dormant in a system until they are excited by some influence or forcing
function. When forcing frequencies coincides with (or closely approach) a
natural frequency, this is the condition known as resonance. In reciprocating
machines, which are subject to impact, several such natural frequencies can
be excited. The effects will be pronounced if the frequency is sustained over
significant time duration within a system’s resonant range. Some of the
effects of this amplitude amplification can cause premature wear and
excessive maintenance to complete catastrophic failure.

Solving vibration problem due to resonance is a two parts process

1. Resonant frequencies to be identified and compared with operating

speed of the equipment.
2. To solve the problem a choice has to be made between changing of
natural frequency or change of operating speed.

Bode plot, Polar plot, Start up, coast down tests are used to identify
resonance.

Beat Vibration

A beat vibration is the result of two closely spaced going into and out of
synchronization with one another. The wide band spectrum will normally
show one peak pulsating up and down. The beat frequency is not commonly
seen in normal frequency ranges measurement since it is inherently low
frequency usually ranging from only approximately 5 to 100 CPM.

In general, it is a good idea to keep significant forcing frequencies a minimum

of approximately 10% away from one another in order to prevent the
pulsating beat vibration. In any case, beat frequencies are not normally a
problem when the frequencies exceed 150 to 200 CPM.

Journal Bearings

Most journal bearing problems will generate spectral peaks at lower

frequencies than 1X, and these are called sub-synchronous peaks.
Sometimes harmonics of these sub-synchronous peaks are also created,
indicating severe degradation of the bearing.

In machines with long flexible rotors such as steam and gas turbines, the
rotor will always have at least one flexural resonance at a natural frequency
below the operating speed of the machine. These natural frequencies are
called critical speeds, and they are excited when the rotor RPM is at the
natural frequency during a run up. For this reason, the run up should be
quite fast so no appreciable time is spent a the resonance speed.
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The first, or lowest, critical, is the fundamental bending mode of the rotor. In
this case if the bearings are more flexible, they will move, and absorb energy
from the resonance, reducing its severity a little.

The second critical resonance is a “wobbling” of the main mass of the rotor. It
results in high bearing forces at 1X RPM, but the rotor itself does not move
very much and so this critical is sometimes missed during run ups. The same
critical running is flexible bearings produces large bearing motion.

Here are some things to look for in diagnosing journal bearings:

Journal Looseness

Bearing looseness causes harmonics of 1X to appear, and in severe cases,

half-orders, or harmonics of 0.5X are present. Often the cause of half-orders
is the rattling of the bearing in its housing. Sometimes one-third and one-
fourth orders are seen in very bad examples of looseness.

Journal Thrust Bearings

Worn thrust bearings usually present strong axial components at the first few
harmonics of 1X. Worn Kingsbury bearings with 6 shoes will generate a peak
at 6X. This vibration peak is predominantly in the axial direction.

Rotor Rub

Rotor rub occurs when the rotating parts of a machine contract stationary
parts and can be catastrophic, depending on specifically which parts contract
one another, the material of construction of each, rotational speed induced
friction, structural rigidity of both the rotating and stationary parts and the
impact velocity itself.

Catastrophic rub events

Journal contracting bearing Babbitt.

Rotor contracting stator in electrical motor.
Impeller vanes contracting diffuser vanes.

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Turbine vanes contracting diffuser vanes.

Less Catastrophic rub events

Shaft rubbing seal.

Coupling guard rubbing a shaft.
Belt rubbing belt guard.
Fan blades contracting shroud.

When the rub occurs change the stiffness of the rotor; therefore, change the
rotor natural frequency. It leads to resonance also. The impact can cause
local wear and deformation and sometimes increase the amperage of the
motor.

Analysis

Rotor rub produces spectrum similar to mechanical looseness.

Partial sub will generate noticeable sub synchronous (below 1X RPM)

vibration, which will generate high frequency amplitudes depending upon
impact. It normally shows integer sub harmonics of ½X or 1/3X or ¼X etc.
which integer sub harmonic is excited depends on the shaft speed relative to
rotor system natural frequency. In general, with higher shaft speed, lower
fractions of sub harmonic vibration can occur. Several different integer sub
harmonics like 1X, ½X, 1/3X, ¼X, 1/5 RPM can occur.

With heavier radial force partial rub occurs, only ½X RPM sub harmonics will
be present. Cascade diagram and shaft orbit and very helpful in diagnosing
rubs.

Rolling Element Bearings

Many years of experience have shown that in practice, less than 10% of all
bearings will run for their design lifetime. About 40% of bearing failures are
attributed to improper lubrication, and about 30% of failures are from
improper mounting, i.e. misalignment or “cocking”. About 20% fail for other
reasons, such as overloading and manufacturing defects, etc.

Rolling element-bearing problems are some of the most common types of

faults to be diagnosed by vibration analysis. A defective bearing will produce
vibration components that are not exact multiples of 1X – in other words,
they are non-synchronous components. The existence of non-synchronous
components in a vibration spectrum is a red flag to the analyst that bearing
problems may exist, and the analyst should immediately rule out other
possible sources of such components to verify the diagnosis.

n  Bd 
BPFI = 1 + cos θ  RPM BPFI=Ball Pass Frequency, Inner Race
2  Pd 

n  Bd 
BPFO = 1 − cos θ  RPM BPFO= Ball Pass Frequency, Outer Race
2  Pd 
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Pd   B d  
2

BSF = 1 −   (cos θ ) 2  RPM BSF = Ball Spin Frequency

2 B d   Pd  


1  Bd 
FTF = 1 − cos θ  RPM FTF=Fundamental Train Frequency
2  Pd 

Bd=Ball Diameter; Pd=Pitch diameter of the bearing

n = Number of rolling of elements q = contact angle

There are the formulas for calculating the frequencies of the bearing tones
from the bearing geometry, but they are a little imprecise because the axial
loading and slippage affects them in an unpredictable manner.

Good approximations of bearing tone frequencies for most common bearings

are as follows:

Outer race fault = No. of rollers x RPM x 0.4

Inner race fault = No. of rollers x RPM x 0.6

Fundamental Train Frequency (FTF) = RPM x 0.4

The number of rollers in most bearings is usually between 8 and 12, but in
very large diameter bearings, such as the ones found in paper machines, the
number of rollers can be much higher.

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Bearing Failure Stages

Bearing
Failure
Damage Severity

Detection by
Detection
HFD, SEE,
listen & feel
Spike energy,
Damage Shock pulse
Starts

Detection
by vibration

Time
The above diagram shows how deterioration takes place with respect to time.
The bearing exhibits different types of fault frequencies in various stages of
bearing failure.

Stage 1:
30K
3X

Shock Pulse
120K
1X

When a rolling element bearing first incurs a defect, the defect’s vibration
signal is typically to small compared to other vibration signals emanating
from the machine so as not to be noticeable on a velocity spectrum. Signal
processing methods like SEE, Acceleration Enveloping, Spike Energy, HFD,
Shock pulse that focus on very high or ultrasonic frequency ranges are
needed to detect a bearing defect in this early stage.

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Stage 2:

30K

Bearing Fa
3X

120K

Shock Pulse
1X

As detect grows, harmonics of the defect’s fundamental frequency typically

appear first (in s 500Hz to 2kHz frequency range). On a velocity spectrum,
these defect frequency harmonics are the earliest indicators that a problem
exists. Toward the end of stage two, sideband frequencies typically
accompany these harmonic peaks.

Stage 3:
30K
BPFO

120K
3X

2BPFI
BPFI
1X

Bearing Fa

Shock

As the defect worsens, the defect’s fundamental frequencies and multiples of

the fundamental frequencies appear in the defect’s fundamental frequency
range. Typically, the more multiples that appear, the worse the defect. As
the defect grows more severe, more multiples and sidebands appear in both
the fundamental and harmonic frequency ranges. The bearing should be
replaced at this time.

There are many different ways that spectral patterns due to bearing faults
will develop, depending on the type of initial fault, the speed, and the loading
o the bearing. The sequence of spectra shown here and the nest topic
illustrates one way that a failing bearing can show up in the vibration

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signatures of a machine. The spectrum at the left shows a bearing tone

rising in level as the fault becomes worse.

Sidebands

If the defect is on the inner race of the bearing, the turning speed will
amplitude modulate the bearing tones and this will cause sidebands around
the bearing tones, spaced apart at 1X, to appear. The amplitude modulation
comes from the fact that the defect on the inner race moves in and out of the
bearing load zone once per revolution. While in the load zone, the defect
produces vibration at the ball pass frequency, but when it is out of the load
zone, very little vibration is produced at this frequency. This accounts for the
amplitude modulation of the bearing tone and consequent sidebands.

Sidebands spaced at 1X around bearing tones in a sure sign of advanced

bearing wear, almost always indicating an inner race fault. Note also that
increasing clearance in the bearing gives rise to harmonics of run speed, and
also that the second harmonic of the bearing tone is now visible. Sometimes,
if a rotor is strongly out of balance, an inner race-bearing defect will not
produce amplitude modulation or sidebands. This is because the centrifugal
force due to imbalance keeps the inner race loaded at the same location on
its periphery all the time. This often happens in vertical machines where
there is no load on one side of the bearing due gravity.

Another example of sidebands in bearing spectra involves the Fundamental

Train frequency (FTF). This is the rate at which the cage holding the rollers
rotates in the bearing. If one roller is spalled, cracked or worse yet, in
several pieces, it will make a lot of noise when it is in the load zone of the
bearing, but will be quiet when not in the load zone. It will move in and out
of the load zone at the FTF rate because it migrates around the bearing with
the cage. This causes amplitude modulation of the bearing tones at the FTF
rate, and the result is sidebands around the bearing tones spaced apart by
the FTF.

The final stage of bearing wear is sometimes called the “thermal” stage,
where the bearing becomes hot, breaking down the lubricant, leading to
catastrophic failure which can include melting of the rolling elements and/or
the races. At this stage, the vibration spectrum will show a rise in the noise
floor as seen in the figure at the right. The key to effective predictive
maintenance of bearings in the trending of bearing tone levels over time from
their onset. Sometimes a bearing condition will progress from a very small
defect to complete failure in a relatively short time; so early detection
requires sensitivity to very small vibration signature components. The analyst
should be aware that some types of machines will show bearing tones in the
average spectra. Diagnosis is made on the basis of significant increases from
these average values. Any significant bearing tone should be carefully
watched for signs of worsening.

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Journal Thrust Bearings

Worn thrust bearings usually present strong axial components at the first few
harmonics of 1X. Worn Kingsbury bearings with 6 shoes will generate a peak
at 6X. This vibration peak is predominantly in the axial direction

Rolling Element Bearings

Many years of experience have shown that in practice, less than 10 % of all
bearings will run for their design lifetime. About 40 % of bearing failures are
attributed to improper lubrication, and about 30% of failures are from
improper mounting, i.e. misalignment or "cocking". About 20 % fail for other
reasons, such as overloading and manufacturing defects, etc.

Element Bearing Wear

The first stages of bearing defects will produce telltale non-synchronous

vibration frequencies called "bearing tones" and their harmonics. Bearing
tones at 0.006 inches per second peak (81 VdB) or higher are considered
significant. Sometimes a new bearing will produce bearing tones, possibly
because of damage during installation, shipping, or defective manufacture.

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If the bearing defect is very small in size, such as a crack in one of the races,
the vibration signature will show harmonics of the bearing tone with little or
no fundamental frequency present. If the defect begins as a spall over a
larger area of the race, the bearing tone fundamental will usually be higher in
level than the harmonics. As the defect becomes worse, the overall level of
the bearing tones will increase, as will the overall broadband noise level.

Sidebands

If the defect is on the inner race of the bearing, the turning speed will
amplitude modulate the bearing tones, and this will cause sidebands around
the bearing tones, spaced apart at 1X, to appear. The amplitude modulation
comes from the fact that the defect on the inner race moves in and out of the
bearing load zone once per revolution. While in the load zone, the defect
produces vibration at the ball pass frequency, but when it is out of the load
zone, very little vibration is produced at this frequency. This accounts for the
amplitude modulation of the bearing tone and the consequent sidebands.
Sidebands spaced at 1X around bearing tones are a sure sign of advanced
bearing wear. Sometimes, if a rotor is strongly out of balance, an inner-race
bearing defect will not produce amplitude modulation or sidebands. This is
because the centrifugal force due to imbalance keeps the inner race loaded at
the same location on its periphery all the time.

Another example of sidebands in bearing spectra involves the Fundamental

Train Frequency (FTF). This is the rate at which the cage holding the rollers
rotates in the bearing. If one roller is spalled, cracked, or worse yet, in
several pieces, it will make a lot of noise when it is in the load zone of the
bearing, but will be quiet when not in the load zone. It will move in and out of
the load zone at the FTF rate because it migrates around the bearing with the
cage. This causes amplitude modulation of the bearing tones at the FTF rate,
and the result is sidebands around the bearing tones spaced apart by the
FTF.

The final stage of bearing wear is sometimes called the "thermal" stage,
where the bearing becomes hot, breaking down the lubricant, leading to
catastrophic failure which can include melting of the rolling elements and/or
the races.

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The key to effective predictive maintenance of bearings is the trending of

bearing tone levels over time from their onset. Sometimes a bearing
condition will progress from a very small defect to complete failure in a
relatively short time, so early detection requires sensitivity to very small
vibration signature components. The analyst should be aware that some
types of machines will show bearing tones in the average spectra. Diagnosis
is made on the basis of significant increases from these average values. Any
significant bearing tone should be carefully watched for signs of worsening.

Misaligned ("cocked") Rolling Element Bearings

Cocked Bearing

Rolling Element Bearing Looseness

Excessive clearance in a rolling element bearing will produce harmonics of

1X, usually in the range from 2X to 8X. Extreme looseness will commonly
produce one-half order components, i.e., components at multiples of 0.5X.
Looseness in other parts of the machine will also produce 1X harmonics and
sometimes 0.5X harmonics, so this is not a conclusive sign of bearing
clearance problems.

Mechanical Looseness

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Mechanical Looseness

It alone cannot create vibration but in the influence of Unbalance,

Misalignment, Bearing problems it amplify the amplitude. It should be
corrected first.

Mechanical looseness can be of three types

1. Structural frame/base looseness (1X).

2. Cracked structure/bearing pedestal (2X).
3. Rotating looseness – Loose bearing/improper fit between
component parts. (Multiple).

1. Structural frame/base looseness (1X)

Caused by-

I. Structural looseness/weakness of machine feet, base plate &

concrete base.
II. Deteriorated grouting.
III. Deterioration of frame or base
IV. Soft foot
V. Loose holding down bolts.

Looseness between a machine and its foundation will increase the 1X

vibration component in the direction of least stiffness. Quite similar to
unbalance & misalignment. This is usually the horizontal direction, but it
depends on the physical layout of the machine. Horizontal to Vertical phase
difference 00 or 1800 at the same bearing housing. And 1800 phase
difference in the vertical direction between two surfaces if there is any
looseness in between two. Low-order IX harmonics are also commonly
produced if the looseness is severe. It is often hard to tell unbalance from
foundation looseness or flexibility, especially in vertical machines. If 1X
tangential is much greater than 1X radial, looseness is suspected. If 1X
tangential is lower than or equal to 1X radial, then unbalance is suspected.
Foundation flexibility or looseness can be caused by loose bolts, corrosion, or
cracking of mounting hardware.

2. Cracked structure/bearing pedestal (2X)

Caused by –

1. Crack in the structure or bearing pedestal.

2. Occasionally on some loose bearing housing bolts.
3. Loose bearing or improper component fit.

Analysis –

1. 2X RPM amplitude is > 150% of 1X RPM amplitude in radial direction.

2. Amplitudes are somewhat erratic.
3. 2X RPM phase somewhat erratic.

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Mechanical looseness can be either of two types; rotating looseness or non-

rotating looseness. A rotating looseness is caused by excessive clearance
between rotating and stationary elements of the machine, while non-rotating
looseness is looseness between two normally stationary parts, such as a foot
and a foundation. Either type of looseness is a mechanical non-linearity, and
will result in a series of 1X harmonics in all three-vibration axes.

3. Rotating looseness – Loose bearing/improper fit between

component parts. (Multiple)

Caused by –

1. Loose rotor.
2. Bearing loose in the housing.
3. Bearing loose in the shaft.
4. Excessive bearing internal clearance.

Analysis

1. Generates running speed harmonics up to 20X RPM. If the higher

harmonics are emphasized, impacting can be suspected. Impacting is
usually best seen in the time waveform rather than the spectrum, so if
high harmonics are present, it is a good idea to look at the acceleration
waveform to find spikes due to impacts.
2. Generates low amplitude frequencies of ½X (i.e. 0.5X, 1.5X, 2.5X…)
and 1/3X also.
3. Presence of 1/2X will indicate more advanced looseness problems like
presence of rub. It indicates other problems like unbalance and
misalignment.
4. Phase measurement will be erratic.
5. Phase for loose rotor will vary from one measurement to next.
6. Bearing loose on the shaft will generate 1X RPM peak.
7. Bearing loose in the housing will generate 4X RPM peak.

Looseness between a machine and its foundation will increase the 1X

vibration component in the direction if the least stiffness. This is usually the
horizontal direction, but it depends on the physical layout of the machine.
Low-order 1X harmonics are also commonly produced if the looseness is
severe. It is often hard to tell imbalance from foundation looseness or
flexibility, especially in vertical machines. If 1X tangential is much greater
than 1X radial, looseness is suspected. If 1X tangential is lower than or equal
to 1X radial, then imbalance is suspected. Foundation flexibility or looseness
can be caused by loose bolts, corrosion, or cracking of mounting hardware.

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Electrically Induced Vibration

AC Electric Motors

There are two types of AC electric motors; the synchronous motor and the
induction motor, and single phase or 3-phase current may power each of the
types. In industrial applications, 3-phase motors are by far the most
common, owing to their higher efficiency than single-phase units. The
synchronous motor is much less prevalent than the induction motor, but is
used in some special applications requiring absolutely constant speed, or for
power factor correction. Induction and synchronous motors are similar in
many respects, but differ in some details.

Synchronous Motors

An interesting characteristic of the synchronous motor is that is the rotor is

“over excited”, i.e., if its magnetic field is greater than a critical strength, the
motor behaves like an electrical capacitor connected to the power line. This
has been used for power factor correction in industrial plants that use large
numbers of induction motors.

Induction Motors

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Induction Motor Rotor

Because the induction motor works by magnetic repulsion rather than

attraction like the synchronous motor, it has been called a "repulsion
induction" motor.

If there were no friction in the system, the rotor would turn at synchronous
speed, but the motor would produce no useful torque. Under this condition,
there would be no relative motion between the rotor bars and the rotating
stator field, and no current would be induced in them. As soon as any load is
applied to the motor the speed is reduced, causing the rotor bars to cut the
magnetic lines of force of the stator field, and creating the repulsion force in
the rotor. The induced magnetic field in the rotor migrates around in the
direction of the rotation, and the speed of this migration is dependent on the
applied load. This means the RPM will always be less than synchronous
speed. The difference between the actual speed and synchronous speed is
called the "slip". The greater the slip, the greater the induced current in the
rotor bars, and the greater the output torque. The current in the stator
windings also increases in order to create the larger currents in the bars.

For these reasons, the actual speed of an induction motor is always

dependent on the load.

Sources of Vibration

Twice the line frequency (120 Hz in the US) is always a measurable vibration
component in an electric motor. The attraction between the stator and rotor
varies at this rate, and the iron itself changes dimension a little in the
presence of the varying magnetic field due to magnetostriction.

Slip-related vibration

Irregularities in the rotor bars will cause vibration at the slip frequency times
the number of poles in the motor. For instance, in a two-pole motor, any
particular rotor bar will be aligned with the rotating magnetic pole created by
the stator at two times for every "slip cycle". The slip cycle is the
synchronous speed divided by the slip speed. For instance, in a 3450 RPM
motor, the synchronous speed is 3600 RPM, and the slip frequency is 3600 -
3450 = 150 RPM. Then, 3600 ¸ 150 = 24, which is the slip cycle. This means
for every 24 revolutions of the rotor, the same rotor bar will be exactly
aligned with the same polarity of the rotating magnetic pole, and will be
aligned with the opposite rotating pole once every 12 revolutions.

If one rotor bar has more resistance than the others due to a crack or break,
it will have less current induced in it when it is aligned with the poles, and
this will produce a little less torque at this point in its slip cycle. Thus, the
torque will be modulated at the slip frequency times twice the number of
poles. This frequency is also called the pole pass frequency. Pole pass is seen
in a vibration component in the signature, and also results in sidebands
around the 1X vibration component and around the 120 Hz component.

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Slot Pass Frequency

Another vibration component in electric motors is the so-called slot pass

frequency. This frequency is the number of stator slots times the RPM. The
stator slots contain the conducting windings, and their finite number creates
a non-uniformity, or "cogging" in the rotating magnetic field that in turn
causes a vibration component. The rotor bars are also in slots, and the rotor
bar pass frequency is also sometimes called a slot pass frequency, and is
different than the stator slot pass.

Shorted Laminations

The rotor and stator of AC motors are made of thin laminations that are
isolated from each other. This prevents magnetically induced currents from
circulating in the iron and cause heating. If the laminations are shorted
together in some locations, local heating and resultant thermal warping will
occur. Shorted laminations also cause higher 120 Hz vibration levels.

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Mechanical Sources of Vibration in Motors

Electric motors suffer from all the mechanical ailments common to other
rotating machines, with a few additions, as discussed below.

Rotor Thermal Bow

Uneven heating of the rotor due to unbalanced rotor bar current distribution
causes the rotor to warp, or "bow", and rotor bow results in an imbalance
condition with all its usual symptoms. It can be detected by the fact that it
goes away when the motor is cold.

Air Gap Eccentricity

If the air gap is not uniform, the forces on the rotor are not balanced,
resulting in high magnetically induced vibration at 120 Hz. The magnetic
attraction is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
rotor and stator, so a small eccentricity causes a relatively large vibration.

Loose Rotor

Sometimes the rotor can slip on the shaft, usually intermittently depending
on temperature, and this causes severe vibration at 1X and harmonics.
Abrupt changes in load or line voltage can instigate this.

Eccentric Rotor

If the rotor is not round, it will cause 1X excitation and unbalanced magnetic
forces that cause vibration at slip frequency times the number of poles. This
component will disappear immediately when the power is cut, and this is a
confirming test.

Loose Windings

If the electrical windings of the motor stator are even a little loose, the
vibration level at 120 Hz will be increased. This condition is very destructive
because it abrades the insulation on the wire, leading to shorted turns and
eventual short circuits to ground and stator failure. In some large machines
such as AC generators, loose windings will generate one-half order harmonics
of the 120 Hz excitation frequency.

Rotor Bar Problems

An important failure mode of large electric motors is the cracking and

subsequent heating and breaking of the rotor bars, especially in motors that
experience frequent starts under load. The starting condition places the
heaviest stress on the rotor bars because they are carrying the highest
current since the rotor is running at much lower than synchronous speed. The

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high currents cause heating and expansion of the bars relative to the rotor
itself, and differences in the electrical resistance of the individual bars result
in uneven heating and uneven expansion. This leads to cracking of the joints
where the bars are welded to the shorting ring. As soon as a crack develops,
the resistance of that bar increases, increasing its heating, and consequently
worsening the crack. At the same time, the adjacent rotor bars experience
increased currents because of the reduced current in the broken bar.

This scenario results in localized heating of the rotor, causing it to warp. See
the paragraph on Rotor Thermal Bow, above

Rotor Bar Monitoring via Motor Current Analysis

The condition of the rotor bars in an induction motor can be measured by

performing a high-resolution frequency analysis on the input current to the
motor.

The presence of a defective rotor bar will cause the motor torque to be
reduced slightly every time a pole of the rotating magnetic field passes by it.
This happens at twice the slip frequency, for both the north and south poles
of the field cause a momentary reduction. This reduction in torque also
results in a reduction in the input current to the motor at the same rate --
this is a result of conservation of energy. This periodic reduction in the motor
current is actually an amplitude modulation of the motor current. The amount
of modulation is related to the severity of the rotor bar problem.

A good way to detect motor current modulation is to perform a frequency

analysis on the current, and look at the sidebands around 60 Hz spaced at
twice the slip frequency. This can be done with a current clamp placed around
one phase of the input line and connecting it to a spectrum analyzer.

For this test, the motor must be operating under load, for with no load, the
slip will be very slow, and no appreciable torque is being developed.

Only one phase of a three-phase motor need be measured.

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The spectrum analyzer must be capable of generating a high-resolution

spectrum from 0 Hz to about 70 Hz, or a zoom spectrum from 50 Hz to 70
Hz. A frequency resolution of 1600 lines is desirable in order to separate the
2X slip sidebands from other sidebands caused by load variations, etc.

The high resolution and the zoom spectrum are desirable because the slip
frequency sidebands will be very close in frequency to the 60 Hz line
frequency. For instance, for a motor turning 1760 RPM, the slip frequency will
be 1800 - 1760 = 40 RPM, which is equivalent to 0.667 Hz. The sidebands
will be spaced at twice this frequency, or 1.334 Hz.

If the sidebands are 55 to 60 dB (1,000:1) down from the 60 Hz peak, the

rotor bars are considered good, but if they rise to 40 dB (100:1) below the 60
Hz peak, damaged rotor bars are indicated. It is possible to calibrate a
system like this to relate the actual number of open bars to the sideband
level if the number of bars in the rotor is known.

The spectrum above is from a 1760-RPM motor with rotor bar problems.

D.C. Motors

Misshapen or pitted commutator segments or improper brush contact can

cause excessive vibration in D.C. motors with the commutator. The frequency
will be at the segment pass frequency, which is the number of commutator
segments times the RPM.

If the 360 Hz peak in the vibration spectrum rises significantly, the likely
cause is probably open circuited field windings, loose electrical connections,
or malfunctioning SCRs.

Turbines

Gas and steam turbines are essentially similar mechanically, with gas
turbines having the added complication of a combustion chamber. Gas
turbine vibration signatures commonly contain a broadband vibration
component caused by the combustion noise.

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Turbine Diagnostics

Turbines often exhibit a strong component at the so-called blade rate, which
is the number of turbine blades times the RPM of the rotor. The magnitude of
this component is dependent on the internal geometry of the unit. If this
changes, as for instance by a cracked, warped, or pitted blade, the blade
pass component in the vibration signature will change, usually for the worse.

If the turbine blades wear uniformly, the blade pass frequency is quite
uniform, but if a portion of the rotor is damaged, such as a broken blade, the
blade pass component will be modulated by the RPM of the rotor or by the
number of nozzles in the turbine times the RPM, causing sidebands in the
spectrum.

Pumps

There are many types of pumps in common use, and their vibration
signatures vary over a wide range. When monitoring pump vibration, it is
important that the operating conditions are uniform from one measurement
to the next to assure consistent signatures. Suction pressure, discharge
pressure, and especially air induction and cavitation will affect the vibration
signature.

Centrifugal Pumps
The following spectrum, containing broadband high-frequency noise, indicates
cavitation in a centrifugal pump due to low inlet pressure.

Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps

Cavitation produces this type of spectrum at all measurement points of the
pump and the housing

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Gear Pumps

Gear pumps are commonly used for pumping lube oil, and they almost
always have a strong vibration component at the tooth mesh frequency,
which is the number of teeth on the gear times the RPM. This component will
be highly dependent on the output pressure of the pump. If the tooth mesh
frequency changes significantly, such as the sudden appearance of harmonics
or sidebands in the vibration spectrum, it could indicate a cracked or
otherwise damaged tooth.

Typical Gear Pump Spectrum

Screw Pumps

The screw type pump can generate a multitude of frequency components in

the vibration spectrum. Thread wear or damage will usually produce strong
harmonics of the thread rate, which is the number of threads times the RPM.

Fans

Most fans are either axial flow propeller-type fans, or are centrifugal. Fans,
especially when they are handling particle-laden air or gas, are prone to
uneven buildup of detritus on the blades. This causes imbalance, and should
be corrected as soon as it is diagnosed. If any of the blades become
deformed, cracked, or broken, the blade pass frequency vibration peak will
increase in level, and if there are many blades, sometimes 1X sidebands will
appear around the blade pass frequency.

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Axial Flow Fans

Centrifugal Fans

A common problem in centrifugal fans is uneven supply air velocity

distribution across the inlet, and this causes increased vibration levels at the
blade pass rate. If the fan is out of balance and is overhung, high 1X
vibration will occur in axial as well as both radial directions.

Defective blades can also cause 1X sidebands around the blade pass
frequency.

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Couplings

Couplings exist in many types and configurations, and defects in them usually
cause symptoms similar to misalignment. Frequently coupling problems will
produce stronger 1X vibration components than simple misalignment does. If
the coupling is not true, i.e., has non-parallel flange faces, a vibration similar
to angular misalignment is produced.

Coupling imbalance is also a common problem, and results in high 1X and 2X

radial and tangential components.

Coupling wear can produce all the symptoms of misalignment and looseness.
Three-jaw motor couplings that contain spacers of improper length will cause
strong axial and radial components at 3 times shaft RPM.

Drive Belts

Belt drives are relatively inexpensive types of power transmissions, but they
are prone to many problems. There are many types of drive belts, and all are
subject to wear and damage. Belts should be frequently inspected for
damage and should be kept at the proper tension and kept clean.

Mismatched, Worn, or Stretched Belts

Mismatched, worn, or stretched belts, especially Vee belts, will generate
vibration at the fundamental belt pass frequency and harmonics of it. Usually
the second harmonic is dominant if there are two sheaves in the system. The
fundamental belt frequency FBF is given by the following formula. It is always
sub-synchronous, meaning it is lower in frequency than 1X.

Where D = Sheave Diameter

L = Belt Length

RPM = Turn speed of sheave D

Eccentric Sheaves, Sheave Runout

Eccentric sheaves will generate strong 1X radial components, especially in the
direction parallel to the belts. This condition is very common, and mimics
imbalance. This can be checked by removing the belts and measuring again.
1X vibration of an eccentric sheave or a sheave with runout will usually also
show up at the other sheave.

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Eccentric Sheave

Sheave Misalignment

Sheave misalignment will generate strong axial 1X components and axial

harmonics of the fundamental belt frequency.

Belt Resonance, or Belt Slap

Gearboxes

If the gearbox has multiple shafts, each pair of gears will generate its own
tooth mesh components.

Different types of gear teeth will generate greatly different levels of vibration.
Spur gears are inherently the most noisy, followed by Bevel gears, Hypoid
gears, Helical gears, Herringbone gears, and Worm gears in descending order
of vibration severity.

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Hunting Tooth Gear Sets

The so-called “Hunting Tooth Gear Set” is a gear set whose tooth counts are
relatively prime; in other words, they have no common factors. This is the
best configuration for gears, since any tooth on either gear will contact every
tooth on the other gear before encountering the same tooth. This spreads the
wear evenly over all the gear teeth, increasing the life of the gearbox.

The hunting tooth frequency of a pair of gears is the gear mesh frequency
divided by the least common multiple of the numbers of teeth on the two
gears. The least common multiple is often just the product of the numbers of
teeth. In some gearboxes, the hunting tooth frequency will appear in the
vibration spectrum, and if so, it should be trended over time because rapid
wear usually results under these conditions

Commensurable Tooth Counts

Ghost Components

New gear sets will sometime exhibit spectral components that are not related
to the tooth counts of either gear. These components are sometimes called
ghost frequencies, and usually are the result of irregularities in the tooth
spacing of one of the gears. The irregularities are the result of machining
errors when the gear was made.

Ghost components generally tend to disappear over time since there is no

mechanical action that reinforces them.

Damaged Gear Teeth

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Eccentric Gears and Bent Shafts

Gear eccentricity will generate one sideband on each side of the tooth mesh
spaced at the gear RPM, rather than the multiple sidebands found with
individual damaged teeth.

Planetary Gears

Planetary gear systems are somewhat more complex than standard gear
pairs due to the fact that the planet gear centers rotate around the sun gear
at a rate called the train frequency. The sun gear RPM, a planet gear RPM or
the train frequency can modulate the tooth mesh frequency. This can produce
complex sets of sidebands in the spectrum, and can be difficult to interpret.

Planetary gear set characteristic forcing frequencies may be calculated by the

following formulas:

Where RPMP = Planet RPM,

RPMS = Sun RPM,

RPMC = Carrier RPM

N = number of teeth

GMF = Gear mesh frequency

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Defects in the Ring Gear will show up at number of Planets time Carrier RPM

Defects in the Sun gear wills show up at number

of planets times Sun RPM minus Carrier RPM

Defects in a planet gear will show up at:

Centrifugal Compressors
Centrifugal compressors generate spectra similar to centrifugal fans in that
the vane pass frequency will be dominant. Damaged or eroded vanes will
cause increases in the level at the vane pass, and also will usually produce 1X
sidebands around the vane pass. Compressor surge is a fluid dynamic
problem at the compressor output port that usually causes vibration at less
than 1X frequency. It is often caused by improper output pressure.
Below is a typical vibration spectrum from a 6-vaned centrifugal compressor.

Vane Pass Harmonics

Reciprocating Machines

The most common types of reciprocating machines are piston pumps and
compressors and internal combustion engines. In all these machines, the
piston rate (usually 1X) is dominant, along with the firing rate for 4-cycle
engines. Vibration levels as high as 125 VdB (1.0 inches per second peak) are
not uncommon for healthy machines such as these. The analyst must judge
the machine condition by comparison to previous levels rather than applying
absolute reference levels.

Many reciprocating engines have turbo chargers, and they are diagnosed like
other rotating turbines and compressors. Camshaft gear problems are also
common, and can be seen by looking for the tooth mesh frequency. If the
engine has a torsional vibration damper on the shaft, it can fail, greatly
increasing vibration at the frequency of the first crankshaft torsional vibration
mode. This frequency must be obtained from the engine maker.

Variable displacement piston pumps are much smoother than compressors,

and lend themselves well to vibration analysis. If harmonics of the piston rate

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are present in significant levels, it usually indicates a piston drive linkage

problem. A very prominent tone at piston frequency fundamental may
indicate a worn spot on the wobble plate.

Gearboxes

Healthy gearboxes will generate fairly prominent tones at the gear mesh
frequency, which is the number of gear teeth times the RPM of the gear. In a
new gearbox, as the teeth wear, the gear mesh component will typically
decrease in level as the teeth become smoothed and “wear in” a little. Then,
as wear progresses, the tooth mesh will increase in level. The level of the
tooth mesh component is dependent also on the alignment of the shafts
carrying the gears.

It will have amplitudes of gear mesh frequency with side bands and their
harmonics, 1X gear or pinion and amplitudes of all frequencies will be low.
No natural frequency of gear will be excited.

The amplitudes and spacing of sidebands play an important role to pin point
the gear problem. Sideband spacing reveals the defective gear or pinion.
Spur gear produces vibration in radial direction and helical gear produce in
radial & axial directions. All analysis should be done at maximum load.

If the gearbox has multiple shafts, each pair of gears will generate its own
tooth mesh components.

Normal Spectrum for Gear Mesh

Different types of gear teeth will generate greatly different levels of vibration.
Spur gears are inherently the most noisy, followed by Bevel gears. Hypoid
gears, helical gears, Herringbone gears and Worm gears in descending order
of vibration severity.

The various problems of the gears discussed below:

1. Tooth wear
2. Gear eccentricity & Backlash
3. Gear misalignment
4. Cracked or broken tooth
5. Hunting tooth

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1. Tooth Wear

The key indicator of tooth wear is not the gear mesh frequency but gear
natural frequency. With the increase in wear sidebands appear around GMF
and gear natural frequencies. The amplitudes of sidebands are between wear
indicators than amplitude GMF.

2. Gear eccentricity and backlash

Gear eccentricity will excite GMF and gear natural frequency and sidebands
around them.

3. Gear misalignment

Excites harmonics of GMF with side bands. Amplitudes 2GMF or 3GMF higher
than 1GMF. The sideband spacing about GMF frequencies might be 2X GMF,

3XGMF when gear, misalignment problem involved.

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4. Cracked or Broken Tooth

High amplitudes of 1XRPM of gear or pinion. Excites gear natural frequency.

Time waveform indicates spikes at 1/RPM of broken or cracked tooth.
Amplitudes of impact spikes in time waveform will be higher than that of
1XRPM in FFT.
V
V E
E L
L O
O C
C I
I T
T y
y
ti Frequency

5. Hunting Tooth Frequency

The so-called “hunting tooth frequency” is the rate at which a tooth in one
gear mates with a particular tooth in the other gear. If the gear ratio is an
integer such a 1,2 or 3, the hunting tooth frequency will be the RPM of the
larger gear and the same teeth will be in contact once per revolution. This
will cause uneven wear on the gears – a small defect in one tooth will
repeatedly contact the same teeth in the other gear causing localized wear on
those teeth. For this reason, gearboxes are not made with these simple
ratios unless absolutely necessary. Ideally, the hunting tooth frequency
should be as low as possible to evenly distribute the wear around both gears.
This means the number of teeth on each gear should be a prime number.

The hunting tooth frequency of a pair of gears is the gear mesh frequency
(GMF) times the lowest common prime factor of the tooth counts of the two
gears, divided by the product of the two tooth counts. For instance, consider
two gears of 54 teeth and 14 teeth:

54=3x3x3x2 and 14=2x7

2 is the smallest prime factor of this combination of tooth counts, so the

hunting tooth frequency will be GMFx2/54x14=GMF/1512. This is quite low
in frequency, which is typical for well-designed gear sets.

In a gearbox with tooth damage on either gear, the hunting tooth frequency
will appear in the vibration spectrum and it should be trended over time
because rapid gear wear usually results under these conditions.

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Planetary Gears

Planetary gear systems are somewhat more complex than standard gear
pairs due to the fact that the planet gear centers rotate around the sun gear t
a rate called the train frequency. The sun gear RPM, and/or sometimes a
planet gear RPM can modulate the tooth mesh frequency. This can produce
complex sets of sidebands in the spectrum and it can be difficult to interpret.

Centrifugal Compressors

Here is a typical vibration spectrum from a 6-vaned centrifugal compressor.

Centrifugal compressors generate spectra similar to centrifugal fans in that
the vane pass frequency will be dominant. Damaged or eroded vanes will
cause increases in the level at the vane pass and also will usually produce 1X
sidebands around the vane pass. Compressor surge is a fluid dynamic
problem at the compressor output port that usually causes vibration at less
than 1X frequency. It is often caused by improper output pressure.

Reciprocating Machines

The most common types of reciprocating machines are piston pumps and
compressors and internal combustion engines. In all these machines, the
piston rate (usually 1X) is dominant, along with the firing rate for 4-cycle
engines. Vibration levels as high as 50mm per second RMS are not
uncommon for healthy machines such as these. The analyst must judge the
machine condition by comparison to previous levels rather than applying
absolute reference levels.

Many reciprocating engines have turbo chargers, and they are diagnosed like
other rotating turbines and compressors. Camshaft gear problems are also
common and can be seen by looking for the tooth mesh frequency. If the
engine has a torsional vibration damper on the shaft, it can fail, greatly
increasing vibration at the frequency of the first crankshaft torsional vibration
mode. This frequency must be obtained from the engine maker.

Variable displacement piston pumps are must smoother than compressors

and lend themselves well to vibration analysis. If harmonics of the piston
rate are present in significant levels, it usually indicates a piston drive linkage
problem. A very prominent tone at piston frequency fundamental may
indicate a worm spot on the wobble plate.

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Diagnostic Summary Chart

Problem Exciting Dominant Phase Relationship Comments
Source Frequency Plane
Unbalance
Static IX Radial Horizontal to Vertical phase difference 900 at Amplitude will increase by the square of the speed. Can be
the same bearing housing. No phase corrected by single plane balancing.
difference between DE and NDE bearing of
the rotor.
Couple IX Radial 1800 phase difference between DE and NDE Amplitude will increase by the square of the speed. Can be
Axial bearing of the rotor in Horizontal as well as corrected by single plane balancing.
Vertical.
Overhung IX Radial Axial phase readings between DE and NDE Overhand rotor often has both force and couple
Rotor Axial bearing of the rotor will be in phase but unbalances each of which needs correction separately.
radial may change.

Eccentric IX Radial Horizontal to Vertical phase difference either Attempts to balance eccentric rotor may reduce vibration
Rotor 00 or 900 at the same bearing housing (Both in one direction but may increase in the other direction
indicate straight-line motion). depending upon the amount of eccentricity.

Bent 1X, 2X Axial 1800 phase difference between DE and NDE Dominant vibration 1X if bent is near the center and 2X if
Shaft bearing of the rotor in Axial bent is near the coupling.
Misalignment
Angular 1X, 2X, Axial 1800 phase difference across the coupling. These symptoms indicate coupling problems as well.
3X
Parallel 1X, 2X, Radial 1800 phase difference across the coupling. 2X often higher than 1X. Severe angular and radial
3X misalignment can generate higher harmonics 4X - 8X
similar to mechanical looseness. Coupling construction
often influence the shape of the spectrum.

Cocked 1X, 2X, Axial 1800 phase difference between top to Bearing must be removed and reinstalled.
Bearing 3X bottom and / or side to side as measured in
the axial direction of the same bearing
housing.
The Radial plane includes horizontal and vertical directions in all the tables

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Problem Exciting Dominant Phase Relationship Comments

Source Frequency Plane
Resonance If one radial direction is resonant, the Horizontal to It can happen at any forcing frequency that
Vertical phase difference will be 00 or 1800 at the coincides with natural frequency. It can
same bearing housing. When the machine is at suddenly occur on a long running machine
resonance the phase change is 900 and almost 1800 never before subjected to it.
when is passes completely through resonance.

Mechanical 0.5X, Radial For non-rotating looseness 1800 phase difference in It alone is not cause of vibration but is
Looseness 1X, 1.5X, the vertical direction. For rotating looseness phase reaction to the other problems line
2X, 2.5X etc will be unstable and differ widely from one unbalance, misalignment, bearing problems
measurement to the next. etc. Looseness aggravates the situation. It
should be resolved first.

Problem Exciting Dominant Comments

Source Frequency Plane
Rotor Rub 0.5X, 1X, Radial Spectra similar to mechanical looseness when rotating parts contact stationary components. Often
1.5X, 2X, 2.5X excites sub harmonics 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5… 1/n of running speed depending on location of rotor
etc natural frequencies. It produces truncated flattened waveform.
Sleeve Bearing
Clearance 1X, 2X…..20X Radial Wiped bearing cause high vertical vibration. Sleeve bearing with high clearance cause minor
Problems unbalance and / or misalignment to amplify.

Oil Whirl 0.42X -0.48X Radial Considered excessive when amplitude exceeds 50% of bearing clearance.
Oil Whirl --- Radial It can occur when if machine operated at or above 2X rotor critical frequency. When rotor brought
up to twice critical speed whirl will be very close to rotor critical and may cause excessive
vibration that of oil film may no longer be capable of supporting. Whirl speed may lock onto rotor
critical and this peak will not pass through if the machine brought to higher and higher speed.

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Problem Source Exciting Dominant Comments

Frequency Place
Rolling Element Bearing
Stage - 1 1,200k - Radial Earliest indications of bearing problems appear in the ultrasonic frequency ranging from
3,600 1,200k to 3,600 KCPM. Spike Energy, HFD, and Shock Pulse evaluate these frequencies.
kcpm
Stage - 2 30 k - 120 Radial Slight bearing defects begin to ring bearing component natural frequencies, which
kcpm predominantly occur in 30k to 120KCPM range. Sideband frequencies appear above and
below natural frequency peak at the end of stage 2.
Stage - 3 BPFI Radial Bearing defect frequencies and harmonics appear. When the wear progresses, more defect
BPFO frequencies appear and no of sidebands grow, both around these and bearing natural
BSF frequencies. Wear is now usually visible and may extend throughout the periphery of the
FTF bearing particular when well-formed sidebands accompany bearing defect frequency
harmonics. Bearing has to be replaced now.
Stage - 4 1X - 4X Radial Towards the end, amplitude of IX and other running speed harmonics will increase. Discrete
bearing defect and component natural frequencies actually begin to disappear and are
replaced by random, broad band high frequency noise floor. In addition amplitude of both
high frequency noise floor and spike energy may decrease: but prior to failure, spike energy
will grow to excessive amplitudes.
Hydraulic & Aerodynamic Forces
Blade or Vane BPF Radial Blade pass frequency (BPF) = No of blades X RPM. Larger BPF can be generated - 1.
Pass Frequency Improper gap between rotating vanes and stationary diffuser. 2. Impeller wear ring seizes
on the shaft of weld-fastening diffusers fails. 3. If impeller is placed eccentrically in the
housing. 4. Abrupt bends in the pipes or ducts. If BPF or any harmonics coincides with the
system natural frequency then causes high vibration.

Flow Random Radial It often occurs in blowers due to variations in pressure or velocity of the air passing through
Turbulence from 50 - the fan or connected duct.
2000cpm

Cavitation Random Radial It is due to insufficient suction pressure (Starvation). It often sounds like as if gravel is
high freq. passing through pump. It can erode impeller vanes when present.
Vibration

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