R sound

In English, the /r/ sound is quite versatile, and while the terms "dark /r/" and "light /r/" aren't
as commonly used as they are with the /l/ sound (which has clear "light" and "dark" variants),
there are still different ways the /r/ can be pronounced depending on its position in a word
and the accent of the speaker.

1. Standard /r/

 This is the most common way /r/ is pronounced in many accents, particularly in
American and Canadian English. It's produced with the tongue slightly curled back in
the mouth, without touching the roof of the mouth, known as a retroflex sound.
 Example Words: red, run, rabbit.

2. Prevocalic /r/

 This /r/ occurs before a vowel sound, and it's typically pronounced more clearly. It's
the standard /r/ but slightly more pronounced.
 Example Words: rain, right, round.

3. Postvocalic /r/

 This /r/ comes after a vowel sound, often at the end of words or syllables. In rhotic
accents (like General American), this /r/ is fully pronounced, while in non-rhotic
accents (like Received Pronunciation in the UK), it may be silent or very lightly
pronounced.
 Example Words: car, fear, more.

4. Tapped /r/

 In some accents, particularly Scottish English, and in certain dialects of American

English, the /r/ sound may be tapped, sounding more like a quick flap of the tongue
against the roof of the mouth, similar to the /t/ in "butter" in American English.
 Example Words: butter (in some American dialects), city (in Scottish English).

5. Retroflex /r/

 This is a more exaggerated form of the standard /r/, where the tongue is curled even
more backward. It's more common in some American English dialects.
 Example Words: Similar to standard /r/ but with a stronger curl in the tongue.

6. Labialized /r/

 This /r/ involves rounding the lips slightly while pronouncing the sound. It's less
common but can occur in some dialects or when /r/ is followed by a rounded vowel.
 Example Words: round, roar, rule.
7. Velarized /r/

 Similar to the dark /l/, this /r/ involves the back of the tongue being raised towards the
velum (the soft part of the roof of the mouth). It may occur in some accents or dialects
but is generally not a standard variant in English.
 Example Words: Not typically found in standard English, but may occur in dialectal
variations.

8. R-colored Vowels (Rhotic Vowels)

 This occurs when the /r/ sound modifies the vowel it follows, making the vowel sound
"r-colored" or "rhotic." This is common in American English.
 Example Words: bird, hurt, word.

1. Standard /r/

 Explanation: This is the most typical /r/ sound in many English dialects, particularly
in American and Canadian English. It is produced with the tongue slightly curled back
in the mouth, but without touching the roof of the mouth. It is considered a rhotic
sound.
 Examples:
1. red
2. run
3. rabbit
4. road
5. round
6. ring
7. rake
8. river
9. right
10. rope

2. Prevocalic /r/

 Explanation: This /r/ occurs before a vowel within the same syllable. It’s pronounced
clearly and fully articulated. It is essentially the standard /r/ but with emphasis due to
its position before a vowel.
 Examples:
1. rain
2. right
3. round
4. rest
5. ride
6. row
7. rush
8. reach
9. read
10. rock
3. Postvocalic /r/

 Explanation: This /r/ occurs after a vowel sound and before a consonant or at the end
of a word. In rhotic accents (like American English), it is fully pronounced. In non-
rhotic accents (like Received Pronunciation in the UK), it might be silent or only
lightly pronounced.
 Examples:
1. car
2. fear
3. more
4. far
5. door
6. fire
7. tiger
8. clear
9. star
10. chair

4. Tapped /r/

 Explanation: The tapped /r/ is produced by a single, quick tap of the tongue against
the alveolar ridge (the bony ridge behind your upper front teeth). This is more
common in Scottish English and some American dialects. It’s similar to the way some
Americans pronounce the /t/ in words like "butter."
 Examples:
1. butter (in some American dialects)
2. ladder (in some American dialects)
3. city (in Scottish English)
4. better (in some American dialects)
5. writer (in some American dialects)
6. water (in some American dialects)
7. pretty (in some American dialects)
8. letter (in some American dialects)
9. party (in some American dialects)
10. daughter (in some American dialects)

5. Retroflex /r/

 Explanation: In this pronunciation, the tongue is curled back more strongly than in
the standard /r/, almost touching the roof of the mouth. It’s particularly noticeable in
some American English dialects.
 Examples:
1. river
2. rain
3. road
4. run
5. ride
6. rich
 7. rake
8. round
9. rare
10. rope

6. Labialized /r/

 Explanation: This /r/ involves rounding of the lips while pronouncing the sound. It is
often found when the /r/ is followed by a rounded vowel.
 Examples:
1. round
2. roar
3. rule
4. row
5. rope
6. rude
7. rob
8. rubble
9. royal
10. rose

7. Velarized /r/

 Explanation: The velarized /r/ involves raising the back of the tongue towards the
velum (the soft part of the roof of the mouth). While not common in standard English,
it can appear in certain dialects or languages.
 Examples: (Less common in standard English, but examples where it could be
approximated include words where /r/ follows back vowels)
1. grow
2. grip
3. grand
4. great
5. grunt
6. green
7. groove
8. group
9. grain
10. grasp

8. R-colored Vowels (Rhotic Vowels)

 Explanation: In rhotic accents, certain vowels are colored by the presence of a

following /r/ sound, leading to a distinct pronunciation where the vowel merges with
the /r/. This is common in American English.
 Examples:
1. bird
2. hurt
3. word
4. first
5. nurse
 6. curtain
7. fur
8. turn
9. burn
10. purse

Phonetics" or "Speech Sounds (consonant classification)

 "Classification of Consonant Sounds in Phonetics"

 "The Manner of Articulation in Speech Sounds"
 "Consonant Types in English Phonetics"

Approximants

Approximants are a type of consonant sound in which the articulators (such as the tongue and
the roof of the mouth) come close to each other, but not close enough to create the turbulent
airflow that characterizes fricative consonants like /s/ or /f/. Because the airflow is smooth
and continuous, approximants sound somewhat like vowels, even though they function as
consonants.

In phonetics, approximants are classified into several types, depending on which articulators
are involved and how they move. Here are the key types of approximants in English:

1. Lateral Approximant

 Example: /l/ as in "light"

 Explanation: In a lateral approximant, the air flows around the sides of the tongue.
The tongue makes contact with the alveolar ridge (the bony ridge behind the upper
front teeth), but the sides of the tongue are lowered, allowing air to pass along the
sides of the mouth.

2. Central Approximants

 Labial-Velar Approximant /w/:

o Example: /w/ as in "water"
o Explanation: This is a central approximant where the lips are rounded and the
back of the tongue is raised toward the soft part of the roof of the mouth (the
velum). The air passes through the center of the mouth without creating
turbulence.
 Palatal Approximant /j/:
o Example: /j/ as in "yes"
o Explanation: In this sound, the tongue is raised close to the hard palate (the
bony part of the roof of the mouth) without actually touching it. This creates a
smooth flow of air through the center of the mouth.
 Retroflex Approximant /ɹ/:
o Example: /ɹ/ as in "red" (in many American English dialects)
o Explanation: In the retroflex approximant, the tongue is curled back toward
the alveolar ridge or the hard palate, but it does not touch, allowing air to pass
 smoothly. This is a common way to pronounce the /r/ sound in many
American and Canadian English accents.

3. Glides (Semi-Vowels)

 /w/ and /j/: These two approximants are also sometimes called "glides" or "semi-
vowels" because they share characteristics with both vowels and consonants. They
function as consonants but have a vowel-like quality in terms of their articulation.

Summary of Key Points:

 Approximants are consonants where the articulators come close together but do not
create the turbulent airflow typical of fricatives.
 Lateral Approximants (/l/) involve the air flowing around the sides of the tongue.
 Central Approximants include /w/ (labial-velar), /j/ (palatal), and /ɹ/ (retroflex).
 Glides (/w/ and /j/) are approximants that resemble vowels in their articulation but
function as consonants.

Classification of Consonant Sounds in Phonetics: The Manner of Articulation

1. Stops (Plosives)

 Explanation: Stops, also known as plosives, are consonant sounds produced by

completely blocking the airflow in the vocal tract and then suddenly releasing it. This
creates a burst of sound when the air is released.
 Examples:
o /b/ as in bat, rub, cab
o /d/ as in dog, bed, card
o /p/ as in pat, tap, cup
o /t/ as in top, cat, hat
o /k/ as in cat, bake, kick
o /g/ as in go, bag, frog

2. Fricatives

 Explanation: Fricatives are consonant sounds produced by forcing air through a

narrow constriction formed by the articulators, creating a continuous, turbulent
airflow. This produces a "hissing" or "buzzing" sound.
 Examples:
o /f/ as in fish, coffee, life
o /v/ as in van, over, love
o /θ/ (voiceless th) as in think, bath, both
o /ð/ (voiced th) as in this, brother, breathe
 o /s/ as in sun, pass, kiss
o /z/ as in zebra, nose, buzz
o /ʃ/ (sh sound) as in she, wish, fish
o /ʒ/ (zh sound) as in measure, vision, beige

3. Affricates

 Explanation: Affricates are consonant sounds that begin as stops (with a complete
blockage of airflow) and then release into a fricative. This means they combine the
characteristics of both stops and fricatives.
 Examples:
o /tʃ/ (ch sound) as in chicken, watch, match
o /dʒ/ (j sound) as in jump, judge, age

4. Nasals

 Explanation: Nasals are consonant sounds produced by lowering the velum (the soft
part of the roof of the mouth) and allowing the airflow to pass through the nose. The
mouth is typically closed or nearly closed during the production of these sounds.
 Examples:
o /m/ as in man, swim, time
o /n/ as in no, pen, moon
o /ŋ/ (ng sound) as in sing, long, song

5. Approximants

 Explanation: Approximants are consonants where the articulators come close

together, but not close enough to create turbulent airflow. This results in a smooth,
vowel-like sound. Approximants can be further categorized into lateral approximants
and central approximants (including glides and liquids).
 Examples:
o /l/ (lateral approximant) as in light, fall, ball
o /ɹ/ (retroflex approximant, often written as /r/) as in red, car, tree
o /j/ (palatal approximant) as in yes, yellow, yard
o /w/ (labial-velar approximant) as in water, wind, quick

Summary of Key Concepts:

 Stops (Plosives): Complete blockage of airflow followed by a release (e.g., /b/, /d/).
 Fricatives: Continuous turbulent airflow through a narrow constriction (e.g., /v/, /z/).
 Affricates: Combination of a stop followed by a fricative (e.g., /dʒ/).
 Nasals: Airflow directed through the nose (e.g., /m/, /n/).
 Approximants: Articulators close together without creating turbulence, resulting in
smooth sounds (e.g., /l/, /r/).
Stops (Plosives)

/p/: pat, pen, pop, top, tap, cup, paper, map, pig, pipe, park, lip, stop, rip, nap, hop, pool, pick,
puppy, plant

/t/: top, tap, tent, cat, hat, bat, coat, kite, mat, fat, pot, set, sit, hit, get, foot, tight, night, bright,
light

/k/: cat, kite, kick, cook, back, rock, sick, black, cake, cup, clock, duck, park, sock, track,
check, king, kick, bark, lock

/g/: go, gate, gold, bag, game, dog, frog, garden, gift, hug, log, big, tag, mug, rag, dig, flag,
gum, gate, good

Fricatives

/f/: fish, foot, fun, fan, find, leaf, face, phone, fluff, food, fat, fight, friend, fit, cuff, half, safe,
life, laugh, coffee

/v/: van, vine, very, vet, love, move, save, valve, velvet, vote, dive, drive, cave, give, leave,
heavy, over, ever, wave, twelve

/θ/ (voiceless th): think, thin, thank, bath, mouth, cloth, both, thief, theme, thumb, path, thick,
tooth, moth, throw, three, thirst, theory, fourth, thought

/ð/ (voiced th): this, that, there, these, those, they, their, them, brother, mother, father,
weather, feather, together, another, breathe, bathe, smooth, although, rather

/s/: sun, sit, sand, snake, send, pass, kiss, sister, best, fast, soap, boss, bus, mouse, case, house,
face, glass, rice, science

/z/: zebra, zoo, zip, buzz, jazz, nose, rose, lose, prize, zero, lazy, busy, wise, maze, size,
pause, dozen, breeze, easy, noise

/ʃ/ (sh sound): she, ship, shoe, shy, shop, shell, fish, wish, brush, wash, hush, rush, push,
bush, crash, flash, fresh, cash, trash, leash

/ʒ/ (zh sound): measure, treasure, pleasure, vision, television, decision, revision, leisure,
seizure, garage, beige, massage, mirage, camouflage, fusion, erosion, closure, exposure,
version, collision

Affricates

/tʃ/ (ch sound): chair, cheese, church, chat, check, chop, match, catch, watch, march, reach,
teach, beach, pitch, lunch, touch, rich, bench, search, clutch
/dʒ/ (j sound): jump, judge, jar, juice, jeans, giant, jungle, join, joke, journey, enjoy, edge,
bridge, age, page, stage, orange, large, charge, lodge

Nasals

/m/: man, mom, milk, map, moon, meet, mouse, move, make, mat, miss, more, smile, team,
summer, warm, thumb, arm, swim, lamp

/n/: no, nine, nail, note, name, net, nice, nose, near, sun, run, pen, hand, win, rain, new, fan,
pan, king, line

/ŋ/ (ng sound): sing, song, ring, long, thing, bring, wing, hang, spring, strong, king, swing,
string, wrong, young, belong, among, thing, bang, lung

Approximants

/l/ (lateral approximant): light, love, lamp, land, lion, look, leaf, leg, list, long, laugh, large,
level, life, little, play, left, cool, ball, blue

/ɹ/ (retroflex approximant): red, run, right, road, room, rain, read, rock, rich, reach, ride, river,
ring, race, rabbit, round, tree, brown, green, grow

/j/ (palatal approximant): yes, yellow, yard, year, young, yesterday, yogurt, youth, yacht,
yardstick, yummy, yam, yield, yawn, you, yet, your, yeast, yell, yearn

/w/ (labial-velar approximant): water, wind, wave, wall, walk, warm, want, winter, west,
white, wood, woman, wolf, word, work, well, wise, wine, wing, wet

T sound

The letter "T" in English can be pronounced in several different ways depending on its
position in a word, surrounding sounds, and dialect. Here are the main types of "T" sounds:

1. Aspirated /t/

 The standard "T" sound is aspirated when it occurs at the beginning of a stressed
syllable. This means there is a burst of air when the "T" is pronounced.
 Examples: top, table, time, train, tall

 Examples: top, time, table, train, tall, talk, take, ten, test, tiger, tap, tear, toast, team,
ticket, tunnel, tune, town, task, trim

2. Unaspirated /t/

 When "T" occurs after an "S" at the beginning of a word or syllable, it is typically
unaspirated. This means there is little to no burst of air.
 Examples: stop, stand, stone, staple
  Examples: stop, star, stand, stone, stew, stow, strap, street, stump, stealth, stilt, skate,
skill, stove, stay, step, stand, still, steam, steak

3. Flap T /t/ (or /ɾ/)

 In American English, when a "T" occurs between two vowels (and sometimes
between a vowel and a syllabic "L"), it often becomes a flap, which sounds similar to
a soft "D."
 Examples: butter, city, water, better, party

 Examples: butter, city, water, better, writer, later, battle, letter, motor, meeting,
pretty, party, matter, total, editor, petal, artist, voted, hidden, bottle

4. Glottal Stop /ʔ/

 In some dialects of English (like Cockney or certain American accents), the "T" can
be pronounced as a glottal stop, where the airflow is briefly stopped at the vocal
cords.
 Examples: butter (pronounced as "bu'er"), mountain (pronounced as "moun'ain"),
button (pronounced as "bu'on")

 Examples: button (pronounced as "bu'on"), mountain (pronounced as "moun'n"),

kitten (pronounced as "ki'en"), often (in some accents, pronounced as "offen"),
frighten (pronounced as "frigh'en"), buttoned (pronounced as "bu'oned"), curtain
(pronounced as "cur'in"), happen (pronounced as "hap'en"), tighten (pronounced as
"tight'en"), beaten (pronounced as "bea'en"), cotton (pronounced as "cot'n"), certain
(pronounced as "cer'in"), forgotten (pronounced as "forgo'en"), bitten (pronounced as
"bi'en"), little (pronounced as "li'le"), mitten (pronounced as "mi'en"), garden
(pronounced as "gar'en"), soften (pronounced as "sof'en"), listen (pronounced as
"lis'en"), kitten (pronounced as "ki'en"), mountain (pronounced as "moun'n")

5. Silent T

 In some words, the "T" is silent, meaning it is written but not pronounced.
 Examples: listen, castle, whistle, fasten, often

 Examples: listen, castle, whistle, fasten, often, ballet, ballet, fasten, gourmet, apostle,
castle, wrestle, buffet, moisture, subtle,asten, listen, soften, ballet, ballet

6. T in Consonant Clusters

 The "T" sound can be modified depending on the consonants that follow or precede it.
For example, in the word "eighth," the "T" is followed by the "TH" sound.
 Examples: eighth, acts, fights, twelfth
  Examples: seventh, winter, strength, act, instinct, abstract, lipstick, script, fortnight,
footsteps, textbook, handshake, landmark, flashlight, construct, fasten, test, trumpet,
rescue, hasty

7. Palatalized T /tʃ/

 In some words, particularly when "T" is followed by an "R" or "U," it can become
palatalized, sounding closer to "ch."
 Examples: nature (pronounced as "nay-chur"), creature, tune (in some accents,
pronounced as "choon"), actual (pronounced as "ach-ual")

 Examples: tune (pronounced as "choon" in some accents), nature (pronounced as

"nay-chur"), future (pronounced as "fyoo-chur"), picture (pronounced as "pik-chur"),
feature (pronounced as "fee-chur"), choral (pronounced as "kor-al"), church
(pronounced as "chur-ch"), sure (pronounced as "shur" in some accents), mature
(pronounced as "ma-chur"), adventure (pronounced as "ad-ven-chur"), mixture
(pronounced as "mix-chur"), culture (pronounced as "kul-chur"), torture (pronounced
as "tor-chur"), gesture (pronounced as "jes-chur"), structure (pronounced as "struc-
chur"), capture (pronounced as "cap-chur"), picture (pronounced as "pik-chur"),
nature (pronounced as "nay-chur"), fracture (pronounced as "frack-chur"), lecture
(pronounced as "lec-chur")

8. Affricate T

 When "T" is combined with a following "Y" sound, as in "tune" or "Tuesday," it can
sound like a "ch" (/tʃ/).
 Examples: tune (sometimes pronounced as "choon" in certain dialects), Tuesday
(sometimes pronounced as "Choos-day")

 Examples: chair, cheese, church, chat, check, chop, match, catch, watch, march,
reach, teach, beach, pitch, lunch, touch, rich, bench, search, clutch

9. T-to-D Shift

 In some dialects, particularly in casual American English, the "T" sound in the middle
of a word is softened to sound like a "D."
 Examples: city (pronounced as "cidy"), better (pronounced as "bedder"), butter
(pronounced as "budder")

 Examples: city (pronounced as "cidy"), better (pronounced as "bedder"), butter

(pronounced as "budder"), water (pronounced as "wader"), writer (pronounced as
"wri'er"), ladder (pronounced as "ladder"), matter (pronounced as "madder"), 15
(pronounced as "fifteen"), 20 (pronounced as "twenty"), bottle (pronounced as
"bodle"), little (pronounced as "lidle"), letter (pronounced as "ledder"), latter
(pronounced as "ladder"), pitter (pronounced as "pidder"), latter (pronounced as
"ladder"), 50 (pronounced as "fifdy"), writer (pronounced as "wri'er"), setting
(pronounced as "seding"), matter (pronounced as "madder"), bitter (pronounced as
"bidder")
The difference between Flap and the T shifting to D

Flap T (/ɾ/)

 Phonetic Description: The Flap T is a rapid, single contact of the tongue against the
roof of the mouth. It is not a full stop but rather a quick, soft, and brief touch,
resulting in a sound similar to a very soft "D."
 Occurrence: This sound typically occurs in American English when a "T" is between
two vowels, with the second vowel often being unstressed.
 Examples: butter (pronounced "budder"), city (pronounced "cidy"), water
(pronounced "wader"), writer (pronounced "wri'er"), better (pronounced "bedder").
 Characteristics: It sounds more like a quick tap and is not a complete stop of airflow.
The flap T can occur at the beginning or middle of a word and often sounds like a
quick, soft "D" but is produced differently.

T Shifting to D

 Phonetic Description: When the T shifts to a D, it usually involves the complete

substitution of the T sound with a D sound. This substitution can happen due to
dialectal variations or in casual speech where the T sound is pronounced more like a
D.
 Occurrence: This shift often occurs in informal or rapid speech and is particularly
noted in American English. It might occur in certain dialects or in specific positions in
words.
 Examples: butter (pronounced "budder"), better (pronounced "bedder"), water
(pronounced "wader"), ladder (pronounced "ladder"), writer (pronounced "wri'er").
 Characteristics: The shift from T to D involves replacing the T sound with a full D
sound. This is more of a substitution rather than a different articulation of the T
sound.

Summary of Differences

 Articulation: The Flap T is a single, quick tap of the tongue, while T shifting to D
involves completely changing the sound to a D.
 Context of Use: The Flap T occurs between vowels where the second vowel is often
unstressed. T shifting to D can occur in casual speech or specific dialects where the T
is replaced by a D sound.
  Sound Produced: The Flap T sounds like a soft "D" but is produced by a quick flap
of the tongue. T shifting to D sounds like a full "D" and is produced by fully stopping
the airflow.

English roots

Identifying the root of an English word involves understanding its basic form and meaning,
from which other words are derived. Here are some key methods to identify word roots:

1. Look for Common Prefixes and Suffixes

 Prefixes: These are added to the beginning of a root word to modify its meaning.
Common prefixes include un-, re-, pre-, dis-, etc. For example, in the word replay, the
prefix re- means "again," and the root word is play.
 Suffixes: These are added to the end of a root word. Common suffixes include -ing, -
ed, -ly, -er, -ness, etc. For example, in happiness, the suffix -ness modifies the
adjective happy to form a noun.

2. Identify the Base Word

 The base word, or root, is the core part of the word that carries the primary meaning.
For example, in the word rejuvenate, juven- is the root word meaning "young."

3. Examine Word Parts

 Roots: These are the core components of a word that provide its primary meaning.
For example, the root vis or vid means "see" as in vision, video, or visit.
 Combining Forms: Some words are formed by combining roots or base words with
other elements. For example, microphone combines the roots micro- (small) and
phone (sound).

4. Use Etymology

 Etymology is the study of the origin of words and how their meanings and structures
have evolved. By looking up the etymology of a word, you can trace its root. For
example, the word democracy comes from the Greek demos (people) and kratos
(power).

5. Consult a Dictionary
  Many dictionaries provide information on the roots of words. Look for the etymology
section, which often explains the origin and historical development of the word.

6. Recognize Common Roots

 Many English words have Latin or Greek roots. For example:

o Aqua (Latin for "water") as in aquarium and aquatic.
o Graph (Greek for "write") as in autograph and telegraph.

7. Analyze Word Families

 Words that belong to the same family often share a common root. For instance:
o Educate, education, educator all share the root educ- from Latin educare (to
bring up).

Examples of Identifying Roots:

 Unhappiness:
o Prefix: un- (not)
o Root: happy
o Suffix: -ness (state of)
 Transform:
o Prefix: trans- (across)
o Root: form (shape)
 Submarine:
o Prefix: sub- (under)
o Root: marine (sea)

Prefixes

Comprehensive list of common prefixes in English, along with their meanings and examples:

1. Un-

 Meaning: Not, opposite of

 Examples: happy → unhappy, certain → uncertain, do → undo, likely → unlikely
 Meaning: Not, opposite of
 Examples: unhappy, untie, unclear, unkind, unfasten, undo, unknown, unusual, unfit,
untrue, unhappy, unwell, unplanned, unsafe, unimportant, unbalanced, unacceptable,
unlikely, untrustworthy, unfinished

2. Re-
  Meaning: Again, back
 Examples: do → redo, play → replay, write → rewrite, build → rebuild
 Meaning: Again, back
 Examples: redo, replay, rewrite, rebuild, renew, return, revisit, recover, refresh,
reconnect, refund, refuel, remodel, reprint, react, relocate, rehearse, reduce,
regenerate, reschedule

3. Dis-

 Meaning: Not, opposite of, undo

 Examples: agree → disagree, appear → disappear, like → dislike, honest →
dishonest
 Examples: disagree, disappear, dislike, disconnect, disapprove, disable, discomfort,
disbelieve, displace, dishonest, disregard, disobey, disengage, dismount, dishearten,
disinfect, disillusion, disturb, discredit, disheveled

4. Pre-

 Meaning: Before
 Examples: view → preview, historic → prehistoric, arrange → prearrange, pay →
prepay
 Examples: preview, prepare, prevent, preheat, prepay, preorder, prearrange, pretest,
preschool, preface, prehistoric, preview, precondition, preempt, premeditate, preclude,
preform, predate, precheck, preemptive

5. Mis-

 Meaning: Wrongly, badly

 Examples: understand → misunderstand, behave → misbehave, place → misplace,
judge → misjudge
 Meaning: Wrongly, badly
 Examples: misunderstand, misplace, misbehave, mislead, mistake, misinterpret,
misjudge, misalign, misprint, mismanage, miscalculate, misquote, misuse, misread,
misspell, misreport, misadventure, mishandle, misapply, misconstrue

6. In-

 Meaning: Not, into, inside

 Examples: active → inactive, visible → invisible, appropriate → inappropriate,
insert → insert
 Examples: inactive, incomplete, incorrect, invisible, incapable, indirect, insecure,
incomprehensible, infinite, insensitive, inappropriate, inflexible, involuntary, inedible,
inaudible, invalid, inexperienced, inhumane, innocent, intolerant

7. Im-

 Meaning: Not, into

 Examples: possible → impossible, moral → immoral, patient → impatient, port →
import
  Examples: impossible, impolite, immature, improbable, impersonal, imperfect,
imbalance, impure, impassable, impractical, immobile, improbable, impose, imbibe,
impartial, impound, implode, immigrant, immune, immerse

8. Over-

 Meaning: Too much, above

 Examples: cook → overcook, estimate → overestimate, work → overwork, see →
oversee
 Examples: overcook, overeat, overestimate, overwork, overlook, overcharge,
overpay, overreact, oversleep, overdrive, overuse, overtake, overboard, overfill,
overheat, overload, overstate, overindulge, overpower, overspend

9. Under-

 Meaning: Too little, below

 Examples: estimate → underestimate, paid → underpaid, developed →
underdeveloped, stand → understand
 Examples: underestimate, underpaid, underprivileged, underdeveloped,
underperform, undercook, undersea, underage, underground, undercut, underweight,
underused, underwrite, undersell, understaffed, underappreciated, underqualified,
underpaid, understudy, undercharge

10. Sub-

 Meaning: Under, below

 Examples: marine → submarine, way → subway, standard → substandard, ordinate
→ subordinate
 Examples: submarine, subway, subject, submit, subtract, substitute, substandard,
subordinate, submerge, subdivide, suburb, subtropical, subzero, subconscious,
subcontinent, subroutine, subsidize, subhead, subset, subculture

11. Inter-

 Meaning: Between, among

 Examples: national → international, act → interact, connect → interconnect, view
→ interview
 Examples: international, interact, interview, interconnect, intersect, intercede,
intervene, interject, interlude, intermediate, interdependence, intercontinental,
intermission, interrelated, intercity, intercom, interweave, intersperse, intersperse,
interlocutor, internet

12. Trans-

 Meaning: Across, beyond

 Examples: port → transport, form → transform, mit → transmit, continental →
transcontinental
  Examples: transport, transform, transmit, translate, transition, transcribe,
transcontinental, transgression, transaction, transgender, transparent, transmute,
transplant, transatlantic, transference, transfix, transfer, transduce, transcend, transom

13. Non-

 Meaning: Not
 Examples: fiction → nonfiction, stop → nonstop, sense → nonsense, compliant →
noncompliant
 Examples: nonfiction, nonstop, nonviolent, nonessential, nonpublic, nonrenewable,
nonconformist, nonstandard, nonresident, nonverbal, nontraditional, nonchalant,
nonprofit, nonnegotiable, nonintervention, nonspecific, nonessential, nonaddictive,
noncompliant, nonrefundable

14. Super-

 Meaning: Above, beyond

 Examples: hero → superhero, power → superpower, market → supermarket, star →
superstar
 Examples: superhero, superpower, supermarket, supernova, superman, superior,
supersede, superimpose, superstitious, superhuman, supercharge, superlative,
superfluous, supercilious, superabundant, superheated, superscript, superstructure,
supernormal, supermodel

15. Auto-

 Meaning: Self
 Examples: mobile → automobile, graph → autograph, biography → autobiography,
pilot → autopilot
 Examples: automobile, autopilot, autograph, autobiography, automatic, autocrat,
autonomy, autodidact, autofocus, autobiography, autoimmune, autopsy, autogenic,
auto-repair, auto-fill, auto-correct, auto-dial, auto-tune, auto-generate, auto-start

16. Hyper-

 Meaning: Excessive, beyond

 Examples: active → hyperactive, bole → hyperbole, sensitive → hypersensitive,
market → hypermarket
 Examples: hyperactive, hyperbole, hypersensitive, hypertension, hypercritical,
hyperventilate, hyperthermia, hyperlink, hyperdrive, hypermobile, hypertext,
hyperthyroidism, hyperrealistic, hypercharge, hypercube, hyperextend, hyperspace,
hyperalgesia, hypersleep, hyperarousal

17. Hypo-

 Meaning: Under, below

  Examples: thermia → hypothermia, glycemia → hypoglycemia, active → hypoactive,
allergenic → hypoallergenic
 Examples: hypothermia, hypoglycemia, hypoallergenic, hypodermic, hypoactive,
hypochlorite, hypomania, hypothesize, hypoallergenic, hypopigmentation,
hypoglycemic, hypoesthesia, hypoechoic, hypotenuse, hypoplasia, hypovolemia,
hyposecretion, hypothermic, hypoglycemic, hypocalcemia

18. Anti-

 Meaning: Against, opposite

 Examples: virus → antivirus, social → antisocial, war → antiwar, inflammatory →
anti-inflammatory
 Examples: antivirus, antisocial, antiwar, antidepressant, anticlimax, antidote,
antithesis, antifreeze, antibiotic, antifungal, antiseptic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory,
anti-theft, antipathy, anti-corruption, antidote, anti-aircraft, anti-virus, anti-racist

19. Pro-

 Meaning: For, in favor of

 Examples: active → proactive, test → protest, fessor → professor, move → promote
 Examples: proactive, promote, pro-democracy, proponent, professional, progress,
prologue, pronoun, project, professor, protest, program, proficiency, pro-choice,
productivity, prominent, profit, protection, proposition

20. Post-

 Meaning: After
 Examples: war → postwar, pone → postpone, graduate → postgraduate, event →
post-event
 Examples: postwar, postpone, postgraduate, posthumous, postnatal, postscript,
postmodern, postdoc, post-traumatic, post-apocalyptic, post-industrial, postoperative,
postulate, postmenstrual, post-election, postmenopausal, post-revolutionary, post-
mortem, postural, postscript

Greek Roots

Greek roots often come from classical Greek language and can often be identified by their
specific meanings and common usage in English. Here are some common Greek roots:

 Anthro-: Human
o Examples: Anthropology (study of humans), Anthropoid (resembling a
human)
 Bio-: Life
o Examples: Biology (study of life), Biodiversity (variety of life forms)
 Chrono-: Time
o Examples: Chronology (study of time), Chronometer (timekeeping device)
 Geo-: Earth
 o Examples: Geology (study of the earth), Geography (study of the earth's
surface)
 Graph-: Write or record
o Examples: Autograph (self-written), Photograph (light recording)
 Hydro-: Water
o Examples: Hydrology (study of water), Hydrate (water compound)
 Log-: Study, word
o Examples: Biology (study of life), Dialogue (conversation)
 Mega-: Large
o Examples: Megabyte (large unit of data), Megalopolis (large city)
 Micro-: Small
o Examples: Microscope (instrument for viewing small objects),
Microorganism (small organism)
 Phon-: Sound
o Examples: Telephone (distant sound), Phonograph (sound recording device)
 Poly-: Many
o Examples: Polygon (many-sided figure), Polytheism (belief in many gods)

Latin Roots

Latin roots are derived from classical Latin and are prevalent in academic, legal, and
scientific terminology. Here are some common Latin roots:

 Aqua-: Water
o Examples: Aquarium (water container), Aqualung (breathing apparatus)
 Aud-: Hear
o Examples: Audio (sound), Audience (listeners)
 Dict-: Speak
o Examples: Dictionary (book of words), Dictate (to speak words)
 Form-: Shape
o Examples: Formation (process of forming), Transform (change in shape)
 Ject-: Throw
o Examples: Eject (throw out), Inject (throw in)
 Luc-: Light
o Examples: Illuminate (to light up), Translucent (allowing light to pass
through)
 Port-: Carry
o Examples: Transport (carry across), Portable (easily carried)
 Script-: Write
o Examples: Manuscript (written by hand), Describe (write about)
 Spect-: Look
o Examples: Spectator (one who looks), Inspect (to look at closely)
 Struct-: Build
o Examples: Construct (to build), Destruct (to destroy)
 Vid-/Vis-: See
o Examples: Video (visual media), Vision (the sense of sight)