Unit 1

Introduction to computers

1.1 Introduction and Basic Operations of Computer:

The literal meaning of computer is a device that can calculate. However,
modern computers can do a lot more than calculate. Computer is an
electronic device that receives input, stores or processes the input as per
user instructions and provides output in desired format.
The word "computer" is derived from the Greek word "compute" which
means "to calculate". A computer is an electronic device which can be
reprogrammed to take input from the user, process them by using CPU
"Central Processing Unit" and give output in the human readable and
understandable form and even store the output for future use.
It can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical)
calculations. The only language supported by computer system is "Binary
System" or "Machine Language". The Machine Language is represented
by 0's and 1's.
Whatever is given to the computer as input is called 'data', while the output
received after processing is called 'information'.
How A Computer Works?
A computer system works by combining input, storage space, processing,

and output. These four are the major components of a Computer.

Fig: Computer working process (IPO Cycle)
Let's understand one by one:
▪ Input: An input is the information that we provide to the Computer.
We provide the information using the Computer's input devices:
Keyboard, mouse, microphone, and many more. For example, whe n
we type something using a keyboard, it is known as an Input provided
to the Computer.
▪ Storage Space: It is the place where our input gets stored. It is known
as Computer Memory that keeps the data into it. A computer uses a

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 hard drive for storing files and documents. It uses two types of
memory, i.e., internal memory and external memory. Internal
memory is known as RAM, which is volatile in nature. It stores data
temporarily, i.e., when the data is ready to be processed, is loaded
into RAM, and after processing, it moves data for the storage. On
the other hand, external memory is used to store data permanently
until you remove it or it got crashed.
▪ Processing: The processing of the input is performed by the CPU,
which is the Central Processing Unit of the Computer. It is also
known as the brain of a computer that is responsible for processing
the data provided by the user. The speed of the computer brain is four
times faster than the speed of the human brain.
▪ Output: When we type something using a keyboard, the place where
we see the typed input is the Computer Monitor or Computer
Screen. A computer screen allows seeing the input we provided to the
Computer. Including this, there are different types of output devices
of a computer, such as loudspeakers, projectors, printers, and
many more.
These all play a vital role in the working of a computer system.
Example: A computer takes data input from real world by keyboard or
mouse. The input data is converted into machine language before being
processed. The CPU "Central Processing Unit" then processes the input
data utilizing available resources.
The result thus obtained is converted to human readable form, which may
be displayed on monitor or print hardcopy by printer or listen sound
through speaker. The working principle of computer can be summarized
as input, process and output cycle.
Taking data and instructions from a user, processing the data as per
instructions, and displaying or storing the processed data, are the four
major functions of a computer. These functions are also known as the input
function, process function, output function, and storage function,
respectively.
Even though the size, shape, performance, reliability, and cost of
computers have been changing over the years, the basic logical structure
(based on the stored program concept), as proposed by John Von
Neumann, has not changed. No matter what shape and size of computer we
are talking about, all computer systems perform the following four basic
operations for converting raw input data into useful information and
presenting it to a user:
▪ Inputting: Inputting is the process of entering data and instructions
into a computer system.
▪ Storing: Storing is the process of saving data and instructions to
make them readily available for initial or additional processing as
and when required.

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 ▪ Processing: Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract,
multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operations (comparisons like equal
to, less than, greater than, etc.) on data to convert them into useful
information.
▪ Outputting: Outputting is the process of producing information or
results for a user, such as printed report or visual display.

Fig: Basic Operation of computer

A computer's components or devices are used to do these tasks. Typically,
computer components are only built to execute one of these four purposes.
Some specialized components or gadgets, on the other hand, are intended
to accomplish two, three, or even all four roles. A hard drive, for example,
may fulfill three functions: input (when data are read), storage (when files
are saved), and output (when files are written).
Input devices, output devices, storage devices, and processing devices are
the four primary categories of computer components or devices, based on
the function for which they are employed. For example, a component is
known as the processing device if it processes the provided instructions.
The output device, on the other hand, is a device that displays the
processed data.
1.2 History of computer
The history of computer starts from 4000 years ago. History of computer
means the gradual change in the concept over a long period of time.
Around fifth century, Hindu philosophers developed a new method of
counting from 0 to 9. Counting the numbers from 0 to 9 can be performed
with the help of fingers. The development of counting started from the
development of simple counting device called ABACUS.
Age of Mechanical Calculating Era:
Abacus:
It is believed that abacus was the earliest counting device invented by
human being. In fact, the oldest surviving abacus was used in 3000 B.C.
by the Babylonians. The Chinese abacus was called 'suan pan' which means
counting board.

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 Fig: Abacus
An abacus consists of rectangular frames containing a number of rods or
wire which is divided into two unequal parts called earth and heaven. The
lower part contains 5 beads/rings and upper part contains 2 beads/rings in
each wire. The abacus is prepared for use ("zeroed") by placing it flat on
a table and pushing all the beads on both the upper and lower decks away
from the beam by sliding the thumb along the beam. By moving th e
beads/rings, it is used for counting as well as to find addition and
subtraction.
Napier's Bone:
John Napier was a great Scottish mathematician. He invented 'Principle of
Logarithm' in 1614 A.D. Then based on his own principle, he invented a
simple device containing 10 rods made of ivory sticks marked with
numbers in 1617 A.D. That device was called Napier's Bone and people
can use it for faster multiplication and division.

Fig: Napier’s Bones

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 Schickard’s Calculating Clock:
Calculating Clock, the earliest known calculator, built in 1623 by the
German astronomer and mathematician Wilhelm Schickard. He described
it in a letter to his friend the astronomer Johannes Kepler, and in 1624 he
wrote again to explain that a machine that he had commissioned to be built
for Kepler was, apparently along with the prototype, destroyed in a fire.
He called it a Calculating Clock, which modern engineers have been able
to reproduce from details in his letters. Even general knowledge of the
clock had been temporarily lost when Schickard and his entire family
perished during the Thirty Years’ War.
This device got little publicity because Schickard died soon after in the
bubonic plague.
But Schickard may not have been the true inventor of the calculator. A
century earlier, Leonardo da Vinci sketched plans for a calculator that
were sufficiently complete and correct for modern engineers to build a
calculator on their basis.

Fig: Schickard’s Calculating Clock

Slide Rule:
slide rule, a device consisting of graduated scales capable of relative
movement, by means of which simple calculations may be carried out
mechanically. Typical slide rules contain scales for multiplying, dividing,
and extracting square roots, and some also contain scales for calculating
trigonometric functions and logarithms. The slide rule remained an
essential tool in science and engineering and was widely used in business
and industry until it was superseded by the portable electronic calculator
late in the 20th century.

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 Based on the principle of John Napier, William Oughtred, an English
mathematician, made a simple device called slide rule in 1624 A.D. It had
multiple rulers marked with numbers in one pack. People could use it for
faster multiplication and division also. It was still in use in the 1960 's by
the NASA engineers of the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo programs which
landed men on the moon.

Fig: Slide Rule

Pascaline:
Pascaline was invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642 A.D. when he was just 19
years old. He was a famous French mathematician and philo sopher. He
invented that device to help his father who was a tax collector. It had some
cogs and gears rotating in complement to each other and it could do
addition and subtraction up to 8 digits only. Multiplication and division
were done by repeated addition and subtraction respectively. Until the
present age, when car dashboards went digital, the car speedometer used
the very same mechanism as the Pascaline to increment the next wheel
after each full revolution of the prior wheel.
Later a computer programming language was called 'Pascal' to honor him
for his great contribution in the development of computer.

Fig: Pascaline (A Pascaline opened up so you can observe the gears and
cylinder which rotated to display the numerical result.)

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 Stepped Reckoner:
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz was a great German mathematician. He
managed to build a four-function (addition, subtraction, multiplication,

and division) calculator in 1671 A.D. on the basis of Pascaline. He named

that device Stepped Reckoner because he employed fluted drums having
ten flutes arranged around their circumference in a stair -step fashion
instead of gears. It could find square root too. Although the Stepped
Reckoner employed the decimal number system, Leibniz was the first to
advocate use of the binary number system which is fundamental to the
operation of modern computers. Leibniz is considered one of the greatest
philosophers but he died poor and alone.

Jacquard’s Loom and Punch Card:

Joseph Marie Jacquard was neither mathematician nor phi losopher like
other computer scientists. He was a French textile manufacture and
businessman. In 1801 A.D, he invented a power loom that could base its
weave upon a pattern automatically read from punched wooden cards, held
together in a long row by rope. Later the same punch card technology was
used for computer programming. Hence, he is remembered even in the
history of computer.

Fig: Jacquard’s Loom showing the threads and the punched cards

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 Jacquard's technology was a real boon to mill owners, but put many loom
operators out of work. Angry mobs smashed Jacquard looms and once
attacked Jacquard himself.
Difference Engine and Analytical Engine:
Difference engine was developed by Charles Babbage in 1822 A.D. which
was equal to the size of a room. He was a great English mathematician at
Cambridge University. Difference Engine was his first invention and it
was powered by a Handle. It was fully automatic for mathematical
calculation. He obtained government funding for the development of
Difference Engine due to the importance of numeric tables in ocean
navigation. By promoting their commercial and military navies, the British
government had managed to become the earth's greatest empire.

Fig: Difference Engine

He also designed another engine called Analytical Engine in 1833 A.D.
but unfortunately, he was unable to complete it. He also discovered the
principle for the construction of general purpose programmable automatic
mechanical computer on which modern electronic computers are based.
Hence, he is known as "Father of Computer".

Fig: Analytical Engine

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 Lady Augusta Ada:
Lady Augusta was the admirer and follower of Charles Babbage. She was
fascinated by Babbage ideas. Through letters and meetings with Babbage,
she learned enough about the design of the Analytic Engine. She suggested
Babbage to use binary number system for computer program and data. She
gave the concept of computer programming for the first time, so she is
considered as 'First Computer Programmer'. She invented subroutine and
importance of looping.
Later, a computer programming language was called 'Ada' to honor her for
her great contribution in computer programming.

Tabulating Machine:
The U.S. Constitution states that a census should be taken of all U.S.
citizens in every 10 years. The very first census of 1790 had only required
9 months, by 1880 the U.S. population had grown so much that the count
for the 1880 census took 7.5 years. Automation was clearly needed for the
next census. The census bureau offered a prize for an inventor to help wi th
the 1890 census and this prize was won by Herman Hollerith for the
development of Tabulating Machine.
He used to work in the US census bureau. By using the similar ideas of
Jacquard's Loom, he made Tabulating Machine in 1886 A.D. It could
process on the punch cards and perform the census calculation faster and
accurately. Hollerith's technique was successful and the 1890 census was
completed in only 3 years at a savings of 5 million dollars.
He established his own company called Tabulating Machine Compa ny
(TMC). Later, TMC was joined with other company and established IBM
Company in 1923 A.D. IBM is the largest computer manufacturing
company in the world even today.

Fig: A Census Machine 1880, Tabulating Machine

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 Age of Electro-Mechanical Computer Era
1. Mark I
The first electro-mechanical computer Mark I was built in early 1940s and
became operable in May 1944. The operational mode of this machine was
based on the principle of Charles Babbage. The machine was designed by
Howard Aiken. This project was a joint partnership between IBM and
Harvard University. It was also called IBM ASCC (International Business
Machine Automatic Sequence Control Calculator). This was the first
programmable digital computer.
This machine works on decimal not in binary format. Mark I was
constructed by using switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches. It was
very much complex in design as it contained about 750,000 parts and about
500 miles of wire was used to connect them. The machine was very heavy
and its dimension was 51 feet long, 8 feet tall and 3 feet wide. It had a 50
feet rotating shaft running its length, turned by a 5-horsepower electric
motor. It consumed a lot of electricity and emitted a lot of heat. Later, the
successor of Mark I was designed and implemented by Howard Aiken. The
last series Harvard Mark IV was built in 1952 for United States Air Force.
Grace Hoper is one of the programmers for the Mark I. She found the first
computer "bug": A dead moth that had gotten into the paper tape and whose
wings were blocking the reading of the holes.
2. ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer)
J. V. Atanasoff was a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State
University. With the help of his graduate student Clifford Berry, he built
a machine that could solve different types of mathematical problems
successfully tested in 1942. This machine was the first to store data as a
charge on a capacitor, which is how today's computers store information
in their main memory (RAM). It also used vacuum tubes and capacitors
for the storage of electric charge.

Age of Electronic Computer Era:

1. Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC):
ENIAC stands for "Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator",
which is the first electronic digital computer. It was built at the University
of Pennsylvania between 1943 A.D. and 1946 A.D. by two professors John
W. Mauchly and John Presper Eckert. It was built to meet the needs of US
armed forces to use in world war. It was 300 times faster than any other
devices of those days.
ENIAC filled a 20 by 40 feet room, weighted 30 tons, and more than 18000
vacuum tubes. produced more heart as it consumed 180 kilowatts of power
and needed to be cooling system. It could add two numbers in 200

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 microseconds and multiply them in 2000 microseconds. ENIAC first task
was to compute whether it was possible to build a hydrogen bomb.

2. Automatic Computing Engine (ACE):

ACE stands for Automatic Computing Engine. Alan Turing presented a
detailed paper to the National Physical Laboratory Executive Committee,
giving the first reasonably complete design of a stored-program computer.
Because of the strict and long-lasting secrecy around his wartime work, he
was prohibited from explaining that he knew his ideas could be
implemented in an electronic device. ACE was the first t rue electronic
computer using stored programs.
Unfortunately, due to wartime secrecy, the computer and his plans were
destroyed with his suicide by injecting cyanide in 1954. Fifty-five years
after the death of Turing, on September 10, 2009, British Prime Minister
Gordon Brown made an official public apology on behalf of the British
government for the way in which Turing was treated after the war.

3. John Von Neumann:

John Von Neumann was a great mathematician and he discovered the
"principle of stored program" concept in 1945 A.D. All the modern
computers are based on his stored program technique. He is also called the
"Father of Stored Program Technique".
Before his principle, program required for computers were integrated and
written permanently in paper, tapes, and mechanical devices and in the
circuit of vacuum tubes so modification of program was not possible. But
after his discovery of stored program techniques, such programs were
stored inside the computer in some storage media, so that modification
will be easy and flexible.
4. Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)
EDVAC stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
which was made by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert in 1952 A.D.
by applying the principle of stored program technique. It also had vacuum
tubes and some internal storage.

EDVAC was built for US Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory by

University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering. The
computer had almost 6000 vacuum tubes, 12000 diodes and consumed 56
KW of power. It covered 490 square foot space and weighted 7850 KG.
The machine requires 30 personnel to operate. This machine ran until 1961
at research laboratory.

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 5. Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer (EDSAC):
EDSAC stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer which
was discovered by Maurice V. Wilkes in 1949 A.D. using John Von
Neumann stored program technique at Cambridge University
Mathematical Laboratory. It also used Vacuum tubes. It runs its first
program on May 6, 1949. EDSAC is able to do addition in 1500
microseconds and multiplication in 4000 microseconds. This machine was
used to calculate a table of squares and a list of prime numbers.
6. UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC):
UNIVAC stands for UNIVersal Automatic Computer which was
discovered by John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly in 1951 A.D.
after leaving the University of Pennsylvania over a dispute about who
owned the patents for their invention. UNIVAC was the first commercial
computer produced in large quantity.
UNIVAC was 25 feet by 50 feet in length, contained 5600 vacuum tubes,
18000 crystal diodes and 300 relays. It utilized a Mercury delay line,
magnetic tape and typewriter output. UNIVAC was used for general
purpose computing with large amounts of inputs and outputs.
UNIVAC processing speed was 0.525 milliseconds for arithmetic
functions, 2.15 milliseconds for multiplication and 3.9 milliseconds for
division. It was the first computer to come equipped with a magnetic tape
unit and was the first computer to use buffer memory.

1.3 Generation of Computers:

If we see the computer in the past, then we find that they were not in
similar shape, size, cost, functionality, technology, hardware and software
to the modern digital computers. Computer generation is the classification
of computers into different groups according to their manufacturing date,
memory device other hardware and software technology used inside those
computers.
Generation of computer is a step-in advancing technology. It provides the
framework for the growth and development of the more powerful and
useful computer system. There are 5 generations of computer which are as
follows:
1.3.1 First Generation of Computers:
The computers which were discovered approximately between 1942 A.D.
and 1955 A.D. are classified as the First Generation of Computers. All the
computers which were discovered during the first generation had "Vacuum
Tubes" for their memory and processing devices. Vacuum tube was
developed by Lee De Forest in 1908 A.D. and used later in computer
system.
Vacuum tubes were a glass device, which used filaments as a source of
electronics, could control and amplify electronic signals. It was the only
high-speed electronic switching device available in those days. The

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 vacuum tubes required great amount of energy and generated much heat.
Lots of space were required not only for the large number of vacuum tubes
but also for housing special air-conditioning units to get rid of heat
generated by vacuum tubes.
Features of First Generation of Computers:
▪ Vacuum tubes were used as main components.
▪ Processing speeds were measured in milliseconds.
▪ Punch Cards were used for input and output devices.
▪ Electro-mechanical types of computers.
▪ Vacuum tubes were used for primary memory devices.
▪ Fist punched cards later Magnetic drums were used for secondary
storage devices.
▪ Computers operate manually because operating systems were not
invented. Computers were not fully reliable and accurate.
▪ Machine Level Languages and Assembly Level Languages were
used for Programming.
▪ Computers were very large and very expensive.
▪ Computers were available for military purpose and university
research.
▪ Computers were not portable due to huge size.
▪ Computers consume lots of power and emit lots of heat.
▪ Examples: Mark-I, ENIAC, EDSAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC-I, ABC,
IBM 701, IBM 700 Series, IBM 704, IBM 709, etc.
1.3.2 Second Generation of Computers:
The computers which were discovered approximately between 1955 A.D.
and 1964 A.D. are classified as Second Generation of Computers. They
have transistor and diodes for their memory and processing devices.
Transistor was developed by three scientists John Braden, William
Shockley and Walter Brattain in 1947 A.D. at Bell laboratory in United
States and won the Nobel Prize in 1956 A.D. for it.
Transistors were made of solid materials principally called silicon and
germanium semiconductor material rather than glass. Therefore, they were
cheap to produce. One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum
tubes. Transistors were found to conduct electricity faster and better than
vacuum tubes.
They were also much smaller and gave off virtually no heat compared to
vacuum tubes. Their use marked a new beginning for the computer.
Transistors were highly reliable as compared to vacuum tubes, since they
had no part like filament, which could burn out.
They could switch much faster (almost 10 times faster) than vacuum tubes.
Transistor is the basic unit in radio, television and computer circuits. It is
often used to amplify the current flowing from one circui t to another.
Transistor consists three connecting parts: a base, an emitter and a
collector.
Features of Second Generation of Computers:

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 ▪ Transistors were used as main components.
▪ Processing speeds were measured in microseconds.
▪ Punch cards were used for input and output devices.
▪ Computers were electro-mechanical. Magnetic core (Ferrite)
memories were used as primary memory devices.
▪ Magnetic tapes were used as secondary storage devices.
▪ Computers operate manually because operating systems were not
invented.
▪ Computers were reliable and accurate than previous generation
computers. Assembly level languages and high-level languages
such as FORTRAN, ALGOL, COBOL, SNOBOL, etc. were used
for programming.
▪ Computers were smaller and cheaper than previous generation
computers. Computers consume less power and emit less heat than
previous generation computers.
▪ Computers were not portable.
▪ Example: IBM 7090, IBM 70941, IBM 709411, IBM 1620, IBM
1401 (first computer brought in Nepal on hire for National Census
2028), ICL 2950/10 (second computer brought in Nepal from
England on 20 lakhs US dollar for National Census 2038), etc.

1.3.3 Third Generation of Computers:

The computers which were discovered approximately between 1964 A.D.
and 1975 A.D. are classified as Third Generation of Computers. They have
Integrated Circuits for memory and processing devices. Integrated Circuit
was developed by Jack St. Clair Kilby and Robert Noyce in 1958 A.D.
An integrated Circuit (IC) also called a microchip, is an electronic circuit
consisting of a large number of electronic components like transistors,
resistors and capacitors placed on a single silicon chip, eliminating wired
interconnection between components.
IC chips are much smaller in size, faster in operation, consumed much less
power, high performance and more reliable than transistor and vacuum
tubes. Initially, the integrated circuits contained only up to 100
components and the technology named as SSI (Small Scale Integration).
Later, with the advancement in technology for manufacturi ng ICs, it
became possible to integrate from 100 to 3000 components on a single chip
and this technology named as MSI (Medium Scale Integration). They
function as timers, amplifiers, logic units, counters, calculators,
temperature sensors, and radio receivers.
Features of Third Generation of Computers:
▪ Integrated Circuits (ICs) were used as main components.
▪ Processing speeds were measured into Nanoseconds.
▪ Keyboards and Monitors were introduced as input and output
devices for the first time respectively.
▪ Computers were electronic.
▪ Semiconductor memories were used as primary memory.

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 ▪ Magnetic disks were used as secondary storage device.
▪ Computers operate automatic and were multiprogramming.
▪ Computers were fully reliable and accurate. High level languages
were used for programming.
▪ Computers were smaller and less expensive than previous
generation computers. Computers were available for general
purpose as well as for personal purpose.
▪ Computers consume less power and produce less heat than previous
generation computers.
▪ Computers were portable because of the development of personal
or desktop computer.
▪ Example: IBM system/360, ICL 1900, IBM 370 series, Honeywell
2200 series, CDC 7600, STAR-100, UNIVAC 9000, etc.

1.3.4 Fourth Generation of Computers:

The computers which were discovered approximately between 1975 A.D.
and 1989 A.D. are classified as Fourth Generation of Computers. They
have microprocessor as CPU "Central Processing Unit" with LSI "Large
Scale Integration" and VLSI "Very Large-Scale Integration technology in
ICs as memory and processing devices. Microprocessor was developed
Intel Corporation in 1971 A.D.
A microprocessor is a single chip in which millions of components like
transistors are integrated together in different layers and it performs all the
operations of the computer’s processor; since it is so small, it is called a
microprocessor. It is a complete CPU built on a single chip by using LSI
or VLSI technology.
Intel Corporation of USA developed the first microprocessor named "Intel
4004" in 1971 A.D. It contained about 1600 transistors. It was a 4 -bit
microprocessor and process only 4 bits of data at a time. Since then, the
technology has increased by leaps and bounds.
The microprocessors available today are more powerful than many of the
large computers of the past. They have become cheaper and more reliable
too. The modern processors are available in 32, 64 or higher bits word
length.
The important characteristics of a microprocessor are the width of address
bus, data bus, clock speed and its instruction set architecture. Processors
are also often classified as being either RISC "Reduced Instruction Set
Computer" or CISC "Complex Instruction Set Computer".
Features of Fourth Generation of Computers:
▪ Microprocessors were used as main components with LSI and VLSI
technology.
▪ Processing speeds were measured into Picoseconds.
▪ Scanner, Touch screen, Printer, etc. were invented for input and
output devices. Computers were electronic.

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 ▪ Semiconductor memories with huge capacity were used as primary
memory.
▪ Magnetic and Optical disks with large storage capacity were used
as secondary storage devices.
▪ Multiprogramming, Multiprocessing, Multimedia and distributed
operating system become possible.
▪ Computers were fully reliable and accurate.
▪ Computers use advanced high-level language and fourth generation
language for application and database programming.
▪ Computers were smaller and cheaper than previous generation
computers.
▪ Computers were available for general purpose as well as special
purpose.
▪ Computers use less power and produce less heat than previous
generation computers.
▪ Computers were portable because of the development of personal
or desktop computer, laptop, notebook, PDA, etc.
▪ Example: IBM PC, Apple/Macintosh, Wang Laser, Letron, Acer
ASPIRE 5741, Apple MacBook Air, Dell Inspiron 1440, etc.
1.3.5 Fifth Generation of Computers:
The computers which were discovered approximately between 1989 A.D.
and present are classified as Fifth Generation of Computers. In the fifth
generation, VLSI "Very Large-Scale Integration" technology became
ULSI "Ultra Large-Scale Integration" technology, resulting in the
production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
components. In fact, the speed of microprocessors and the size of main
memory and hard disk doubled almost every 18 months.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and Artificial
Intelligence "Al" software. Artificial Intelligence is an emerging branch in
computer science, which interprets means and method of making
computers think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C
and C++, Java, .Net, etc. are used in this generation.
During fifth generation, there was tremendous outgrowth of computer
networks which emerge the use of electronic mail and World Wide Web
"WWW". Moreover, exciting applications like electronic commerce,
virtual libraries, virtual classrooms, distance education, etc. emerged
during the period.
Generally, this generation computers are referred as Artificial Intelligence
which includes:
• Robotics
• Neural Networks
• Game playing Expert Systems
• Understand natural languages such as Nepali, English, Hindi, etc.
Features of Fifth Generation of Computers:
▪ Computers will use ULSI "Ultra Large-Scale Integration"
technology with Artificial Intelligence.

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 ▪ Computers will be more users' friendly interface with multimedia
features. Computers will be capable of fully parallel processing.
▪ Computers will use super conductor memory like bio-chips so that
the speed will be very fast.
▪ Computers will be intelligent and knowledge base because of
Artificial Intelligence.
▪ Instead of high-level languages, natural languages like English,
Nepali, Hindi, etc. will be used to give instruction and making
computer program.
▪ Computers will be large scale data processing on the basis of
knowledge processing.
▪ The cost of hardware and software will decrease.
▪ Very powerful and compact computer will be available at cheaper
rates.

1.4 Types of Computers:

Computers can be classified into various classes on the basis of how the
computer works i.e. what types of data values a computer can process and
give result.
On the Basis of Working Principle:
• Analog Computer:
Analog computer is the special purpose computer. It represents the data as
physical quantities such as current, pressure, temperature, voltage etc.
They were especially useful in the simulation and evaluation of dynamic
situations such as flight of a space capsule or the changing weather
patterns over a certain area. The accuracy of analog computers is low.
The computer which work with the natural phenomena and physical values
like frequency, earthquake, flow of water, speed of wind, weight, light,
etc. are known as analog computers. The analog computers are based on
continuous data and their output is also continuous in the form of graph.
It is especially used in scientific work, medical and industrial field. The
analog computers are not built for general purpose but analog devices are
broadly used in our daily life.

Examples of analog computers are Presley, ELWAT, and AKAT -I and

some other analog devices are speedometer, thermometer, seismograph,
analog watch, etc. AKAT-I was the first transistor differential analyzer
built by J. Karpinski in 1959 A.D. and was used to solve differential
equations.
Characteristics of Analog Computer are as follows:
▪ It works on continuous data. It is used to measure natural or
physical values.
▪ It is specific to a particular task. Hence, it is not versatile.

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 ▪ Accuracy of analog computer is not so high in comparison to digital
computer.
▪ Generally, analog computer does not have storage capacity as it
works on real time basis.
▪ It also gives the output in the form of curve line or graph so it may
not be meaningful to all.

• Digital Computer:
Digital computer is the general-purpose computer, it uses discrete data like
letters, numbers, symbols etc. and process data in binary digits i.e. 0s and
1s. It can be also powerful computers like super, mainframe, mini and
microcomputers. The computer which works on the digital values where 0
and 1 denotes OFF and ON state of electricity respectively is known a s
digital computer. The digital computer works by counting rather than
measuring values. Digital computers work on the numerical problems of
business and scientific field.
Examples of digital computers are IBM PC, Apple/Macintosh PC,
Mercantile PC, Lenovo PC etc.
Characteristics of Digital Computer are as follows:
▪ It works on discontinuous or discrete data.
▪ It works by counting the values rather than measuring.
▪ It is based on the principle of 0 and 1 which states ON and OFF of
electricity.
▪ It is general purpose computer. Hence, it is versatile.
▪ The accuracy of digital computer is very high i.e. always 100%.
▪ It has large storage capacity.
▪ It is completely flexible computer and it can be easily
reprogrammed according to the requirement of user.
▪ It has faster processing speed.

• Hybrid Computer:
A computer that processes both analog and digital data, Hybrid computer
is a digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital
and processes them in digital form.
It can work on physical or continuous data like analog computer and on
the discontinuous values or discrete data like digital computer. Generally,
hybrid computer is used in Aeroplan, hospital, industries, etc.
Examples of hybrid computers are MRI, CT scan, Ultra Sonogram,
ELWAT, etc.
Characteristics of Hybrid Computer are as follow:
▪ It works on continuous as well as discrete value.
▪ It is also specific to a particular work and not versatile machine.
▪ It converts the analog values to digital value and vice -versa.
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 ▪ It is not easily reprogrammable computer.
▪ It is of very high cost.

On the Basis of Size:

• Super Computer:
Super Computer is physically the largest computer on size and it is the
fastest, most expensive and most powerful computer. It can perform more
than one trillion calculations per second as it has thousands of processors.
It is especially made to process the complex and time -consuming
calculation. It has extremely large storage capacity than other computers.
Super Computer can be used for the following applications:
▪ For forecasting the weather and global climate.
▪ For military research and defense system.
▪ For automobile, aircraft, and spacecraft designing.
▪ For encoding and decoding the sensitive information.
▪ For seismograph, plasma and nuclear research.
▪ For study of DNA and genetic engineering.
The speed of super computer is measured in FLOPS "Floating Point
Operations per Second", commonly used with prefix such as TFLOPS,
PFLOPS. Examples of super computers are CRAY XT5 Jaguar, IBM Road
runner, IBM Blue Gene/L, IBM Deep Blue, ASCI White, NEC Earth
Simulator, etc.

• Mainframe Computer:
Mainframe computer is also large computer which covers about 1000 sq.
feet. It is a general purposed computer which has been designed for large
scale data processing. It is also very expensive and high-speed computer
system.
It supports large numbers of computer terminal with separate input and
output unit in each terminal so that 100 or more persons can work in this
computer at a time. These computers are used in large organizations such
as insurance company and banks, where many people frequently need to
use the same data.
In traditional mainframe computers, each user accesses the mainframe's
resources through a device called a terminal. There are two types of
terminal: a dumb terminal and an intelligent terminal. A dumb terminal
does not process or store data, it has simply input and output devices. An
intelligent terminal can perform some processing operations, but usually
does not have any storage.
IBM 7090, IBM 1401, ICL 2950/10, etc. are the example of mainframe
computers.

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 • Mini Computer:
Minicomputer is the medium-sized general-purpose computer which was
first released in 1960's. Minicomputer got its name because of small size
in comparison to other computer of those days. The capacities of a
minicomputer are somewhere between those of mainframe and personal
computers. For this reason, minicomputer also called mid -range
computers.
Minicomputer covers about 10 sq. feet. Its CPU can be connected up to 50
terminals so that up to 50 persons can work in this computer at a time. It
is used in medium size organization and corporation like bank, insurance
company, reservation center etc.
Prime series, AS/400, AP-3, etc. are example of minicomputer.

• Micro Computer:
Microcomputer is the smallest purpose computer on the basis of size and
it is called microcomputer because it has microprocessor as a central
processing unit. Microprocessor is a small silicon chip which is made by
integrating millions of components.
It is also called personal computer because it can be used only by a single
person at a time. It is easy to handle so it is used in different application
areas such as schools, colleges, home, cyber, etc.
Desktop computer, laptop computer, notebook computer, palmtop
computer, pocket PC etc. are some examples of microcomputer.

On the Basis of Brand:

• IBM PC:
IBM PC stands for International Business Machine Personal Computer
which is made by IBM Company which was established by Dr. Herman
Hollerith in 1923 A.D. and it is the largest computer manufacturing
company in the world even today.
It is leading the market of mainframe computer, minicomputer and
microcomputer. IBM computers are more reliable, durable and they have
higher processing capacity. It is also called IBM branded computer as its
all parts are developed by IBM Company itself. Generally, this computer
is more expensive than other PCs. This company manufacture from
smallest component like keyboard to advanced microprocessor.
• IBM Compatible:
The word "compatible" means "able to exist" together and work
successfully. In IBM Compatible computer, the parts of computers are
developed by different companies and finally they are assembled as a
computer system. It is also called assembled PC. Although the architecture

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 of IBM Compatible computer is similar to IBM PC, it is less powerful, less
expensive and less durable than IBM branded PC.
• Apple/Macintosh:
Apple Corporation is also one of the largest computer manufacturing
company of USA. It has made many PCs with good quality and user-
friendly environment and they are called Apple/Macintosh computer. The
internal architecture of Apple computer is differently from IBM PC.
Hence, the software made for Apple computer cannot be used in IBM PC
or vice-versa.
On the Basis of Processor Used:
• XT (Extended Technology):
XT stands for eXtended Technology and these computer uses CUI
(Character User Interface). They don’t have large storage capacity and fast
processing. They are the early computers that used 8080, 8086, 8088
processors. They were very slow and have less storage capacity. This
model refers to first-generation PCs which include the first floppy disk,
hard disk and all compatibles.
• AT (Advanced Technology):
AT stands for Advanced Technology and these computers are based on
GUI (Graphics User Interface). Their I/ O device are flexible and faster. It
has processor and large storage capacity, complex calculation.
Example: Pentium 80286 / 386 / 488.They are 8028 6, 80386, 80486, etc
processors. They are faster and have large storage capacity than XT
computers. This model refers to advanced machine in the PC and featured
a new keyboard, 1.2 MB floppy disk and 16-bit data bus.
• PS/2 (Personal System/2):
PS stands for Personal System. It is refinement of AT computer. It was
developed after 1990. It runs on battery. They have faster I /O devices and
uses GUI based software. They used the improved architecture and system
design of AT computers that make them faster, reli able, and efficient
having more functions. They are specially designed for laptop and other
PCs that use the Pentium processors. They generally use OS/2 or UNIX as
operating system.
1.5 Characteristics of Modern Computers:
▪ Speed:
The computers in the past were not very reliable and did not have very fast
processing speed due to the lack of advanced technology. After the
invention of microprocessor, computers became very fast and can perform
billions of calculations within fraction of a second.

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 The processing speed of computer is measured in the unit of Hertz such as
Hertz (Hz), Kilo Hertz (KHz), Mega Hertz (MHz), Giga Hertz (GHz) and
Tera Hertz (THz).

▪ Storage Capacity:
A modern computer can store large amount of data, information and
program in its secondary devices like magnetic disks, optical disks, hard
disks, floppy disks, etc. for present and future reference. The storing
capacity of computer is expressed in Bits, Bytes, Kilobyte, Megabytes,
Gigabytes, Terabytes, etc. Normally one-byte stores one character of data.
Measuring Units of Computer Storage Capacity Are:
1 Bit = Binary Digit
4 bits = 1 Nibble
8 Bits = 1 Byte
1024 Bytes = 1 Kilobyte
1024 Kilobytes = 1 Megabyte
1024 Megabytes = 1 Gigabyte
1024 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte
1024 Terabytes = 1 Petabyte
1024 Petabytes = 1 Exabyte
1024 Exabytes = 1 Zettabyte
▪ Accuracy:
Accuracy means correctness. Computer never does any mistakes if the
instructions, input data and hardware devices are correct. It always
performs each and every task with 100% accuracy. But sometimes we get
the wrong output due to the fault in the data, instructions or programs.
That's why the phrase "GIGO" (Garbage-In-Garbage-Out) is true to the
computer.

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 ▪ Diligence:
Unlike the human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and
lack of concentration. It can continuously work for hours without creating
any error and without grumbling. Hence, computers score over human
beings in doing routine type of jobs that require great accuracy. It ten
million calculations have to be performed; a computer will perform the
last one with exactly the same accuracy and speed as the first one.
▪ Versatility:
Modern computer can perform various types of jobs efficiently as it is a
versatile machine. A computer has ability to communicate with other
systems and adopt several modes like audio-visual, graphics, etc. For
example, at one movement a computer is used to prepare results of an
examination, at next movement it is busy preparing electricity bill and in
between it may be helping an office secretary to trace an important letter
in seconds. This is the reason to say computer as versatile machine.
▪ Automatic:
Computers are automatic machines because once started on a job, they
carry out the job (normally without any human assistance) until it is
finished. However, computers being machine cannot start themselves and
cannot go out and find their own problems and solutions. We need to
instruct a computer using coded instructions that specify exactly how it
will do a particular job. After getting instruction computer automatically
complete the tasks.
▪ Non-Intelligence:
Although the modern computer is much more fast, reliable, accurate and
diligent than human being. It's an artificial machine; it does not have
commonsense and intelligence. As a result, computer cannot think and
decide like human being. Many man-made programs have to be installed
in computer to do various kinds of tasks. Hence, this device is a non -
intelligence machine.
▪ No-feeling:
Based on our feeling, taste, knowledge and experiences we often make
certain judgments in our day to day life whereas computers cannot make
such judgments on their own as it is a machine. Computer makes
judgments based on the instructions given to them in the form of programs
that are written by human.
▪ Programmable:
Computer system is a programmable device. Computer system works on
the basis of the given instruction. Program is a sequential set of
instructions to perform a specific task. Programs are designed to perform
tasks and makes the system versatile (usable and functionable for any task
in any fields).

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1.6 Application of Computers:
Although, the early computers were mainly use for mathematical
calculations to predict impact of bombs, path of artillery shells, calculate
some other numerical values etc. By the development in technology,
modern computers have played an important role in society because they
have been used in the various sectors of the society in order to make the
human life more efficient and comfortable. In modern days, computer are
used in different fields, some of them are as follows:
1. Education:
Computer has a profound impact on education been that help the students
in their study and the teachers to organize and prepare their teaching
materials and collect required information from the internet. Due to the
availability of e-books in CD, DVD and internet, computer has been very
helpful and essential device for students and teachers for their better
education. Besides these, the educational institute use computers for
keeping the student record, preparing the result sheet, examination
process, accounting and printing different documents etc.
In online learning/virtual learning, various projects and educational
programs are prepared with the assistance of expert educators and audio -
visual media help. These educational programs are generally set up in the
shape of lectures on a specific subject and/or topic and are provided on
websites or any digital medium so that students can learn at desired time.
2. Offices:
Modern computers are very necessary and useful resources in offices. In
offices, computers are used in preparation of documents such as letters,
reports, processing of work documents such as work orders and financial
reports, presentation of reports and proposals to and behalf of executive
and higher level office personnel, management of email services to
maintain and sustain business and communication services, filing storage
and retrieval of business information and support for internal and external
business services that require messaging, faxes, printi ng, photocopying,
video and electronic transmissions etc. so that efficiency and work speed
of the employees will improved, Generally Microsoft Office and
Accounting Package are used in an office to handle the daily works.
3. Health and Medical Field:
Computers have played a vital role in medical field as it has been used in
hospital to help the doctors, nurses and technicians to diagnose diseases,
getting and recording information about patient, disease and drugs.
Similarly, many modern-day medical equipment has small, programmed
computers such as CT Scan Machine, eye testing machine, X-ray machines
and many other computerized machines are used for experiment and
disease diagnosis. Computer can be used for the examination of internal
organs of the body in which advanced computer-based systems are used to
examine delicate organs of the body. Some of the complex surgeries can
be performed with the aid of computers. Computers and Internet have
proved to be a boon in medical sector as it provides fastest communica tion

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 between a patient and a doctor. Today, it is possible to obtain experts'
opinions within seconds with the help of computer.
4. Home:
Computers in the past were huge, very expensive and limited in its uses.
After the development of microcomputer, it has become necessary device
in home which can be used for several purposes like online bill payment,
home tutoring, storing the personal records, photos, videos, playing
games, listening music, watching movies etc. It can be used even for
communication through email, chatting and also for online streaming,
downloading songs and movies etc.
5. Bank:
Computerized technology has brought revolution in bank. Unlike in
manual system, deposit and withdraw became quickly in computerized
bank. Computers are used in maintaining customer's accounts, ledger,
updating, electronic fund transfer and processing of huge amount of
cheques, credit cards, and the major transactions that takes place daily. For
these purposes, there is a central computer called server in bank, mo stly
in head office, which stores all the necessary information centrally so that
it can be accessed from any branch office of the bank. Because of this, a
customer can get services from any branches of the bank.
Due to the computer with network facility, nowadays banks also provide
ATM service to customers so that a customer with ATM card can perform
a cash transaction immediately at any time and from any place. Mobile
banking is also use for banking activity.
6. Industries:
Computers have been used in industries for various purpose such as
keeping the employees record, income and expenditure record, salary
sheet, measurement and display of physical quantity, quality control of
production etc. The different tasks which are risky for human beings are
being done by computerized robots in industries so that human life will
not be at risk. This type of risky jobs is performed by robot controlled by
a computer.
7. Science and Technology:
Since the invention of early computer, it has been a great aid for the
mathematician and scientist for doing fast and correct calculation.
Scientific and technological research work involves complex and massive
computations. In many cases, simulation is also required. Such massive
calculation and simulation are not possible in paper or by hand calculators.
Modern computers are must for scientific research for the analysis of data.
8. Weather Forecasting:
Weather forecasting is not an easy task as it is done after the analysis of
the images, temperature, wind speed, humidity etc, of diffe rent places,
which is sent by the satellite. The analysis of these large data is not
possible without the use of computer. Computer analyzes the direction of

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 the wind, cloud structure, past data and many other factors to forecast the
weather. Due to the use of specific computers, we can see that BBC, CNN
and other news channels predict the weather forecasting for the coming 5
days in all over the world.
9. Military/Defense:
Since the past, computers have been used by armed force for testing and
development of military devices like missiles, tanks, bullets etc. At
present, computers have been heavily used by the armed force. Modern
weapons like Tanks, Torpedoes, Missiles etc. employ computerized
control system having microprocessor. The pilot-less fighter planes can
carry missile and drop at the pin-point area by the use of computerized
system. It also plays important role in military communication. There is
software embedded in almost every weapon. Software are used for
controlling the fight and targeting ballasting missiles and used to control
access to atomic bombs.
10. Library:
We can use computer in library also to keep the records of books,
magazines, reports, newspaper and other documents. We can also keep
records of the library members with which books they have borrowed with
detail information. Using a computerized system in library makes the
library personnel easy to answer the queries about the status of the books
than the manual system.
Nowadays, many books are available in the digital format in the form of
CD and DVD too. Similarly, many e-books are kept in the Internet as e-
Library. To read such e-books also, we need computers.
11. Desktop Publishing House:
Desktop publishing house is the place where the design and publication of
different materials like book, magazine, journal etc. take place. Before
publishing these materials, it should be designed properly. Nowadays,
there are many computerized software for desktop designing and
publishing which makes it very easy and efficient. Some of the desktop
publishing software as MS-Word, Adobe PageMaker, and others, which is
used to manipulated by computer system.
12. Efficient and Effective Communication:
Communication involves transferring of audio, video, text, hypertext etc.
from one place to another. Computers help to cover large distances through
the telecommunication & satellite links for efficient, effective, faster,
cheaper and reliable communications.
Modern communication system would be impossible without computers.
The increasing incorporation of computers technology in the
communication have helped to handle the increased number of telephone
calls, international subscriber dialing facilities, television, radio
broadcast, instant messaging, online information sharing and so on.

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 Due to the invention of the Internet, modern computers are massively used
for fast, reliable and cheap communication all around the world. Text,
photo, animation, email, voice etc. can be exchanged between the
computers through the Internet. Due to the services like WWW, email,
voicemail, chat, internet phone etc. communication has been fast, reliable
and cheaper.
13. Fine Arts and Advertisement:
Computer systems are widely used for arts and designing fine arts,
illusions with various creativity. It is also broadly used for designing the
eye catchy advertisement. It makes easy to work with various shapes,
sizes, color’s and collage for the unique creativity and output. Computer
system also helps in designing arts with various dimensional arts, pictures
with animation and other visual effects.
14. Research & designing:
Research and designing are the most essential and vital task in computing
technology for advanced technology, with appropriate features etc.
Research help to find out the current requirements, wants and wishes and
also helps to analyze the psychology of general people for the new
invention and products. Computer helps to analyze on different basis and
trends analysis. It also helps in designing of different hardware and
software.
15. E-Governance:
Computer is used by the government as Information and Communication
Technology. It is also used to collect, process and store vast amounts of
information. It is used for the filing of income tax return, paying taxes,
online submission of water and electricity bills, for the access of land
record details etc. Government uses computer to circulate the information,
planning, budgeting, etc.
16. Engineering:
Computer system is now increasingly employed to improve technological
advancements and productivity. It used to design and operation of man-
made satellites, space exploration vehicles, rockets and in training of
astronauts. Engineers use computers for performing complex scientific
calculations, for designing and making drawings (CAD and CAM) and also
for simulating and testing the designs.
17. Reservation:
By using the computer with internet facilities, the reservation for the air
ticket, train ticket, bus ticket, theater ticket, etc. became possible.
Computer also stores information regarding passengers such as name,
address, age, destination, date of journey, class, fare, etc. Due to the credit
card and debit card facility, the passengers can reserve and purchase the
tickets even from their own home computer.
18. Insurance:

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 Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of
computers. Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms
are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with
information showing:
▪ Procedure to continue with policies
▪ Starting date of the policies
▪ Next due installment of a policy
▪ Maturity date
▪ Interests due
▪ Survival benefits
▪ Bonus

19. Marketing:
In marketing, uses of the computer are following:
Advertising: With computers, advertising professionals create art and
graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the
goal of selling more products.

Home Shopping: Home shopping has been made possible through the use
of computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and
permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

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