Volume 10, Issue 4, April – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25apr1627

Application of SAR-Driven Flood Detection

Systems in Wetland Ecosystems and its
Implications for Migratory Bird Habitat
Management
Ogechukwu Blessing Okereke1; Adeyemi Abejoye2;
Prince Alex Ekhorutomwen2; Amina Catherine Peter-Anyebe3
1
Department of Chemistry, Illinois State University, Normal, IL, USA.
2
Department of Environmental Science, University of Newhaven, Connecticut, United States
3
Department of Political Science (International Relations and Diplomacy),
Federal University of Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria

Publication Date: 2025/04/25

Abstract: Wetland ecosystems play a vital role in maintaining global biodiversity, hydrological stability, and carbon
sequestration. However, these ecologically sensitive areas are increasingly threatened by climate-induced flooding,
anthropogenic disturbances, and habitat degradation. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) technology has emerged as a
powerful remote sensing tool for real-time, all-weather flood detection, offering high-resolution imagery critical for wetland
monitoring and adaptive ecosystem management. This review explores the application of SAR-driven flood detection
systems in tracking water level fluctuations and inundation patterns within wetlands and evaluates their implications for
migratory bird habitat conservation. Emphasis is placed on SAR’s capability to penetrate cloud cover and detect changes
in surface moisture, which enhances early flood warning systems and informs decision-making for habitat protection. The
paper also investigates case studies where SAR data have been integrated into conservation planning, emphasizing
spatiotemporal analysis for managing seasonal wetlands that serve as critical stopover or breeding sites for migratory birds.
By highlighting technological advancements, methodological approaches, and interdisciplinary frameworks, the review
highlights the potential of SAR to support resilient wetland management strategies that align with global conservation goals.

Keywords: Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), Flood Detection, Wetland Ecosystems, Migratory Birds, Habitat Management.

How to Cite: Ogechukwu Blessing Okereke; Adeyemi Abejoye; Prince Alex Ekhorutomwen; Amina Catherine Peter-Anyebe
(2025). Application of SAR-Driven Flood Detection Systems in Wetland Ecosystems and its Implications for Migratory
Bird Habitat Management. International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology, 10(4), 1343-1359.
https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25apr1627

I. INTRODUCTION essential breeding, nesting, and foraging grounds for aquatic

and terrestrial species, including migratory birds that depend
 Background on Wetland Ecosystems and their Ecological on seasonal wetland cycles for survival.
Significance
Wetland ecosystems represent some of the most The loss and degradation of wetlands have accelerated
productive and ecologically valuable landscapes on Earth. over the past century due to urbanization, agricultural
They provide critical services including flood regulation, expansion, and infrastructure development. Davidson (2014)
water purification, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity emphasized that the world has already lost approximately 64–
support. Wetlands act as ecological buffers by absorbing 71% of its natural wetland area since 1900, leading to
excess rainfall, filtering pollutants from runoff, and alarming declines in ecosystem functions and services. This
maintaining hydrological balance, especially in low-lying rapid transformation disrupts not only biogeochemical cycles
regions prone to inundation. According to Mitsch and but also the migration pathways of avian species that rely on
Gosselink (2015), wetland restoration contributes intact wetland networks. The ecological fragility and strategic
significantly to mitigating climate change impacts by location of wetlands highlight the urgency of integrating real-
enhancing carbon storage and stabilizing local climates. time monitoring technologies, such as SAR systems, to
These ecosystems also support complex food webs, offering

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ensure their sustainable management amid environmental and (Ijiga et al., 2024). Kays et al. (2015) discuss how these tools
anthropogenic stressors. have revolutionized ecological research by providing insights
into migration patterns, habitat preferences, and responses to
 Threats from Climate-Induced Flooding and Human environmental changes. Such information is critical for
Activities identifying essential habitats, assessing the impacts of
Wetland ecosystems are increasingly imperiled by the anthropogenic pressures, and implementing targeted
synergistic effects of climate-induced flooding and conservation measures. The synergy between molecular
anthropogenic activities. In the Liaohe River Delta, human techniques like eDNA metabarcoding and spatial tracking
interventions such as agricultural expansion, aquaculture, and technologies offers a comprehensive framework for
urban development have led to significant alterations in monitoring biodiversity and guiding effective habitat
wetland landscapes. These activities have transformed conservation efforts.
natural wetlands into fragmented patches, disrupting
hydrological regimes and diminishing biodiversity. Deng et  Objectives and Scope of the Review
al. (2024) utilized remote sensing data to analyze land use The primary objective of this review is to critically
changes from 1995 to 2020, revealing a consistent decline in examine the application of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)-
natural wetland areas, primarily due to intensified human based flood detection systems in monitoring wetland
activities. The study highlights that the conversion of ecosystems and to assess their implications for migratory bird
wetlands into paddy fields and construction sites has habitat management. With increasing pressures from climate
exacerbated habitat fragmentation, leading to a loss of variability and anthropogenic modifications, the need for
ecological integrity. advanced, real-time ecological monitoring tools has become
urgent. SAR technology, owing to its ability to penetrate
Climate change further compounds these challenges by cloud cover and operate under all weather conditions, is
altering precipitation patterns and increasing the frequency of uniquely suited to flood-prone wetland environments. Xu et
extreme weather events. In the Pantanal region, one of the al. (2023) highlight that while SAR applications have
world's largest tropical wetlands, proposed infrastructural advanced significantly in hydrological modeling and wetland
projects like the Paraguay-Paraná waterway threaten to delineation, gaps remain in ecosystem-specific
disrupt natural flooding cycles. Junk, & de Cunha (2005) interpretations and policy translation, particularly for
argue that such developments could reduce the floodplain's biodiversity conservation.
extent, making the ecosystem more susceptible to droughts
and wildfires. The study emphasizes that the combination of This review also aims to contextualize the utility of SAR
reduced inundation and rising temperatures has already led to within the broader conservation framework for migratory
unprecedented wildfire events, endangering the region's rich birds. Migratory avian species are highly dependent on the
biodiversity and carbon storage capacity. These findings dynamic hydrology of wetlands for breeding, roosting, and
highlight the critical need for integrated management stopover functions. Martínez et al. (2022) demonstrate that
approaches that consider both climatic and anthropogenic integrating SAR data with species distribution models
pressures to safeguard wetland ecosystems. enhances the predictive capacity of habitat shifts under
climate stressors. The scope of the paper thus encompasses
 Importance of Monitoring Tools for Habitat Conservation SAR imaging principles, flood detection methodologies, case
Effective habitat conservation hinges on the deployment studies in wetland regions, and applications in avian
of precise and reliable monitoring tools that can detect conservation planning. Ultimately, this review provides a
ecological changes and inform management strategies. comprehensive foundation for interdisciplinary strategies that
Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding has emerged as bridge technological innovation and ecological stewardship.
a transformative method, enabling the detection of species
presence through genetic material collected from  Structure of the Paper
environmental samples such as soil or water. This technique This review paper is structured into seven main sections,
allows for non-invasive monitoring of biodiversity, beginning with an introduction that outlines the ecological
particularly in aquatic ecosystems where traditional survey importance of wetlands, the growing threats from climate-
methods may be challenging. However, the accuracy of induced flooding and human interference, and the critical
eDNA analyses can be compromised by false positives, often need for advanced monitoring tools such as Synthetic
resulting from contamination or sequencing errors. Ficetola Aperture Radar (SAR). Section examines the technical
et al. (2016) emphasize the necessity of stringent laboratory foundations and operational capabilities of SAR technology,
protocols and the inclusion of negative controls to mitigate highlighting its advantages over traditional optical systems.
these risks, thereby enhancing the reliability of eDNA as a Section 3 explores specific methodologies and case studies
monitoring tool. involving SAR-driven flood detection in wetland ecosystems.
Section 4 focuses on the ecological consequences of flooding
In parallel, advancements in animal tracking on migratory bird habitats, examining the spatial and
technologies have significantly contributed to our temporal dynamics critical to avian conservation. Section 5
understanding of species movements and habitat utilization. discusses how SAR data can be integrated into real-time
The integration of GPS telemetry and biologging devices habitat management and policy-making frameworks. Section
facilitates the collection of high-resolution data on animal 6 provides insights into recent technological advancements,
locations, behaviors, and interactions with their environment such as AI integration and multi-sensor fusion, that enhance

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SAR's ecological utility. Finally, Section 7 concludes the applications. Curlander and McDonough (1991) provide a
paper by summarizing key findings and offering strategic comprehensive overview of SAR systems, detailing the
recommendations for future research, interdisciplinary signal processing techniques that enable the formation of
collaboration, and policy interventions aimed at protecting high-resolution images from the collected radar data.
wetland biodiversity through remote sensing innovation.
The fundamental operation of SAR involves
II. SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR (SAR) transmitting microwave pulses toward the Earth's surface and
TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW recording the reflected signals. By analyzing the time delay
and phase shift of these echoes, SAR systems can construct
 Principles and Working Mechanism of Synthetic Aperture detailed images of the terrain. The ability to operate in all
Radar (SAR) weather conditions and during both day and night makes SAR
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is an advanced remote an invaluable tool for continuous environmental monitoring.
sensing technology that utilizes the motion of a radar antenna Bamler and Hartl (1998) discuss the principles of SAR
over a target region to simulate a large antenna aperture, interferometry, an extension of SAR that exploits the phase
thereby achieving high-resolution imaging capabilities. information of the radar signals to measure surface
Unlike conventional radar systems, SAR synthesizes the topography and deformation with high precision. This
aperture by coherently processing the backscattered signals capability is crucial for applications such as flood monitoring,
received at different positions along the flight path, land subsidence detection, and glacier movement analysis as
effectively creating a virtual antenna much larger than the represented in Table 1. The integration of SAR data into
physical one (Enyejo et al 2024). This technique allows for environmental studies enhances our understanding of
fine spatial resolution independent of the actual antenna size, dynamic Earth processes and supports effective decision-
making it particularly useful for Earth observation making in resource management and disaster response.

Table 1 Core Principles, Mechanisms, and Applications of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Key Concept Mechanisms Applications Advantages
Synthetic Aperture SAR simulates a large antenna by Virtual aperture creation for Enables compact radar
Simulation combining backscattered signals high-resolution Earth systems with extended
along a flight path observation. capabilities.
High-Resolution Spatial resolution is enhanced Capturing detailed terrain Improves image clarity and
Imaging independently of antenna size features for mapping and feature detection
through coherent signal processing monitoring
Microwave Pulse Microwave pulses are transmitted Constructing terrain images Supports continuous data
Transmission to Earth's surface, and echoes are under all weather and acquisition in adverse
recorded for analysis. lighting conditions. conditions
SAR Interferometry Phase differences in repeated SAR Monitoring land subsidence, Delivers high-precision
signals are analyzed to detect glacier movement, and measurements of surface
elevation and deformation. flooding changes over time.

 Advantages over Traditional Optical Remote Sensing unique advantage in capturing inundation events that are
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) offers significant otherwise concealed in optical imagery. This attribute is
advantages over traditional optical remote sensing, particularly important for accurate flood mapping and
particularly in the context of wetland monitoring and flood wetland delineation in densely vegetated regions. By
detection. One of the primary benefits of SAR is its ability to providing consistent, all-weather, and canopy-penetrating
operate independently of solar illumination and atmospheric observations, SAR enhances the monitoring of dynamic
conditions, allowing for consistent data acquisition during wetland environments, offering a robust tool for
both day and night, as well as through cloud cover and environmental management and conservation efforts.
precipitation (Igba et al., 2025). This capability is crucial for
monitoring wetlands, which are often located in regions with Figure 1 showcases five distinct wetland types—(a)
frequent cloud cover and experience rapid hydrological bog, (b) fen, (c) marsh, (d) swamp, and (e) open water
changes as shown in Figure 1 . Adeli, et al., (2020) wetland—each characterized by unique hydrological and
demonstrated the efficacy of RADARSAT-2 polarimetric vegetative features. This visual diversity highlights the
SAR data in monitoring wetland water levels, highlighting its challenges optical sensors face when monitoring such
potential for providing timely and reliable information in ecologically complex environments. Traditional optical
conditions where optical sensors may fail. methods are hindered by vegetation density, cloud cover, and
varying light conditions, which impair their ability to detect
Furthermore, SAR's longer wavelengths enable subtle hydrological changes across these landscapes. For
penetration through vegetation canopies, allowing for the instance, dense tree canopies in the swamp (d) and floating
detection of surface water beneath forested areas—a task that vegetation in the open water wetland (e) can obscure surface
is challenging for optical sensors due to canopy obstruction. water visibility. In contrast, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Hess et al. (1990) reviewed the capability of radar systems to can penetrate through vegetative cover and is unaffected by
detect flooding beneath forest canopies, emphasizing SAR's atmospheric opacity, enabling consistent detection of water

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levels and flood events in vegetated (d) and open (e) wetland ecological monitoring. This Figure exemplifies the wide
settings alike. The SAR’s backscatter sensitivity to moisture range of wetland conditions where SAR outperforms optical
levels further allows it to differentiate between the peat-rich systems, providing a reliable, high-resolution, and all-
bog (a) and sedge-dominated fen (b), capturing the fine-scale weather solution for environmental assessment and
inundation dynamics essential for flood forecasting and conservation planning.

Fig 1 A Picture Showing the Diverse Wetland Types Illustrating the Monitoring Challenges Overcome by Synthetic Aperture
Radar (SAR) (Dabboor, & Brisco, 2018).

 Frequency Bands and Spatial-Temporal Resolution through vegetation, facilitating the detection of inundation
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems operate across beneath forest canopies (Amani et al., 2020
various frequency bands, each offering distinct advantages
for wetland monitoring. The commonly utilized bands The spatial resolution of SAR imagery is influenced by
include X-band (~3 cm wavelength), C-band (~5.6 cm), and the sensor's frequency and the system's design. Higher
L-band (~24 cm). X-band sensors, such as TerraSAR-X, frequency bands typically yield finer spatial resolution,
provide high spatial resolution, making them suitable for essential for detailed wetland mapping. Temporal resolution,
detecting fine-scale features in wetlands. However, their defined by the revisit frequency of the satellite, is crucial for
shorter wavelengths result in limited penetration through capturing dynamic hydrological changes in wetlands. For
dense vegetation canopies. C-band sensors, like Sentinel-1, instance, Sentinel-1's 6–12-day revisit cycle allows for the
offer a balance between resolution and penetration monitoring of rapid flood events, while ALOS-2's longer
capabilities, making them effective for monitoring moderate revisit interval may limit its effectiveness in capturing short-
vegetation cover. L-band sensors, exemplified by ALOS-2, term changes (Wohlfart et al., 2018). Integrating data from
possess longer wavelengths that enable deeper penetration multiple SAR sensors operating at different frequencies can
enhance both spatial and temporal resolution, providing a

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Volume 10, Issue 4, April – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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comprehensive understanding of wetland dynamics. Such which demand specialized expertise and computational
integration is vital for effective wetland management and the resources.
conservation of migratory bird habitats, which are sensitive
to changes in inundation patterns and vegetation structure Another significant limitation is the difficulty in
(Idowu et al 2024). interpreting SAR imagery due to its unique electromagnetic
characteristics. Unlike optical images, SAR data represent
 Challenges and Limitations in SAR Data Interpretation backscatter intensity, which varies with surface roughness,
While Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) offers moisture content, and dielectric properties as shown in Figure
significant advantages for environmental monitoring, its data 2 (Ijiga et al., 2024). This complexity can lead to ambiguities
interpretation presents several challenges. One primary issue in distinguishing between different land cover types. Huang
is the presence of speckle noise, an inherent granular et al. (2024) discuss how generative artificial intelligence
interference that arises due to the coherent nature of SAR (AI) models are being explored to address these interpretation
signal processing. This noise complicates the extraction of challenges by learning complex patterns within SAR data.
meaningful information, particularly in heterogeneous However, the integration of AI introduces its own set of
environments like urban wetlands. Zhao et al. (2024) challenges, including the need for large, annotated datasets
emphasize that speckle noise can obscure critical features in and the risk of overfitting models to specific scenarios. These
flood mapping, necessitating advanced filtering techniques to limitations highlight the necessity for continued research and
enhance image clarity. Additionally, SAR data often require development to improve SAR data interpretation, particularly
complex preprocessing steps, including radiometric for applications in wetland monitoring and migratory bird
calibration, geometric correction, and terrain normalization, habitat management.

Fig 2 Block Diagram Illustrating the Technical Challenges and Emerging Solutions in Interpreting SAR Data for Wetland
Monitoring

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Figure 2 presents a structured overview of the key Recent advancements have seen the integration of
technical and analytical barriers encountered when using machine learning techniques, such as support vector
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) in ecological applications. machines and convolutional neural networks, to enhance
At the center is the overarching challenge of SAR data classification accuracy. These algorithms can learn complex
interpretation, branching into four primary limitations. First patterns in SAR data, improving the delineation of flood
is speckle noise, a granular interference that degrades image extents, especially in heterogeneous landscapes.
clarity, especially in heterogeneous environments like urban Furthermore, the incorporation of ancillary data, such as
wetlands. Second, the complex preprocessing digital elevation models and land cover maps, has been
requirements—including radiometric calibration, geometric shown to refine flood mapping outputs by providing
correction, and terrain normalization—demand specialized contextual information that aids in the discrimination of
expertise and computational resources, limiting operational flooded areas. Li et al. (2023) emphasizes that the synergy
efficiency. Third, interpretation ambiguities arise due to the between SAR data and supplementary datasets significantly
unique backscatter-based imagery, where surface roughness, enhances the reliability of flood maps, which is crucial for
moisture, and dielectric properties complicate land cover effective disaster response and water resource management.
differentiation. Lastly, while AI integration offers promising
improvements in classification accuracy through pattern  Case Studies on SAR Flood Detection in Global Wetlands
recognition, it introduces new challenges such as the need for Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) has been instrumental
large, annotated datasets and risks of model overfitting. in flood detection across diverse wetland ecosystems
Together, these limitations highlight the urgent need for globally. In the United States, SAR data have been
continued research to develop more intuitive, efficient, and extensively used to monitor wetlands in regions like southern
transferable SAR interpretation frameworks, particularly for Florida and Louisiana, providing critical insights into flood
dynamic ecosystems like wetlands where accurate dynamics and wetland health. Adeli et al. (2020) conducted a
monitoring is essential for effective conservation. comprehensive meta-analysis of SAR applications in wetland
monitoring, highlighting the increasing integration of C- and
III. SAR-BASED FLOOD DETECTION IN L-band SAR data for improved classification accuracy in
WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS flood detection. Their study highlights the effectiveness of
multi-frequency and multi-polarized SAR configurations in
 Methodologies for Flood Mapping Using SAR Imagery capturing the complex hydrological patterns of wetlands.
Flood mapping utilizing Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR) imagery has become an indispensable tool in In Europe, the development of automated SAR-based
hydrological studies due to SAR's capability to penetrate flood services has enhanced rapid response capabilities.
cloud cover and operate under all weather conditions. The Martinis et al. (2015) introduced a fully automated flood
methodologies for flood detection using SAR data primarily mapping service using TerraSAR-X data, demonstrating its
involve change detection techniques, thresholding methods, application in various flood events across Germany. The
and advanced machine learning algorithms. Change detection system employs a combination of radiometric thresholding
approaches compare pre- and post-flood SAR images to and region-growing algorithms to delineate flood extents
identify variations in backscatter intensity, which often accurately. This approach has proven effective in providing
indicate inundated areas (Uzoma et al., 2025). Thresholding timely flood maps, which are crucial for emergency
methods, on the other hand, classify pixels based on management and mitigation strategies as presented in Table
backscatter values, distinguishing between water and non- 2. The success of such automated systems illustrates the
water surfaces. Giustarini, et al. (2016) highlights the efficacy potential of SAR technology in operational flood monitoring,
of these methods, noting that while thresholding is particularly in data-scarce regions where rapid information
computationally efficient, it may require calibration for dissemination is vital (Ijiga, et al 2024).
different land cover types and SAR configurations.

Table 2 Automated SAR-Based Flood Mapping for Rapid Response in European Wetlands
Region/Study SAR Technology Used Key Contributions Impact/Application
United States (Florida C- and L-band SAR Monitoring wetland flood Supports conservation and
& Louisiana) dynamics and ecosystem health hydrological modeling
Adeli et al. (2020) Multi-frequency and Meta-analysis confirming Promotes SAR integration into
multi-polarized SAR improved flood detection wetland classification systems
accuracy using SAR data
Europe (Germany) TerraSAR-X Flood mapping during European Enables timely flood response and
events with high spatial precision planning
Martinis et al. (2015) Automated SAR flood Developed rapid-response flood Improves operational flood
service with radiometric delineation system using SAR monitoring in data-limited settings
thresholding algorithms

 Validation Techniques and Performance Accuracy assess performance accuracy and ensure the reliability of
Accurate flood mapping using Synthetic Aperture Radar classification outcomes. Typically, validation involves
(SAR) imagery necessitates robust validation protocols to comparing SAR-derived flood maps with ground-truth data

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or high-resolution optical imagery, when available. The use Seasonal hydrology determines the timing and extent of
of confusion matrices is standard practice in performance inundation, influencing vegetation succession, soil moisture,
assessment, from which key metrics such as overall accuracy, and the availability of foraging grounds for migratory birds.
producer’s and user’s accuracy, and the Kappa coefficient are Long-term analysis provides insights into climate-driven
derived. These metrics help evaluate classification reliability trends such as reduced recharge, altered hydroperiods, or
and potential misclassifications due to terrain heterogeneity wetland desiccation. SAR imagery, particularly when
or sensor limitations (Igba et al 2024). collected over extended periods, facilitates spatiotemporal
analysis by detecting changes in surface water distribution
Pulvirenti et al. (2011) demonstrated a structured that are otherwise unobservable via field methods.
validation framework using COSMO-SkyMed SAR data,
applying segmentation-based classification followed by Rebelo et al. (2010) emphasized the significance of
accuracy assessment using field survey data and aerial seasonal water cycles in sustaining rural livelihoods in sub-
photographs. Their study reported an overall accuracy Saharan wetlands, where variations in hydrology affect food
exceeding 85%, illustrating the reliability of SAR in flood security and biodiversity conservation. By combining multi-
detection even under dense vegetation and complex land temporal SAR data with hydrological modeling, researchers
cover conditions. Importantly, the authors noted the necessity can quantify inundation patterns across wet and dry seasons,
of integrating ancillary datasets—such as digital elevation thereby informing adaptive land-use practices as shown in
models (DEMs)—to improve the accuracy of water extent Figure 3.
delineation, particularly in regions where topography affects
radar backscatter. The study also emphasized the importance On a global scale, Papa et al. (2010) used a decade-long
of multi-temporal imagery, which enhances validation time series of passive microwave and radar datasets to assess
robustness by accounting for dynamic hydrological changes interannual surface water variability, confirming a strong
across time. These validation approaches ensure that SAR- correlation between wetland dynamics and large-scale
based flood monitoring systems are dependable tools for climatic phenomena like ENSO. Their findings highlight the
decision-making in wetland conservation and disaster role of SAR in revealing persistent shifts in hydrological
management. regimes, which are critical for predicting wetland resilience
and guiding long-term conservation interventions. These
 Seasonal and Long-Term Wetland Hydrology Analysis methodologies are pivotal for managing seasonal wetland
Understanding seasonal and long-term hydrological systems under increasing anthropogenic and climate
dynamics in wetlands is essential for effective flood stressors.
prediction and habitat conservation. Ijiga et al., (2024)

Fig 3 A Picture Showing Seasonal Hydrological Dynamics and Subsurface Storage Influences on Wetland Flow Regimes (Dralle,
et al., 2023)

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Figure 3 illustrates seasonal hydrological dynamics  Effects of Flooding on Breeding and Foraging Grounds
across two contrasting hillslope structures Central Belt and Flooding events in wetland ecosystems play a complex
Coastal Belt highlighting differences in water storage and role in shaping the breeding and foraging opportunities
flow between wet and dry seasons. It demonstrates how thin available to migratory birds. While moderate inundation can
critical zones in the Central Belt led to rapid runoff and enhance habitat quality by stimulating invertebrate and
ephemeral streams during the wet season, followed by vegetation growth, excessive or untimely flooding disrupts
complete drainage and dry conditions in summer. reproductive success and food access (Ijiga et al, 2024).
Conversely, the Coastal Belt, with its thicker subsurface Seasonal breeding grounds, particularly those in agricultural
storage and vadose zone, supports muted runoff, sustained floodplains or shallow marshes, are vulnerable to over-
groundwater flow, and perennial streams year-round. These inundation during nesting periods, leading to nest
seasonal contrasts directly influence downstream wetland abandonment or egg loss.
hydrology, determining the extent, duration, and frequency of
inundation critical for habitat stability. SAR imagery, Stralberg et al. (2020) assessed flood-related breeding
especially when used in long-term time series, can effectively risks for waterbirds in California’s Central Valley and found
monitor such shifts in subsurface moisture, surface water that early-season flooding, driven by climate-induced
presence, and stream persistence key indicators for assessing hydrological shifts, inundated key nesting habitats for species
climate-driven changes, wetland resilience, and the such as the Black-necked Stilt and American Avocet. These
availability of habitat for migratory species. disruptions reduced reproductive output and altered spatial
nesting distributions, forcing birds to seek suboptimal or
IV. FLOODING IMPACTS ON MIGRATORY degraded sites.
BIRD HABITATS
Foraging grounds are similarly affected by flood
 Ecological Importance of Wetlands for Migratory Birds dynamics. Ntiamoa-Baidu et al. (2008) observed that
Wetlands are critical ecological assets that serve as waterbird species in Ghana’s coastal lagoons adjusted their
indispensable habitats for migratory bird species throughout foraging strategies based on fluctuating water depths, with
their annual cycles. These ecosystems provide vital stopover both prey availability and foraging efficiency heavily
sites for rest, feeding, and breeding, especially during long- influenced by hydrological conditions. Extended or deep
distance migrations where energy replenishment is essential inundation reduced prey accessibility for tactile feeders,
for survival. The availability, distribution, and quality of undermining the energy balance required during migration
wetlands directly influence migratory routes, population stopovers as shown in Figure 4. Understanding these
dynamics, and species survival, particularly for waterfowl ecological dependencies is essential for designing adaptive
and waders that depend on ephemeral wetland systems. wetland management strategies that accommodate the
nuanced effects of flooding on avian breeding and foraging
Finlayson and Spiers (2018) highlight that wetlands ecology.
support over 50% of migratory bird species globally by
offering diverse hydrological and ecological niches that meet Figure 4 shows a vulnerable chick nestled in semi-
the specific needs of different avian taxa. Seasonal wetlands submerged vegetation within a flooded wetland environment,
are especially significant for supporting pulse-dependent symbolizing the delicate balance between hydrological
foraging behavior, where birds exploit brief periods of high conditions and avian reproductive success. This scenario
biological productivity. In arid and semi-arid regions, reflects how excessive or poorly timed inundation can
migratory birds rely on wetlands as ecological refuges that compromise nesting habitats for migratory birds. While some
provide consistent moisture and food resources during flooding promotes invertebrate abundance beneficial for
otherwise inhospitable dry seasons. chick development, persistent high-water levels—such as
those visible here—may isolate nests, displace fledglings, or
However, wetland loss and hydrological alteration due increase exposure to predators. For tactile foragers, deep
to anthropogenic pressures pose a serious threat to these water further hinders access to food, reducing energy intake
migratory networks. The functional connectivity among during critical life stages. This image exemplifies the
wetlands is essential for enabling uninterrupted migration, ecological risk posed by altered flood regimes, reinforcing the
making conservation of both large-scale wetland complexes need for seasonal water management strategies that ensure
and smaller satellite sites critical. Remote sensing tools like breeding habitats remain accessible and secure during peak
SAR are pivotal in monitoring these dynamic habitats, nesting periods. Such interventions are crucial to sustaining
ensuring timely conservation interventions that preserve the healthy bird populations in dynamic wetland ecosystems.
ecological integrity required for sustaining migratory bird
populations.

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Fig 4 A Picture Showing Flooded Nesting Grounds and the Vulnerability of Wetland Birds (Woodburn, 2023)

 SAR-Based Identification of Habitat Shifts and  Species-specific Case Studies and Conservation
Degradation Implications
The identification of habitat shifts and degradation Species-specific case studies offer critical insight into
through Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) technology offers a conservation planning, especially when evaluating habitat
vital means of tracking wetland dynamics and their impact on degradation caused by climate extremes and anthropogenic
migratory bird populations. SAR systems, owing to their activities. For example, Runge et al. (2015) highlighted the
ability to detect surface structure changes under all weather vulnerability of long-distance migratory birds such as the bar-
conditions, enable consistent monitoring of wetland tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica), which rely on a chain of
inundation patterns, vegetation cover, and soil moisture—key protected stopover habitats for survival. Their modeling
indicators of habitat quality and transformation. When demonstrated that even small disruptions in these
combined with time-series analyses, SAR data can reveal interconnected nodes—due to flooding, sea-level rise, or land
both gradual and abrupt ecological changes driven by conversion—can lead to catastrophic population declines.
hydrological disturbances, land conversion, or climate This highlights the importance of spatially coordinated
extremes (Ijiga et al., 2024). conservation strategies that consider full migratory pathways
rather than isolated reserves.
Ayat et al. (2021) demonstrated the capacity of Sentinel-
1 SAR data to monitor habitat loss in African ecosystems, Similarly, Mantyka-Pringle et al. (2012) provided meta-
with a focus on changes in landscape structure relevant to analytic evidence that the interaction between habitat
large mammal habitats. The methodologies applied— fragmentation and climate-induced stressors
particularly backscatter analysis and coherence-based change disproportionately affects range-restricted amphibians and
detection—are equally adaptable to wetland environments. reptiles. For instance, the northern corroboree frog
These techniques can quantify vegetation degradation and (Pseudophryne pengilleyi) experiences heightened extinction
surface water loss, which directly affect foraging and nesting risk due to the compounded effects of reduced breeding sites
areas used by migratory birds. For instance, reduced radar and shifting temperature gradients. Conservation
backscatter over time may indicate increased soil dryness or implications from such findings stress the need for dynamic,
vegetation dieback, signaling ecological stress or wetland species-tailored interventions that integrate habitat
desiccation. SAR’s sensitivity to vertical structure also allows restoration with climate resilience frameworks as presented
detection of marsh encroachment, which may hinder avian in Table 3. Additionally, predictive modeling based on
access to shallow feeding zones. Consequently, SAR species’ ecological niches can support prioritization of
facilitates the proactive identification of at-risk habitats, critical zones for conservation funding and legislative
supporting targeted conservation interventions. protection (Enyejo, et al., 2024). These case studies reinforce
that high-resolution, species-focused research is
indispensable in mitigating biodiversity loss under increasing
environmental volatility.

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Table 3 Species-Specific Vulnerabilities and Strategic Conservation Responses in Wetland Ecosystems
Species/Study Focus Stressors Identified Conservation Insight Management Implications
Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa Flooding, sea-level rise, habitat Migratory success depends on Protect and connect critical
lapponica) loss intact habitat networks stopover zones
Northern Corroboree Frog Habitat fragmentation, Species with narrow ranges Prioritize range-restricted
(Pseudophryne pengilleyi) temperature shifts face disproportionate risks species for targeted actions
Runge et al. (2015) Disruption in migratory Conservation must be spatially Use predictive modeling to
stopover sites coordinated along migratory guide resource allocation
routes
Mantyka-Pringle et al. Climate-induced stress Calls for integration of climate Develop dynamic, species-
(2012) compounded by habitat resilience in habitat restoration specific adaptation
degradation strategies

V. INTEGRATING SAR DATA INTO hydrological changes resulting from climate anomalies or
HABITAT MANAGEMENT anthropogenic interference. For instance, SAR time-series
have been effectively applied to assess post-storm wetland
 Role of SAR in Adaptive Wetland Management Practices recovery trajectories and to monitor sediment redistribution
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) has emerged as a in deltaic regions—parameters often missed by optical
transformative tool in adaptive wetland management due to sensors due to persistent cloud cover. Furthermore, SAR-
its ability to capture high-resolution, all-weather, and day- derived coherence and backscatter metrics provide
night imagery of dynamic hydrological systems. Jung et al. quantitative measures of vegetation structure and water
(2020) emphasized the utility of SAR in generating saturation levels, enabling ecosystem managers to evaluate
temporally consistent, spatially detailed wetland maps, which the efficacy of water retention or diversion interventions
are critical for informing policy decisions and ecological (Ijiga et al, 2024).
restoration. Their global-scale analysis demonstrated that
SAR-based datasets accurately delineate flood pulse regimes By integrating SAR data into hydrological models and
and intra-annual water extent variations, enabling managers ecosystem service assessments, stakeholders can refine water
to identify seasonal inundation thresholds and shifts in allocation schedules, restore functional hydrology, and
wetland connectivity. mitigate biodiversity loss under uncertain climate futures as
presented in Table 4. The continuous, reliable monitoring
In adaptive management frameworks, where iterative capacity of SAR systems positions them as indispensable
decision-making depends on continuous environmental components in data-driven wetland governance.
feedback, SAR facilitates near-real-time monitoring of

Table 4 SAR in Adaptive Wetland Management

Key Concept SAR Application Impact on Wetland Implications for Governance
Management
All-Weather and Day- SAR provides continuous Enables continuous and SAR data allows for reliable,
Night Monitoring monitoring across different consistent monitoring of data-driven decision-making
weather conditions and dynamic wetland systems. under uncertain environmental
times of day. conditions.
Seasonal Inundation and SAR captures temporal Helps identify shifts in SAR enhances ecological
Connectivity changes in water extent and wetland connectivity, restoration and policy decisions
delineates flood pulse informing adaptive by refining wetland flood regime
regimes. management decisions. mapping.
Real-Time SAR time-series are used for Supports adaptive frameworks Facilitates the monitoring of post-
Environmental Feedback post-storm recovery analysis by providing real-time data for climate anomalies and human-
and monitoring hydrological iterative decision-making. induced hydrological changes.
changes.
Quantitative Vegetation SAR metrics such as Improves understanding of SAR integration into models
and Water Assessment coherence and backscatter water retention and diversion allows for better water allocation,
assess vegetation structure effectiveness, guiding functional hydrology restoration,
and water saturation. interventions. and biodiversity conservation.

 Data-Driven Early Warning Systems and Policy multi-source data assimilation, including satellite remote
Frameworks sensing, in-situ hydrological observations, and real-time
The integration of data-driven early warning systems climate forecasts. Such systems support adaptive
into environmental governance has significantly enhanced policymaking by providing probabilistic alerts that trigger
the anticipatory management of flood-prone and ecologically preemptive measures at local and regional levels, minimizing
sensitive regions. Pulwarty and Sivakumar (2014) emphasize socio-ecological disruptions. In the context of wetland
that robust early warning systems must be underpinned by management, these alerts help precondition policy

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frameworks for dynamic response strategies, such as wetland than top-down monitoring frameworks. In flood-prone
buffer reconfiguration and pre-flood evacuations. wetland areas, local residents are often the first to observe
hydrological changes such as altered floodplain flow,
Hauduc, et al. (2015) extend this discourse by outlining vegetation shifts, or sediment deposition. Integrating these
the structural underpinnings of effective hydrologic early observations through mobile platforms or standardized data
warning systems, particularly the need for modular, open- sheets enables real-time inputs into early warning systems
data platforms that enable cross-sector interoperability. Their and contributes to a more granular understanding of
analysis points to the importance of coupling streamflow ecological dynamics (Ijiga et al., 2024).
simulation models with meteorological prediction systems to
enhance the spatial and temporal resolution of flood forecasts. Reed (2008) emphasizes that stakeholder participation
Furthermore, policy alignment is achieved when these must move beyond tokenistic consultation toward co-
systems are embedded within institutional protocols, management, where diverse actors—ranging from
including environmental impact assessments and risk indigenous groups to civil engineers—contribute to decision-
governance frameworks. For example, automated thresholds making processes. For instance, participatory scenario
derived from SAR and rainfall analytics can activate wetland modeling exercises that involve farmers, conservationists,
watergate controls, reinforcing conservation and resilience and government officials have been successful in aligning
objectives. These frameworks ensure that data-driven early water-use policies with ecosystem thresholds. Such
warning systems serve as both technical safeguards and engagement not only improves the legitimacy and
catalysts for proactive environmental legislation. acceptability of management decisions but also facilitates
long-term stewardship and resilience as shown in Figure 5.
 Community-Based Monitoring and Stakeholder Effective stakeholder engagement also supports social
Engagement learning, wherein trust-building and knowledge exchange
Community-based monitoring (CBM) and inclusive enhance adaptive capacity at the community level. When
stakeholder engagement are vital mechanisms for integrating paired with SAR-based data and institutional tools,
local knowledge into adaptive wetland management. community-driven approaches ensure that wetland
Danielsen et al. (2010) argue that CBM systems, when governance remains both scientifically grounded and socially
designed with meaningful community involvement, can responsive.
achieve faster implementation and broader spatial coverage

Fig 5 Block Diagram Illustrating the Integrating Community Knowledge and Stakeholder Collaboration for
Adaptive Wetland Governance

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Figure 5 illustrates how community-based monitoring learning models—particularly convolutional neural networks
(CBM) and stakeholder collaboration are integral to effective (CNNs) and recurrent neural networks (RNNs)—have
wetland management. At the center, CBM leverages local demonstrated superior performance in processing complex
knowledge integration and real-time observations through SAR backscatter data, enabling enhanced classification
mobile platforms and standardized data. These insights are accuracy of water bodies, vegetation structures, and soil
complemented by external stakeholder engagement, which moisture conditions under all weather conditions. The
involves a co-management approach with diverse groups robustness of AI-driven classification is particularly
such as indigenous communities, civil engineers, government advantageous in flood-prone wetland zones, where temporal
officials, farmers, and conservationists. This collaborative and spatial resolution of hydrological features is critical for
decision-making process, enhanced by participatory scenario adaptive management as shown in Figure 6.
modeling, ensures inclusive, adaptive strategies. Ultimately,
the diagram shows that these efforts result in improved In practice, AI-enabled systems can ingest continuous
legitimacy of decisions, increased adaptive capacity, and SAR time-series imagery to detect surface water changes,
long-term stewardship and resilience of wetland ecosystems. anomalies in inundation patterns, and even early indicators of
The integration of SAR-based data further supports informed, wetland degradation. These models are often trained on large
data-driven governance. datasets that include multi-frequency SAR inputs (e.g., C-
band, L-band) and ancillary data such as digital elevation
VI. ADVANCEMENTS AND FUTURE models and meteorological variables. Once deployed, the
DIRECTIONS systems can autonomously trigger alerts, classify land cover
transitions, and prioritize zones for conservation intervention.
 Integration of SAR with AI and Machine Learning Additionally, integration into cloud-based geospatial
The integration of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data platforms facilitates inter-agency access and collaborative
with artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) response. The synergy between SAR and AI is rapidly
algorithms has revolutionized the capacity for real-time becoming essential for scalable, intelligent environmental
wetland analysis, flood prediction, and ecosystem monitoring frameworks that support precision decision-
monitoring. According to Mohsen, et al., (2018), deep making in wetland management.

Fig 6 A Picture Showing AI-Enhanced SAR Flood Mapping Across European Wetlands (Lahsaini, et al, 2024)

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Figure 6 highlights the power of combining Synthetic (SAR) with passive microwave radiometry for global-scale
Aperture Radar (SAR) with AI algorithms for large-scale soil moisture and freeze/thaw detection. This integration is
flood detection and analysis. SAR’s all-weather imaging particularly effective for tracking hydrological transitions in
capability ensures consistent monitoring of surface water wetlands, which often occur under cloud cover or in complex
changes, even under cloud cover or during night conditions, terrains where optical sensors are less reliable. By leveraging
which is critical during flood events. When fused with AI complementary sensor characteristics, such as SAR’s
models such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs), as structural sensitivity and passive microwave’s radiometric
demonstrated in the generation of these flood maps, the responsiveness, managers can achieve more accurate and
system enhances classification accuracy by efficiently temporally consistent wetland state assessments (Ijiga et al.,
distinguishing water bodies from surrounding land cover. The 2025).
consistent flood boundary extraction across multiple regions,
despite varying terrain and climatic conditions, suggests the Roy et al. (2014) highlighted the role of satellite
application of trained machine learning models capable of constellations, such as the Landsat-8 and Sentinel series, in
generalizing across geographic contexts. This integration not facilitating near-continuous Earth observation. These
only accelerates the generation of actionable flood maps but platforms enable inter-calibrated, multi-spectral datasets that
also supports real-time decision-making for emergency support dynamic wetland delineation, vegetation phenology
response and wetland conservation. It exemplifies how AI- monitoring, and flood mapping. When used alongside SAR
enhanced SAR analytics can autonomously detect imagery, these constellations provide a holistic view of
hydrological anomalies, prioritize intervention zones, and surface and sub-surface hydrological processes. This
contribute to scalable, data-driven environmental integrated monitoring strategy is critical for developing
management. predictive ecological models, validating land cover
classifications, and supporting early-warning systems as
 Multi-Sensor Approaches and Satellite Constellations presented in Table 5. By synchronizing data streams from
The use of multi-sensor approaches and satellite multiple orbits and instruments, satellite constellations ensure
constellations significantly enhances the capacity to monitor redundancy, cross-verification, and operational continuity in
wetland ecosystems with high spatial, temporal, and spectral environmental observation frameworks critical to wetland
resolution. Derksen, et al. (2017) emphasized the synergy of resilience.
combining active sensors like Synthetic Aperture Radar

Table 5 Enhancing Wetland Monitoring with Multi-Sensor Approaches and Satellite Constellations
Key Concept Description Applications Benefits
Multi-Sensor Combining active sensors like Tracking hydrological transitions More accurate, temporally
Approaches SAR with passive microwave for in wetlands, particularly under consistent data for wetland
enhanced data accuracy. cloud cover. management.
Satellite Using satellite constellations Enabling near-continuous, high- Facilitates dynamic
Constellations (Landsat-8, Sentinel) for resolution monitoring of wetland delineation and flood
continuous Earth observation. systems. mapping.
Sensor Synergy Leveraging complementary Improving temporal consistency Enhances the ability to
sensor characteristics for more in wetland state assessment. monitor complex terrains and
accurate wetland assessments. remote areas.
Integrated Fusing data from multiple sensors Validating wetland mapping, Ensures redundancy and
Monitoring Strategy and satellites to create a holistic developing predictive models, operational continuity for
view of wetland dynamics. and supporting early-warning environmental monitoring.
systems.

 Open-Access Platforms and Cloud-Based Analysis Tools In the context of wetland systems, cloud-based
The emergence of open-access platforms and cloud- platforms facilitate automated change detection, hydrological
based analysis tools has democratized remote sensing modeling, and cross-temporal comparisons, which are
applications in environmental monitoring, particularly for essential for evaluating the impact of seasonal flooding,
wetland conservation. Gorelick et al. (2017) presented anthropogenic pressures, and climate change. GEE’s
Google Earth Engine (GEE) as a transformative platform that programmable interface supports scalable computation using
enables planetary-scale geospatial analysis through a cloud- JavaScript or Python, enabling the integration of machine
based interface. GEE hosts a multi-petabyte catalog of learning classifiers and SAR feature extraction algorithms.
satellite imagery, including Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), Moreover, its open-access ethos promotes reproducibility,
Landsat, MODIS, and Sentinel data, which can be analyzed collaborative workflows, and transparency in ecological
without the need for local high-performance computing research. By lowering technical and financial barriers,
infrastructure. This accessibility allows conservation platforms like GEE have accelerated the translation of
practitioners, researchers, and policymakers—especially in satellite data into actionable intelligence for wetland
resource-limited settings—to process and visualize time- management, enhancing responsiveness and fostering a
series datasets, derive flood extent maps, and monitor culture of open science within global environmental
vegetation dynamics at scale. governance systems.

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 Future Research Needs and Interdisciplinary Pathways  Policy and Technological Recommendations
Future research in SAR-based wetland monitoring must To optimize SAR's potential, policies must prioritize
advance toward integrating ecological, hydrological, and open-access satellite data, capacity building for local
socio-political dimensions through transdisciplinary conservation teams, and the integration of SAR monitoring
frameworks. Schimel et al. (2015) emphasized the need for into national biodiversity strategies. Technological
coupling SAR observations with carbon flux models to recommendations include adopting AI-enhanced
understand wetland roles in the global carbon cycle. This classification methods, advancing automated flood detection
demands enhanced temporal sampling and the fusion of SAR platforms, and fusing SAR data with optical and ancillary
with optical and LiDAR data to quantify biomass, peatland datasets for enriched ecological insights. Establishing
methane emissions, and soil saturation dynamics. A research standardized protocols for SAR-based ecological
agenda that bridges biogeophysical monitoring with assessments will further enhance data interoperability and
ecosystem service valuation will strengthen predictive application.
capacity and conservation planning under climate
uncertainty.  Call for Sustained Investment and Global Cooperation
Sustained investment in SAR infrastructure, research,
Polk, (2015) highlighted that addressing environmental and cross-sector collaboration is essential to fully realize its
complexity requires knowledge co-production between conservation potential. Wetland ecosystems, being globally
scientists, policymakers, and indigenous communities. interconnected and ecologically sensitive, require
Interdisciplinary research must move beyond disciplinary coordinated monitoring efforts and funding mechanisms that
silos to create participatory models that integrate local transcend national boundaries. International partnerships
knowledge, governance structures, and advanced geospatial among space agencies, conservation organizations, and
analytics. For example, deploying AI-driven SAR policymakers must be strengthened to ensure consistent data
interpretation tools through co-designed dashboards can flows, shared knowledge systems, and unified action against
enable stakeholders to collaboratively identify risk wetland degradation. Such global cooperation is vital for
thresholds, design mitigation strategies, and evaluate policy protecting migratory bird corridors and preserving the
interventions. Institutionalizing such participatory ecological functions of wetlands in an era of accelerating
monitoring systems will enhance legitimacy, ownership, and environmental change.
scalability of environmental solutions. These pathways not
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