Motivation

Introduction

 Can be defined as the desire or willingness for people to work and accomplish tasks
or jobs set before them
 It means inspiring the personnel/workers/employees with a zeal to work for the
accomplishment of objectives of the organizations.
 It is the force that’s drives people to work
 Some indicators of motivated staff include:
1. Low labour turnover
2. Low absenteeism
3. High productivity
4. Workers are prepared to accept responsibility

Some indicators of poorly motivated include:

1. Absenteeism – deliberate absence for which there is not a satisfactory explanation;

often follows a pattern
2. Lateness – often becomes habitual
3. Poor performance – poor-quality work; low levels of work or greater waste of
materials
4. Accidents – poorly motivated workers are often more careless, concentrate less on
their work or distract others, and this increases accidents
5. Labour turnover - people leave for reasons that are not positive; even if they do not
get other jobs, they spend time in trying to do so
6. Poor response rate – workers do not respond very well to orders or leadership and any
response is often slow

Importance of motivation

1. It increases productivity
  Motivation is a process that leads to an increase in the productivity of the employee.
Motivation meets the needs of the employee and thereby creates the drive to work to
the best of his abilities. A well-employee will be willing to put in more effort towards
the betterment of the organization than another disheartened employee.

2. It ensures organisational efficiency

 Motivation plays an important role in changing the attitudes of the employees in the
organization. An indifferent attitude is extinguished most efficiently by motivation.
The presence of such a favourable attitude allows the organization to thrive and be
successful

3. It ensures a loyal workforce

 A well-motivated workforce is a loyal workforce. Motivated employees have high

levels of morale and commitment towards the organization and its goals and
objectives. Motivation thus reduces employee turnover and reduces the need for
constant induction of new employees.

4. Improved levels of customer satisfaction

This has an effect of leading to:

 The ability to differentiate one business from another. This is particularly so in retail
businesses but also applies to manufacturing businesses.
 An increase in returning customers

5. Reduced labour turnover

 Motivated employees are less likely to look for work elsewhere because they are
happy and satisfied in their current post. This can also be described as an increase in
the loyalty of employees. This can have the benefit of reducing the recruitment and
selection costs caused by the need to replace employees when they leave.
6. A possible decrease in production costs – due to lower levels of faulty goods being
produced and therefore less wastage of materials.

7. Lower levels of absenteeism. – Employees are less likely to be absent from work if they
are happy and satisfied at work.

8. Fewer mistakes – due to employees being eager to do the best possible job for their
employer or manager.

9. Better quality goods

Motivation theories

 Motivational theories are studies of understanding what drives a person to work

towards a particular goal or outcome
 Motivational theory refers to psychological models that attempt to discover what
motivates people based on their personality traits and ambitions.
 The motivational theorists include the following
1. Taylor
2. Mayo
3. Maslow
4. Herzberg

1. Frederick Winslow Taylor (Economic Man)

 Taylor put forward the idea that workers are motivated mainly by pay.
 According to Taylor, an employee is referred to as an economic man i.e. he/she is
driven by the desire to earn more money. An economic man will work harder to be
able to receive the highest pay possible. The chance of earning extra money stimulate
further effort.
 Taylor believed that people are motivated by money and that they should be paid
according to the output that they produce. His idea was that employees should be
observed in order to identify the most efficient way of working. Once the best method
had been decided, all employees should carry out the required task in the same way.
  Taylor wanted to advise management on the best ways to increase worker
performance or productivity. He also argued that workers do not naturally enjoy work
and so need close supervision and control.
 Managers were required to breakdown production into series of small tasks. Workers
should then be given appropriate training and tools so that they can work as efficient
as possible on one set task. Performance is then recorded and working conditions will
be altered. This approach of detailed recording and analysis of results is known as
scientific management. Workers are then paid according to the number of items they
produce in a set period of time. i.e piece rate pay.

How to improve output per worker according to Taylor’s scientific

approach

 Select workers to perform a task.

 Observe them performing the task and note the key elements of it.
 Record the time taken to do each part of the task.
 Identify the quickest method recorded.
 Train all workers in this quickest method and do not allow them to make any changes
to it.
 Supervise workers to ensure that this ‘best way’ is being carried out and time them to
check that the set time is not being exceeded.
 Pay workers on the basis of results – based on the theory of economic man.

The relevance of Taylor’s approach to modern industry

1. Motivation of employees – due to Taylor’s approach (i.e. the economic), Some

managers still believe that money is the only way to motivate staff
2. Selection of the right people for the job
3. It leads managers to focus on observing and recording the performance of staff
4. It results in efficiency at work – through establishment of the best method of doing
work (method study)

However, Taylor’s approach may not be relevant due to the following considerations
  The piece rate system is not now a widely used payment system. Quality may be
sacrificed in the search for quantity. Workers will vary output according to their
financial needs at different times of year and it discourages them from accepting
changes at work in case they lose some pay. In most of modern industry, especially
service industries, it has become very difficult to identify the output of individual
workers.
 Money is not the need at work. Employees have a wide range of needs. Taylor’s
theory does not address the problem of how to motivate employees once their desire
for money has been satisfied. i.e. workers may have the desire for status symbols etc
 The theory encourages autocratic style of management. The Taylor approach of
management giving instructions to workers with no discussion or feedback is
considered to be undesirable.
 Mass production can lead to repetitive or boring tasks which the demotivate
employees
 Mass production involves the use of machines and a lot of workers will be replaced
by machines

2. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) and the hierarchy of human

needs

 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a theory of psychology explaining human motivation

based on the pursuit of different levels of needs.
 The theory states that humans are motivated to fulfil their needs in a hierarchical
order.
 Human needs are the wants or desires of people that they hope will be met at their
work or in their activities outside the work environment.
 Maslow put forward that there are five levels of human needs which employees need
to have fulfilled at work. All of the needs are structured into a hierarchy and only
once a level of needs has been fully met, would a worker be motivated by the
opportunity of having the next need up in the hierarchy satisfied. For example, a
person who is dying of hunger will be motivated to achieve a basic wage in order to
buy food before worrying about having a secure job contract or the respect of others.
Once a need is satisfied, it no longer motivates the worker.
  The order begins with the most basic needs before moving on to more advanced
needs. The ultimate goal, according to this theory, is to reach the fifth level of the
hierarchy: self-actualization.
 The theory states that that people are motivated by five basic categories of needs
namely physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization.
 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs says that all humans share the same types of needs, and
that these categories of needs have a hierarchy.
 The diagram below shows Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs.

Interpretation of the hierarchy by Maslow

 Individuals’ needs start on the lowest level.

 Once one level of need has been satisfied, humans will strive to achieve the next
level.
 Self-actualisation, or self-fulfilment, is not reached by many people, but everyone is
capable of reaching their potential.
  Once a need has been satisfied, it will no longer motivate individuals to action – thus,
when material needs have been satisfied, the off er of more money will not increase
productivity.
 Reversion is possible – it is possible for satisfaction at one level to be withdrawn, for
example a loss of job security, and for individuals to move down to the next level.

According to Maslow, individuals are motivated by unsatisfied needs. As each of these needs
is significantly satisfied, it drives and forces the next need to emerge. Maslow grouped the
five needs into two categories - Higher-order needs and Lower-order needs. The
physiological and the safety needs constituted the lower-order needs. These lower-order
needs are mainly satisfied externally. The social, esteem, and self-actualization needs
constituted the higher-order needs. These higher-order needs are generally satisfied
internally, i.e., within an individual.

Explanation of the needs

1. Physiological needs

 Are also referred to as basic needs

 These are biological necessities for human life, such as air, food, drink, shelter,
clothes, warmth, sex, and sleep, among others.
 The human body cannot operate efficiently if these demands are not met.
Physiological needs are the most essential, according to Maslow, because all other
wants are secondary until these are fulfilled.
 A person’s motivation at this level derives from their instinct to survive.

2. Safety needs

 The requirements get increasingly complicated as we progress up Maslow's hierarchy

of needs to the second level. The necessity for security and safety becomes paramount
at this level.
 Workers will now be worried about job security
 They want the assurance that they will be able to meet the basic needs in future
 Employees are worried about their contract of employment
  These requirements can be met by the family and society (e.g. police, schools,
business, and medical care).
 These needs can also be fulfilled by providing employees with contract of
employment, law and order, social stability, and health and wellness, obtaining health
insurance policy, safety against accidents and injury

3. Social needs

 The social needs in Maslow’s hierarchy include love, acceptance, and belonging. At
this level, the need for emotional relationships drives human behaviour.
 Employees are now concerned about acceptance by colleagues, belonging to a group,
trust etc.
 In order to avoid loneliness, depression, and anxiety, it is important for people to feel
loved and accepted by others.
 Some of the things that satisfy this need include:
o Friendships
o Romantic attachments
o Family relationships
o Social groups
o Community group
o Churches and religious organizations

4. Self-esteem needs

 The desire for admiration and respect is found at the fourth level of Maslow's
hierarchy. When the requirements at the lowest three levels have been met, the esteem
needs take over as the primary motivator of conduct.
 The needs become centred on feeling good about one’s self
 At this level, it becomes increasingly important to gain the respect and appreciation of
others. People have a need to accomplish things, then have their efforts recognized.
 People need to sense that they are valued by others and feel that they are making a
contribution to the world.
  Delegation of work to junior employees, offering promotions, participation in
professional activities, academic accomplishments, athletic or team participation, and
personal hobbies can all play a role in fulfilling the esteem needs.

5. Self-actualisation

 This include the urge to become what a person is capable of becoming what he/she
have the potential to become.
 Self-actualisation refers to the ability and opportunity of an individual to achieve their
full potential
 It includes the need for growth and self-contentment. It also includes desire for
gaining more knowledge, social- service, creativity etc.
 Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal development, less
concerned with others' opinions, and engaged in realizing their full potential.
 The self- actualization needs are never fully satiable. As an individual grows
psychologically, opportunities keep cropping up to continue growing.
 These can be satisfied by challenging work that stretches the individual – this will
give a sense of achievement; opportunities to develop and apply new skills will
increase potential, opportunities for new responsibilities

Implications of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory for Managers

 As far as the physiological needs are concerned, the managers should give employees
appropriate salaries to purchase the basic necessities of life. Breaks and eating
opportunities should be given to employees.
 As far as the safety needs are concerned, the managers should provide the employees
job security, safe and hygienic work environment, and retirement benefits so as to
retain them.
 As far as social needs are concerned, the management should encourage teamwork
and organize social events.
 As far as esteem needs are concerned, the managers can appreciate and reward
employees on accomplishing and exceeding their targets. The management can give
the deserved employee higher job rank / position in the organization.
  As far as self-actualization needs are concerned, the managers can give the employees
challenging jobs in which the employees’ skills and competencies are fully utilized.
Moreover, growth opportunities can be given to them so that they can reach the peak.

Limitations of the theory

 Not everyone has the same needs as assumed by the hierarchy. It is possible for a
person not to desire the approval of others and therefore, once their ‘safety needs’
have been met, self- actualisation might be their next goal
 In the real world, it is very difficult to identify the degree to which each need has been
met and which level a worker is on. Thus it is very difficult for the manager to know
for sure which level on the hierarchy each employee is on
 Money is necessary to satisfy basic needs, yet it might also play a role in satisfying
the other levels of needs such as status and esteem
 Self-actualisation is never permanently achieved as the hierarchy has suggested. In the
real world, life jobs must continually offer challenges and opportunities for fulfilment.

3. Mayo (1880–1949) and the human relations theories

 Elton Mayo is best known for his ‘Hawthorne effect’ conclusions.

 Elton Mayo (1880-1994) thought that the work rate (productivity) of employees is
affected by the physical conditions in which they were placed.
 Mayo introduced the Human Relations Schools of thought which focused on
managers taking more of an interest in the workers, treating them as people who have
worthwhile opinions and realising that workers enjoy interacting together.
 Mayo conducted a series of experiments at the Hawthorne Factory of the Western
Electric Company in Chicago. He isolated two groups of women workers and
changed factors such as lighting, financial incentives and working conditions. He
expected to see productivity levels declining as lighting and other conditions become
progressively worse. What he actually discovered surprised him. Whatever the change
in lighting or working conditions, the productivity levels of workers improved or
remained the same.
  These results forced Mayo to conclude that working conditions in themselves were
not that important in determining productivity levels. Other motivational factors
should be investigated first before conclusions could be drawn.

Mayo’s Conclusion on motivation

 Changes in working conditions and financial rewards have little or no effect on

productivity
 Workers are motivated by better communication between managers and workers (i.e.
Hawthorne workers were consulted over the experiments and also had the opportunity
to give feedback). The communication between workers and management influences
workers’ morale and productivity. Workers are motivated through a good working
relationship with management.
 Workers are motivated by working in teams of groups. Work is a group activity, team
work can increase a worker’s motivation as it allows people to form strong working
relationships and increases trust between the workers. Work groups are created
formally by the employer but also occur informally. Both informal and formal groups
should be used to increase productivity as informal groups influence the worker’s
habits and attitudes.
 Workers are also motivated by a greater manager involvement in employees working
lives.
 Hawthorne workers responded very well to increased level of attention they were
receiving. A worker’s motivation can be increased by showing an interest in them.
 Mayo concluded that workers are not just concerned with money but could be better
motivated by having their social needs met whilst at work. (similarities with Taylor
and Maslow).

4. Frederick Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

 Frederick Herzberg (1923) believed in a two factor theory of motivation. He argued

that there are certain factors that a business could introduce that would directly
motivate employees to work harder (motivators). However there are also factors that
would demotivate employees if not present but would not in themselves actually
motivate employees to work harder (Hygiene factors). Thus Herzberg analysed
 motivational factors by grouping them into two broad categories namely hygiene
factors and motivators.

Motivators

 Refers to aspects drive people to achieve more in their work as these are what lead to
employees gaining job satisfaction.
 They are also referred to as intrinsic factors (i.e. they are found within the job itself)
 They are key job elements that motivate people to stay and grow in a role. When these
needs are not fulfilled, the project team may become dissatisfied with their jobs.
 The examples of motivators as per Herzberg’s two-factor theory include the
following:

1. Achievement – A job must give an employee a sense of achievement. This will provide a
proud feeling of having done something difficult but worthwhile.

2. Recognition: A job must provide an employee with praise and recognition of their
successes. This recognition should come from both their superiors and their peers.

3. The work itself – The content of job tasks in itself can have positive or negative effects on
employees. The job’s difficulty and level of engagement can dramatically impact satisfaction
or dissatisfaction in the workplace. The job itself must be interesting, varied, and provide
enough of a challenge to keep employees motivated.

4. Responsibility – Responsibility encompasses both the responsibilities held by the

individual and the authority granted to the individual in their role. People gain satisfaction
from being given the responsibility and authority to make decisions. Conversely, a mismatch
between responsibility and level of authority negatively affects job satisfaction

5. Advancement – Herzberg defined advancement as the upward and positive status or

position of someone in a workplace. Promotion opportunities should exist for the employee.

6. Growth – The job should give employees the opportunity to learn new skills. This can
happen either on the job or through more formal training.
How business can satisfy motivators

 Give positive feedback to employees

 Involve employees in decision making
 Allow delegation of tasks
 Ensure that the work is stimulating and rewarding good performance
 Implement things like job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment etc

Hygiene factors

 These are factors that are not related to workplace satisfaction but must be present in
the workplace in order to prevent dissatisfaction.
 They are also referred to as extrinsic factors (they are not present in the actual job
itself but surround the job.)
 They are the elements of a job that satisfy basic needs: security, pay, fairness, and
working conditions. When these needs are met, employees feel comfortable and
satisfied with their roles.
 Examples of hygiene factors include:

1. Company policies and administration: Company policies and administration includes

factors such as the extent to which company organization and management policies and
guidelines are clear or unclear. For example, a lack of delegation of authority, vague policies
and procedures and communication may lead to job dissatisfaction

2. Supervision: it involves an employee’s judgements of the competence or incompetence

and fairness or unfairness of the supervisor or supervisions. Supervision must be fair and
appropriate. The employee should be given as much autonomy as is reasonable. Poor
leadership and management can decrease job dissatisfaction.

3. Relationship – Interpersonal relationships involve the personal and working relationships

between an employee and his supervisors, subordinates, and peers. This can manifest in, for
example, job-related interactions as well as social discussions in both the work environment
and during informal break times. A healthy, amiable, and appropriate relationship should
exist between peers, superiors, and subordinates.
4. Working conditions: working conditions involve the physical surroundings of the job and
whether or not they are good or poor. Factors leading to a good or poor workspace could
involve the amount of work, space, ventilation, tools, temperature, and safety. Equipment and
the working environment should be safe, fit for purpose, and hygienic.

5. Salary: The pay structure should be fair and reasonable. It should also be competitive with
other organizations in the same industry.

6. Status: The organization should maintain the status of all employees within the
organization. Performing meaningful work can provide a sense of status.

7. Security: It is important that employees feel that their job is secure and they are not under
the constant threat of being laid-off.

How business can satisfy hygiene factors

 Pay a fair wage/salaries

 Make sure that the working conditions are as good as possible e.g suitable
temperature
 Company rules should be reasonable and not too rigid
 Encourage two-way communication and team work
 Limited supervision

NB: Herzberg argued that people do not work harder if the hygiene factors are present at
work, but their output can decline if conditions deteriorate. Motivators on the other hand are
intrinsic in nature, and produce job satisfaction and higher output.

Ways to improve the nature and content of the actual Job

 Job enlargement: workers being given a variety of tasks to perform which would
make the work more interesting. The tasks are not necessarily challenging. Additional
tasks are given to broaden the employee’s skills and experience.
  Job Enrichment: involves workers being given a wider range of more complex,
interesting and challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of work. This would
give a greater sense of achievement
 Job Rotation: This involves changing a worker’s tasks more regularly to overcome
potential boredom
 Empowerment: delegating more power to employees to make their own decisions
over areas of their working life.

Application of Herzberg’s two-factor theory for today’s businesses

 Pay and working conditions can be improved and these will help to remove
dissatisfaction about work; but they will not, on their own, provide conditions for
motivation to exist.
 Motivation to do the job, and to do it well, would exist only if the motivators were in
place. Herzberg did not claim that pay does not matter, but that it moves people to do
a job and does not motivate them to do it well.
 A business could off er higher pay, improved working conditions and less heavy-
handed supervision of work. These would all help to remove dissatisfaction but they
would all be quickly taken for granted. If work is not interesting, rewarding or
challenging, then workers will not be satisfied or motivated to off er their full
potential whatever the pay level offered to them.
 A range of tasks: To give challenge and to stretch the individual, a range of tasks
should be given, some of which may be, at least initially, beyond the workers’ current
experience. This, in quite a large measure, ties in with the ‘self-actualisation’ level in
Maslow’s hierarchy.