IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS

1- The folder contains book; physics 132

2- The book is composed in MS-Word 2007. The print out must be taken in
MS-Word 2007.
3- The book is composed for four color printing.

Chief Writer

Khalid Mahmood

Associate Professor

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 SYLLABUS (PHY-132)
COMMON WITH COMPUTER, TELECOMMUNICATION,
COMPUTER INFORMATION & CRITICAL HEALTH CARE
TECHNOLOGIES
MEASUREMENTS
1.1 Fundamental units and derived units
1.2 Systems of measurement and S.I units
1.3 Concept of dimensions, dimensional formula
1.4 Conversion from one system to another
1.5 Significant figures
SCALARS AND VECTORS
2.1. Revision of head to tail rule.
2.2. Laws of parallelogram, triangle and polygon of forces.
2.3. Resolution of a vector.
2.4. Addition of vectors by rectangular components.
2.5. Multiplication of two vectors, dot product and cross product.
MOTION
3.1 Review of laws and equations of motion.
3.2 Law of conservation of momentum.
3.3 Angular motion.
3.4 Relation between linear and angular motion.
3.5 Centripetal acceleration and force.
3.6 Equations of angular motion.
TORQUE, EQUILIBRIUM AND ROTATIONAL
INERTIA
4.1. Torque
4.2. Centre of Gravity and centre of mass
4.3. Equilibrium and its conditions
4.4. Torque and angular acceleration,
4.5. Rotational inertia
WAVE MOTION
5.1. Review Hooke’s law of elasticity.
5.2. Motion under an elastic restoring force.
5.3. Characteristics of simple harmonic motion.
5.4. S. H. M. and circular motion.
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5.5. Simple pendulum.
5.6. Wave form of S. H. M.
5.7. Resonance.
5.8. Transverse vibration of a stretched string.
SOUND
6.1 Longitudinal waves
6.2 Intensity, loudness, pitch and quality of sound
6.3 Unit of Intensity level and frequency response of ear
6.4 Interference of sound waves, silence zones, beats
6.5 Acoustics
6.6 Doppler’s Effect
LIGHT
7.1 Review laws of reflection and refraction
7.2 Image formation by mirrors and lenses
7.3 Optical Instruments
7.4 Wave theory of light
7.5 Interference, diffraction, polarization of light waves
7.6 Applications of polarization in sunglasses, optical activity and stress
analysis
OPTICAL FIBER
8.1. Optical communication and problems
8.2. Review of total internal reflection of light and critical angle
8.3. Structure of optical fiber
8.4. Fiber material and manufacture
8.5. Uses of optical fiber
LASERS
9.1. Corpuscular theory of light.
9.2. Emission and absorption of light.
9.3. Absorption and stimulated emission of light.
9.4. Laser principle.
9.5. Structure and working of lasers.
9.6. Types of lasers with brief description.
9.7. Applications (basic concepts).
9.8. Material processing.
9.9. Laser welding.

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9.10. Laser assisted machining.
9.11. Micro machining.
9.12. Drilling, scribing and marking.
9.13. Printing.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
10.1. Magnetic field around a current caring conductor.
10.2. Electric field induced around a changing magnetic flux.
10.3. Moving fields.
10.4. Types of electromagnetic waves.
10.5. Generation of radio waves.
10.6. Spectrum of electromagnetic waves.
ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
11.1. Review law of gravitation.
11.2. Escape velocity.
11.3. Orbital velocity.
11.4. Geosynchronous and geostationary satellites.
11.5. Use of satellites in data communication.

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 PREFACE
No nation can flourish without scientific and technical education.
Realizing this fact, TEVTA, Government of the Punjab decided to prepare the
books on science as well as on technical subjects for DAE students.
This book has been written according to the new curriculum. Some of
the salient features of this book are as follows.
1. The International system of units (SI units) and nomenclature have been
used.
2. Important statements, definitions and numbered equations have been made
prominent.
3. The subject matter has been made more effective by adding figures and
diagrams.
4. Summary of the chapter is given at the end of each chapter for a quick
revision.
5. At the end of each chapter, important short as well as long questions have
been included.
6. Multiple choice questions (MCQ’s) have also been included at the end of
each chapter.
As there is always a room for improvement, new ideas, information, fresh
knowledge, continuous research and national demands always expect the
curricula to be revised and updated regularly so MDC hope that the teachers,
students and experts will continuously keep the committee informed of their
opinion about the textbook.
Above all, members MDC and MEC thank Almighty Allah, who provided
them the opportunity and gave the courage to undertake this task of national
importance. It is prayed that this effort might be regarded as a fresh waft of air
in this new era of Science and Technology for DAE students. (Amin)

Members
Manual Development Committee &
Manual Evaluation Committee

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Ch. # Title Page

1 Measurement 1

2 Vectors and scalars 11

3 Motion 29

4 Torque, Equilibrium and 46

Rotational Inertia
5 Wave motion 56

6 Sound 74

7 Light 92

8 Optical Fiber 132

9 Laser 141

10 Electromagnetic Waves 152

11 Artificial Satellites 163

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TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING AUTHORITY
PUNJAB

A TEXT BOOK OF

APPLIED PHYSICS
PHY-132
FOR
DAE STUDENTS
OF
TECHNICAL EDUCATION
MANUAL DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
Mr. Khalid Mahmood Chief Writer
Associate Professor
G.C.T Raiwind Road, Lahore
Dr. Muhammad Ajmal Member/Author
Assistant Professor
G.C.T Faisal Abad
Mr. Zafar Iqbal Tarar Member/Author
Lecturer
G.C.T Rasul
MANUAL EVALUATION COMMITTEE
Mr. Habib Ullah Associate Professor
G.C.T Faisal Abad
Mr. Asif Ali Associate Professor
G.C.T Raiwind Road,
Lahore

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Measurement 01 Phy-132 1

Chapter
01
MEASUREMENTS
Course contents:
1.1 Fundamental units and derived units
1.2 Systems of measurement and S.I units
1.3 Concept of dimensions, dimensional formula
1.4 Conversion from one system to another
1.5 Significant figures

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
• Write dimensional formulae for physical quantities.
• Derive units using dimensional equations
• Convert a measurement from one system to another
• Use concepts of measurement and significant figures in problem
solving.

FUNDAMENTAL UNITS AND DERIVED UNITS

All physical quantities have their magnitudes, which can be measured
experimentally. These magnitudes help the scientists to formulate the laws.
Fundamental Units:
The measurement of various physical quantities requires a suitable unit for
each. A certain system of units is formed by arbitrarily defining the units of
some suitable quantities. These units are known as fundamental units.
For example meter, kilogram and second are the fundamental units of
length, mass and time respectively in MKS system.
Derived Units:
The units of physical quantities expressed in terms of fundamental
quantities are known as derived units.
Following are the few examples of derived units
Meter per second (m s-1), which is unit of speed.
Meter per square second (m s-2), which is unit of acceleration.

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Measurement 01 Phy-132 2

Newton (N = kg-m/s2), which is the unit of force, weight & effort.

Joule (J = N-m), which is the unit of work and energy.
SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT AND S.I. UNITS
M.K.S System
M.K.S System or meter-kilogram-second has the following fundamental units.
Meter Unit of length
Kilogram Unit of mass
Second Unit of time
C.G.S System
C.G.S system or centimeter -gram-second system has the following
fundamental units
Centimeter Unit of length
Gram Unit of mass
Second Unit of time
F.P.S System
F.P.S system or foot-pound-second system or British Engineering system has
the following fundamental units.
Foot Unit of length
Pound Unit of force (Pound is also used for the unit of mass)
Second Unit of time
SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL UNITS
In 1875 A.D. the scientists of all over the world established an
international Bureau of Weights and measures near Paris. The international
system proposed by this Bureau is known as S.I units which operated all over
the world.
S.I units or system international units has the following fundamental units.
Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol
(for quantity) (for unit)
Length L Meter m
Mass M Kilogram kg
Time T Second s
Electric Current I Ampere A
Temperature T Kelvin K
Quantity of substance N Mole mol
Luminous Intensity I Candela cd
There are two supplementary units; radian for plane angle and
steradian for solid angle.

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Measurement 01 Phy-132 3

DEFINITIONS:
Meter
“The distance between two finely drawn lines on metal bar placed in
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, at Paris.”
Currently, meter is defined as the distance travelled by a light in vacuum in
1
second.”
299,792,458
Kilogram
“The mass of a cylinder of specific dimensions of platinum - iridium
alloy kept in the international Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris is
taken to be the standard one kilogram.”
Second
1
“Second is defined as 86400 of a mean Solar day of the year 1900.”
“Second was redefined as that time during which 9,192,631,770 vibrations of
Cesium-133 atom take place.”
MULTIPLES AND SUB MULTIPLES OF UNITS
Length
1 kilometer = 1000 meters(m)
1 meter = 100 centimeter(cm)
1 centimeter = 10 millimeter(mm)
1 Meter = 10 6micrometer(m)
1 Meter = 10 9nanometer(nm)
Mass
1 kilogram = 1000 grams(g)
1 gram = 1000 milligrams(mg)
1 gram = 10 6 microgram(g)
1000 kilogram = 1 tonne
Time
1 Hour = 60 minutes
1 Minute = 60 seconds
1 Hour = 3600 seconds
1 millisecond = 10 -3 seconds
1 microsecond = 10 -6 seconds
1 nanosecond = 10 -9 seconds
SOME IMPORTANT EQUATIONS FOR CONVERSION OF UNITS
There are some important relations which are useful for the conversion of
units from one system of units to the other.
1 meter = 3.28 feet
1 mile = 1.61 kilometers
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Measurement 01 Phy-132 4

1 lb (pound) = 4.45 newton

1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 slug = 14.5 kg
1N = 105 dyne
1 kg = 2.21 lb
SOME IMPORTANT STANDARD PREFIXES FOR THE
S.IUNITS

Multiples Fractions
Name Prefix Factor Name Prefix Factor
deca da 101 deci d 10-1
hecto h 102 centi c 10-2
kilo k 103 milli m 10-3
mega M 106 micro  10-6
gega G 109 nano n 10-9
tera T 1012 pico p 10-12
peta P 1015 femto f 10-15

EXAMPLE: Speed of a cycle is 2ft/s, find its speed in m/s.

SOLUTION:
1𝑚
V = 2 ft/s = 2 ft/s ×
3.28 𝑓𝑡
= 0.61 m/s
CONCEPT OF DIMENSION AND DIMENSIONAL
FORMULA
In physics the word dimension represents the physical nature of a
quantity. A distance may be measured in feet or in meters but it is still a
distance. We say its dimension is length. In the same way irrespective of the
system of units the dimension of mass is represented by M and the dimension
of time is represented by T.
The dimensions of three fundamental quantities of MKS system are
represented by the first letterof their name in capital alphabets.
The dimensional formula of a derived physical quantity is obtained by
defining its relation with other fundamental or derived physical quantities and
then expressing these quantities in terms of mass [M], length [L] and time [T].
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Measurement 01 Phy-132 5

For example;
Velocity
Velocity is defined as displacement traveled per unit time.
The dimension of velocity is:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿
Velocity = = = 𝐿𝑇 −1 or 𝑀𝑜 𝐿𝑇 −1
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇
This is the dimensional formula for the velocity. It shows that velocity
depends upon length and mass but it is independent of mass. It can also be
inferred from the dimensional formula of velocity that the in the unit of
velocity the power of L is 1 and T is -1 i.e. in S.I units the unit of velocity is
ms-1.
Density
Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
The dimension of density is: density = = = 𝑀𝐿−3
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐿3
or 𝑀𝐿−3 𝑇 𝑜
This is the dimensional formula for the density. It shows that density depends
upon mass and length and it is independent of time. It also indicates that in the
unit of density the power of M is 1 and L is -3 i.e. in S.I units the unit of
density is kg-m-3.
Dimensional equation
Dimensional equation is obtained when a physical quantity is equated with its
dimensional formula.
For example in dimension equation [Acceleration ] =[𝐿𝑇 −2 ], the left hand side
shows the physical quantity and right hand side shows its dimension formula
in terms of mass, length and time.
DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND UNITS OF
IMPORTANTPHYSICAL QUANTITIES
DIMENSIONAL
QUANTITY FORMULA UNIT
FORMULA
Area Length × width 𝐿2 𝑚2
Volume Length × width × height 𝐿3 𝑚3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density 𝑀𝐿−3 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Velocity 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Acceleration 𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

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Measurement 01 Phy-132 6

Force Mass × acceleration 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑁

−1
Momentum Mass × velocity 𝑀𝐿𝑇 𝑁𝑠
2 −2
Work Force × displacement 𝑀𝐿 𝑇 𝐽
Mass × gravitational
Energy 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐽
acceleration × height
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 𝑁𝑚−2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
Power 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Stress 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 𝑁𝑚−2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Strain Dimensionless No unit
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Force × perpendicular
Torque 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝑁𝑚
distance

USES OF DIMENTIONAL EQUATIONS

Dimensional equation can be used to:
Convert one system of units into another.
Derive a correct relationship between different physical quantities.
Dimensional analysis: It is the procedure for analyzing the units of equations.
Example: Check by dimension that the following equation of motion
iscorrect.
1
S = vit + 2 a t2
Dimension of L.H.S = 𝐿1
1
Dimension of R.H.S = [𝐿1 𝑇 −1 ][𝑇 1 ] + 2 [𝐿1 𝑇 −2 ][𝑇 2 ]
1
= 𝐿1 + 2 𝐿1
= 𝐿1
As Dimension of L.H.S = Dimension of R.H.S
So equation is correct.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
“In any measurement, the accurately known digits and the first
doubtful digit are called significant figures.”

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Measurement 01 Phy-132 7

In other words, a significant figure is the one which is known to be

reasonably reliable. Significant figures of a number are those digits that carry
meaning contributing to its precision.
Whenever a physical quantity is measured, there is inevitable some
uncertainty about its determined value. One of the reasons of this uncertainty
is the instrument used for the measurement. Every measuring instrument is
calibrated to a certain smallest division. This fact put a limit to the degree of
accuracy which may be achieved while taking measurements with this
instrument. Foot rules are usually calibrated in millimeters. Suppose that we
want to measure the length of a matchstick with this foot rule. Let end point of
the matchstick lies between 2.3 and 2.4 cm marks. By convention, if the end
of the matchstick does not touch or cross the midpoint of the smallest division,
the reading is confined to 2.3 cm. In case the end of the matchstick seems to
be touching or have crossed the midpoint, the reading is extended to 2.4 cm.
So in this measurement digit 2 is accurate and next digit 3 or 4 is
doubtful one. So the number of significant digits in this measurement is 2.
RULES FOR IDENTIFYING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
▪ All non-zero digits are considered significant. For example 92 has two
significant figures 9 and 2, while 123.73 has five significant figures
(1,2,3,7 and 3)
▪ Zeros appearing anywhere in between two non-zero digits are
significant. For example 102.203 has six significant figures (1,0,2,2,0
and 3).
▪ In any value leading zeros are not significant. For example in 0.00042
only two digits are significant (4 and 2, leading zeros are not
significant).
▪ Trailing zeros in a number with decimal point are significant.For
example in number 18.200 five digits are significant (1,8,2,0 and 0)
▪ The trailing zeros in a number having no decimal point may be
ambiguous. In 12000 the trailing zeros may or may not be significant.
It depends upon the accuracy of the measuring instrument.
▪ When a measurement is recorded in scientific notation or standard
form, the figures other than the powers of ten are significant figures.
For example in 8.32 × 103 kg only three digits (8,3 and 2) are
significant.
▪ When numbers are multiplied or divided the number of significant
figures kept in the result must not be more than the significant figures
of the number having least significant digits. For example if 3.456 ×
105 and 2.25 × 106are multiplied the result is 7.776 × 1011. In second
number there are only 3 significant digits but the result shows 4
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Measurement 01 Phy-132 8

significant digits. So the result must be expressed in three significant

digits for that purpose it must be rounded to three significant digits.

SUMMARY
• The foundation of physics rests upon physical quantities. The laws of
physics are expressed in terms of these physical quantities. These
physical quantities are divided into two categories.
• The base quantities are minimum number of those physical quantitates
in terms of which other physical quantities can be defined. The
examples of base quantities are length, mass and time.
• Derived physical quantities are those physical quantities whose
definitions are based on other physical quantities.
• The units of base physical quantities are arbitrarily chosen and are
called fundamental units.
• The units of derived quantities are derived from fundamental units and
are called derived units.
• There are 7 base units in International System of Units.
• Each base quantity is considered a dimension denoted by a specific
symbol written within square bracket. It shows the nature of the
physical quantity. The dimensions of length, mass and time are [L],
[M] and [T] respectively.
• The significant figures or digits in a measured or calculated quantity
are those digits that are known to be reasonably reliable. The
accurately known digits and the first doubtful digit in a measurement
are called significant digits.

EXERCISE
LONG QUESTIONS
1- Write fundamental S.I quantities and their units.
2- What do you mean by significant figures? Describe rules for
identification of significant figures with examples.
3- Prove by dimensions that the equation for the time period of simple
pendulum is correct. Equation for time period of simple pendulum is:
l
T = 2 g .
4- Show that the expression 𝑉𝑓2 - 𝑉𝑖2 = 2 a s is dimensionally correct.

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Measurement 01 Phy-132 9

SHORT QUESTIONS
1- Define fundamental and derived units.
2- Write basic quantities of M.K.S system and write their fundamental
units.
3- Write basic quantities of C.G.S system and write their fundamental
units.
4- Define “meter”.
5- Define “second”.
6- Write names of basic quantities in system international.
7- Write fundamental S.I units.
8- Convert 72 km/h into m/s.
9- Convert 25 m/s into km/h.
10- Convert density of 1000 kg/m3 into g/cm3.
11- Write dimension of work.
12- Write dimension of Force.
13- Define significant figures.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ’s)
Encircle the correct answer.
1- The fundamental S. I. Unit of temperature is:
a) Centigrade b) Fahrenheit c) Kelvin d) Joule
2- The fundamental unit of length in C. G. S. system is:
a) Foot b) Centimeter c) Mile d) Meter
3- 1 pound is equal to:
a) 4.45 N b) 105 N c) 2.54 N d) 100 N
4- One inch is equal to:
a) 2.54 cm b) 2.45 cm c) 0.9 cm d) 12 cm
5- 1 N is equal to:
a) 10 5 dynes b) 10 3 dynes c) 10 7 dynes d) 4.45 dynes
6- 1 milligram is equal to:
a) 103 gram b) 106 gram c) 10-6 gram d) 10-3 gram
7- 1 meter is equal to:
a) 103 mm b) 106 mm c) 10 -6 mm d) 10 -3 mm
8- Fundamental S.I. units are:
a) 3 b) 7 c) 4 d) 5
9- Unit of current is:
a) ampere b) Kelvin c) newton d) joule
10- S.I Unit of plane angle is:
a) Centigrade b) Degree c) Radian d) Steradian

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Measurement 01 Phy-132 10

11- The dimension of momentum is:

a) M L T -1 b) M L T -2 c) M L2 T -1 d) M L 3
12- The dimension of force is:
a) M L T -1 b) M L T -2 c) M L2 T -1 d) M L 3
13- The numbers of significant figures in 2.80 × 105 are:
a) 3 b) 2 c) 1 d) 5

PROBLEMS
1.1 Convert 90 Km/hr into m/sec. [Ans. 25 m/s]
1.2 Convert 25 m/sec into Km/h. [Ans. 90km/hr]
1.3 Convert 5 hours 30 minutes into seconds. [Ans. 19800 s]
1.4 Height of a student is 5ft and 9 inches. What will be his height in
meters? (hint: 1 inch = 2.54 cm ) [Ans. 175.26cm]
1.5 Maximum speed limit at motor way in Pakistan is 120 km/hr. What will
be this limit in m/s? [Ans. 33.33 m/s]
1.6 What will be the weight of a 50 kg bag of cement in newton?
(Take value of g = 10 m/s2) [Ans. 500N]
1.7 Speed of light is 3 × 108 m/s. Express it in km/s and cm/s.
[Ans. 3 × 105km/s, 3 × 1010cm/s]

***

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 11

Chapter
02
SCALARS AND VECTORS
Course contents:
2.1. Revision of head to tail rule.
2.2. Laws of parallelogram, triangle and polygon of forces.
2.3. Resolution of a vector.
2.4. Addition of vectors by rectangular components.
2.5. Multiplication of two vectors, dot product and cross product.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
• Define physical quantities, i.e. scalars and vectors.
• Define the kinds of vectors.
• Explain the Multiplication of a vector by a number, subtraction of
vectors.
• Describe addition of vectors by head-to-tail rule.
• Define law of parallelogram of forces, law of triangle of forces and law
of polygon of forces.
• Explain resolution of a vector into rectangular components.
• Explain addition of vectors by rectangular components method.
• Describe multiplication of vectors, i.e. scalar product and vector product.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
The quantities which can be measured are known as physical quantities.
They are divided into the following two types.
1. SCALARS:
Physical quantities that can be completely specified by their magnitude and
suitable unit are known as scalars. They can be added, subtracted, multiplied
and divided by ordinary mathematical rules.
Examples:
Mass, distance, speed, energy, work, area, volume, temperature, time, money,
electric potential etc.

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 12

2. VECTORS:
Physical quantities that can be completely specified by their magnitude,
suitable unit and direction are known as vectors. They cannot be added,
subtracted and multiplied by ordinary mathematical rules; but we use methods
of vector addition, vector subtraction and vector multiplication for this
purpose.
Examples
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque, angular
velocity etc.
REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR:
Generally, a vector is represented by a bold-faced type, letter. e.g., A
or by putting an arrow or a bar above or below the letter such as ⃗A,𝐴 or𝐴. The
magnitude of the vector is represented in light-faced italics or by its modulus.
For example, magnitude of A is represented by A, or |A|.
Graphically:
Graphically, a vector is
represented by an arrow of certain length.
According to the chosen scale, the length of
the arrow represents the magnitude of the
vector. Thus the length and direction of
arrow represents the magnitude and direction
of the vector. For example, a force of 10N is
acting in the direction of North. To
represent it, we chose a suitable scale.
Let 5N = 1 cm Fig 2.1
and 10N = 2 cm
Here, 10N force is represented by a 2 cm line OP as shown in Figure 2.1
KINDS OF VECTORS:
1. Unit Vector:
A vector whose magnitude is one is called a unit vector. It is generally
used to represent the direction of a vector. It is represented by a letter
with a cap over it as𝐴̂. Any vector A can be written in terms of unit
vector as
A = A𝐴̂ or A = | A | 𝐴̂
Here A or | A | is the magnitude of the vector A and 𝐴̂is the unit vector
along the vector A which shows the direction. Unit vector can also be
written as
𝐀 𝐀
 = or 𝐴̂ =
|A| A
or Vector = magnitude × direction

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 13

Unit vector = 1 × direction = Direction of the vector

Note: 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂are also the unit vectors usually taken along x , y and z–axis
respectively
2. Null Vector:
It is a vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary direction. It is written
as
Null vector = O
It is an imaginary vector and cannot be represented along any axis.
3. Resultant Vector:
When we add two
or more than two
vectors, we get a single
vector which has the
same effect as the
combined effect of all
the vectors to be added.
The single vector is Fig 2.2(a) Fig 2.2(b)
known as the resultant
vector. For example, we add three vectors A1, A2, A3 acting on a body at O,
then the resultant vector A is written as
A = A1 + A2 + A3
4. Negative of a Vector:
A vector having the same magnitude as
that of a given vector Abut opposite in
direction is called the negative of A and is
denoted by – Aas shown in Fig. 2.3.
5. Component Vector: Fig 2.3
A vector can be resolved into two or more than two such vectors
which have the same combined effect as that of the effect of original vector,
then each of these vectors is called a component vector. In the above Fig. 2.2,
A1, A2, A3 are the component vectors.
Multiplicationofa Vectorbya Number:
When a certain vector A is
multiplied by a number n then the
magnitude of the resultant vector
becomes n times the magnitude of
the original vector, Fig 2.4
i.e., |n A| = n | A | . When n is
positive, its direction remains the same and it is reversed when n is negative.

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 14

1
Fig. 2.4 shows the multiplication of a vector A by , 2 , and –3.
2
Addition of Vectors by Head-to-Tail Rule:
To add two or more than two vectors, we draw them in such a way that the
head of the first vector coincides with the tail of the second vector; the head of
the second vector coincides with the tail of the third vector and so on. Then
the resultant vector is obtained by joining the tail of the first vector with the
head of the last vector. The magnitude and the direction of the resultant vector
are found by measuring rod and protractor.
In Fig. 2.5(a)
we are given two
vectors F1 and F2,
acting at point O,
making angles 1 and
2 respectively with x-
axis and are
represented by OA
and OB. To add these Fig 2.5(a) Fig 2.5(b)
vectors by head-to-tail
rule, we draw their representative vectors CD and DE such that the head of
CD coincides with the tail of DE, then the resultant vector F is obtained by
combining the tail ofCD with the head of DE and is represented by the line
CE as shown in Fig. 2.5(b)
LAW OF PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES:
When two forces are acting at a point such that they can be represented
by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram then their resultant will be equal to
that diagonal of the parallelogram which passes through the same point.
Explanation:
(Analytical method to find resultant of two vectors): Let us have two forces
F1 and F2 acting at the
point O which are
represented by the
linesOA and OBwith
angle  between them
as shown in Fig.
2.6(a). They are Fig 2.6(a) Fig 2.6(b)
forming the two adjacent sides OA and OC of the parallelogram OABC. Their

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 15

resultant R will be equal to the diagonal OB which is passing through the

same point O. the magnitude of this resultant force is calculated by
considering the right angled triangle OBD.
Here
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐶 = F2
𝐴𝐷 = F2cos ; 𝐷𝐵 = F2sin 
In right angled triangle ODB:
Fx = 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Fy = 𝐷𝐵 = 𝐹2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
| F | = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2 = √(𝐹1 + 𝐹2 cos 𝜃)2 + (𝐹2 sin 𝜃)2
= √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 2 𝐹1 𝐹2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐹22 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
= √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) + 2 𝐹1 𝐹2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Magnitude = | F | = √F12 + F22 + 2F1 F2 cos θ
This is the magnitude of the resultant vectorF. To find its direction, let  be
the angle which the resultant vector makes with x-axis, then in right angled
triangle ODB.
𝐵𝐷 𝐹𝑦 𝐹2 sin 𝜃
tan 𝛼 = = =
𝑂𝐷 𝐹𝑥 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 cos 𝜃
𝐹2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
or  = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐹 )
1 + 𝐹2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Note: To find the unknown angle, we always take the tangent of the angle.
LAW OF TRIANGLE OF FORCES:
If two forces are acting on a body such that they can be represented by the
two adjacent sides of a triangle, taken in the same order, then their resultant
will be equal to the third side (enclosing side) of that triangle taken in the
opposite order.
We are given two
forces F1 and F2 actingat
point O represented by
lines 𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵 as
shown in the Fig.2.7(a).
If we represent these Fig 2.7(a) Fig 2.7(b)
forces by the two sides
̅̅̅̅̅
CD and DE of a triangle, taken in the same order, then their resultant force F
will be equal to the third side ̅̅̅̅
CE of the triangle, taken in the opposite order,
as shown in Fig. 2.7(b). Mathematically it is written as

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 16

F = F1 + F2
Triangleofforces (converseoflawoftriangleofforces:
If three forces acting on a body are such that they can be represented by the
three sides of a
triangle, taken in
thesame order, then
their resultant will
be equal to zero and
the body will be in
equilibrium as Fig 2.8(a) Fig 2.8(b)
shown in Fig. 2.8.
Mathematically it is written as
F1 + F2 + F3 = 0
LAW OF POLYGON OF FORCES:
If several forces are acting on a body such that they can be represented by the
adjacent sides of a polygon, taken in the same order, then their resultant will
be equal to that side of the polygon which completes the polygon ( closing
side), taken in the opposite order.
We are given
five forces F1, F2, F3,
F4 and F5 as shown in
Fig. 2.9 (a).They can
be represented by the
sides of a polygon,
taken in the same
order, then their
resultant F,
represented by line Fig 2.9(a) Fig 2.9(b)
̅̅̅̅
OE, which completes
the polygon will be taken in the opposite order as shown in Fig. 2.9 (b).
Mathematically,
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + F5
In the case of n forces F1 ,F2 , F3 ,- - - , Fn acting on the body we shall have
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + - - - + Fn
Polygon of forces (converse of law of polygon of forces:
If several forces are acting on a body such that they can be represented by the
sides of a closed polygon, taken in the same order, then their resultant will be
equal to zero and the body will be in equilibrium.

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 17

If we are given six forces F1

,F2 , F3 , - - - , F6 acting at point
O as shown in Fig. 2.10
F1 + F2 + F3 + - - - + F6 = 0
In the case of n forces F1 ,F2 , F3
,- - -, Fn acting on the body O,
we shall have
Fig 2.10(a) Fig 2.10(b)
F1+ F2 + F2 + - - - + Fn = 0
RESOLUTION OF A VECTOR INTO COMPONENTS:
The process of splitting up of single vector into two
or more vectors is called resolution of the vector.
A vector can be resolved into two or more vectors
which have the same combined affect as that the
effect of original vector. Then each of these
vectors is called a component vector. In Fig. 2.11, Fig 2.11
a vector F has been resolved into three component
vectors F1 , F2 , F3 and can be written as:
F = F1 + F2 + F3
Resolution of a Vector into Rectangular Components:
If a vector is resolved into such components which are at right angle
(perpendicular) to each other then they are
called the rectangular components of that
given vector. In Fig. 2.12, we are given a
position vector F represented by line AC and
making angle  with the x-axis. To resolve it
into rectangular components, draw a normal
from the point C on the x-axis and we get a
point B as shownin Fig. 2.12. Now join
ABand BCby head- to-tail rule then Fig 2.12
F = Fx𝑖̂ + Fy𝑗̂
Here the vectors Fx𝑖̂ and Fy𝑗̂ are the horizontal and vertical components of the
vector F. As they are normal to each other, so they are called the rectangular
components. They can be found as:
In the right-angled triangle ∆ABC we see that
AB
= cos  AB = ACcos
AC

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 18

or Fx = F cos - - - - - - (1)
BC
= sin θ  BC = AC sin
AC

or Fy = F sin  - - - - - - (2)
In vector form
Fx = F cos𝑖̂ & Fy = F sin 𝑗̂
Here,𝑖̂and 𝑗̂are the unit vectors along x-axis and y-axis respectively.
EXAMPLE 2.1: A force of 15N is acting at an angle of 30˚ with x–axis.
Find its rectangular components Fxand Fy
SOLUTION:
Fx = F Cos 
= 15 Cos 30o
= 15 × .866 = 12.99N
Fy = F Sin  = 15 Sin 30o
= 15 × 0.5 = 7.5N Fig 2.13

How to find a Vector from its Rectangular Components:

Let us have two vectors Fx and Fy which are acting along x-axis and y-axis
respectively and are represented by the lines ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AD as shown in Fig. 2.14.
In order to get the resultant vector, we complete the rectangle ABCD. Join the
point C with point A, thenAC⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ represents the resultant vector F.
As ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AD so BC = Fy
Applying Pythagoras Theorem in right-angled
triangle ∆ABC
(AC)2 = (AB)2 + (BC)2
2 2
AC = √(𝐴𝐵) + (𝐵𝐶)
or 𝐹 2 = 𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2
⟹ F = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2 Fig 2.14
This equation gives the magnitude of the resultant vector F.
To find the direction of the resultant F which is making angle  with the x-
axis, we have
BC 𝐹𝑦
tan θ = =
AB 𝐹𝑥

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 19

𝐹𝑦
⟹  = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝐹𝑥

EXAMPLE 2.2: The x and y–components of a force Fare 3N and 4N

respectively. Find magnitude and direction of F
SOLUTION:
Here Fx = 3N and Fy = 4N
Then magnitude of the resultant force is given
by
F = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2 = √32 + 42
= 9 + 16 = 25 = 5N
To determine the direction, we have Fig 2.15
Fy
tan = F
x
–1 4 –1
  = tan (3) = tan (1.33) = 53o with x-axis
ADDITION OF VECTORS BY RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS
METHOD[TrigonometricMethod]:
Consider two vectors F1andF2which
are making angles θ1 and θ2 with
the x-axis respectively and are
shown by lines AB and AC as shown
in Fig 2.16. To find the resultant
vector F, we add F2 in F1 byhead to
tail rule.
i.e. F = F1 + F2

In fig 2.16 AE = AD + DE Fig 2.16

Fx = F1x + F2x
This shows that the horizontal component of the resultant vector F is equal to
the sum of the horizontal components of the component vectors F1 and F2.

Similarly EG = EU + UG
Fy = F1y + F2y
This shows that the vertical component of the resultant vector F is equal to the
sum of the vertical components of the component vectors F1 and F2

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 20

As Fx and Fy are the rectangular components of the resultant vector F

F = Fx𝑖̂ + Fy𝑗̂
= (F1x + F2x)𝑖̂ +(F1y + F2y)𝑗̂
The magnitude of the resultant vector F is written as
2
|F| = √(𝐹1𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑥 )2 + (𝐹1𝑦 + 𝐹2𝑦 )
If the resultant vector makes an angle θwith the x-axis then its direction is
found as:
𝐹1𝑦 + 𝐹2𝑦
tan 𝜃 = ( )
𝐹 1𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑥

𝐹1𝑦 + 𝐹2𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝐹1𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑥

If we have n vectors F1, F2, F3, ……..,Fn as Fig 2.17

shown in the Fig. 2.17 then
Fx = F1x + F2x + F3x + - - - - + Fnx
Fy = F1y + F2y + F3y + - - - - + Fny

|F| = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2

2
= √(𝐹1𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑥 + . . . + 𝐹𝑛𝑥 )2 + (𝐹1𝑦 + 𝐹2𝑦 + . . . + 𝐹𝑛𝑦 )

And the direction of the resultant vector is found as

𝐹𝑦 [𝐹1𝑦 + 𝐹2𝑦 + . . . . . . . + 𝐹𝑛𝑦 ]
tan 𝜃 = =
𝐹𝑥 [𝐹1𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑥 + . . . . . . . + 𝐹𝑛𝑥 ]
How to Solve the Problems:
If we have been given n vectors F1 ,F2 , F3, ..., Fn and we want to find
their resultant vector, then
1. Add the x-components of all the vectors and denote it by Fx,
i.e., Fx = F1x + F2x + F3x + - - - + Fnx
2. Add the y-components of all the vectors and denote it by Fy,
i.e., Fy = F1y + F2y + F3y + - - - + Fny
3. Find the magnitude of the resultant vector F by using the formula
| F | = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 21

4. Find the direction of the resultant vector. First find the absolute angle,
𝐹𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (|𝐹 |),then find the standard angle () i.e. the angle which
𝑥
the resultant vector makes with the
positive x-axis, using the following
formulas :
(a) If Fx and Fy are both positive, then
take
 = θ = tan−1 |𝐹𝑦|
𝐹𝑥
(b) If Fx is negative and Fy is positive,
then take
 = 180˚ – 
Fig 2.18
–1
= 180˚ – tan |𝐹𝑦|
𝐹𝑥

(c) If Fx and Fy are both

negative, then take
 = 180˚ + 
–1
= 180˚ + tan |𝐹𝑦|
𝐹𝑥

(d) If Fx is positive and Fy

is negative, then take
 = 360˚ –  Fig 2.19

–1
= 360˚ – tan |𝐹𝑦|
𝐹𝑥
MULTIPLICATION OF VECOTRS:
Two vectors can be multiplied with each other by
the following two ways:
SCALAR PRODUCT OR DOT PRODUCT:
When the product of two vectors isa scalar
quantity, then it is called the scalar product or the
dot product because a dot (.) is put between
Fig 2.20
themultiplying vectors. The dot product of the

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 22

two vectors is equal to the product of magnitudes of the two given vectors and
the cosine of the angle between them. Thus the dot product of two vectors A
and B with angle  between them is written as
A . B = (magnitude of A)(magnitude of component of B in the direction of A)
= ( A ) (B cos  )
A . B = AB cos 
Examples of scalar product:
1. Power = P = F . v
1
2. Kinetic energy = K.E. = 2 m (v . v)
3. Electric flux = e = E. ∆A
4. Magnetic flux =  = B. ∆A
Here F is the force, d is the displacement, E is the electric intensity, B
is the magnetic induction and ∆A is the vector area.
PROVE THAT A.B = B.A
Proof:
If we have two vectors A and B with angle 
between them then
A . B = (A) (B cos ) = AB cos  - - - - - (1)
Similarly, we have
B . A = (B) (A cos )
= AB cos - - - - - -(2) Fig 2.21
Comparing (1) and (2), we have
A.B = B.A
Characteristics of Scalar Product:
1. Commutative Law:
The scalar product of two vectors is commutative, i.e.
A.B = B.A
2. Associative Law:
The scalar product of two vectors is associative, i.e. , if m and n are
scalars, then
(mA) . (nB) = mnA . B = A . mnB = nA . mB
3. Distributive Law:
The scalar product of vectors is distributive, i.e., ifA , B, C, Dare vectors,
then
A . (B + C + D) = A . B + A . C + A . D

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 23

4. Collinear vectors:
If two vectors A and B are collinear then their dot product is
A . B = ± AB
Case I. If Aand B are in the same direction, i.e.,  = 0˚ , then
A . B = AB cos = AB cos 0˚ = AB {...cos 0˚ = 1}
Case II. If A and B are anti-parallel, i.e.,  = 180˚ , then
A . B = ABcos = AB cos 180˚ = –AB {...cos 180˚ = –1}
5. Perpendicular or Orthogonal Vectors:
If A and B are non-zero vectors and they are mutually perpendicular
then the angle between them is 90˚, therefore
A . B = AB cos = AB cos 90˚ = 0 {...cos 90˚ = 0 }
VECTOR PRODUCT OR CROSS PRODUCT:
When the product of two vectors is a vector quantity then it is called
the Vector Product or the Cross Product because a cross (×) is put between the
multiplying vectors. The cross product of two vectors is equal to the product
of magnitudes of the two given vectors and the sine of the angle between
them. Thus the cross product of two vectors A and B with angle  between
them is written as
A × B = C = | C |𝑛̂ where | C | = AB sin 
Thus A × B = AB sin  𝑛̂
Where𝑛̂is the unit vector which shows
the direction of the vector C. It is
perpendicular to the plane of A and B. The
direction of C is found by the right hand rule
which is stated as
Right-hand Rule:
1. Join the tails of the two multiplying
vectors A and B. In this way we get a Fig 2.22
plane. The vector C will be
perpendicular to this plane.
2. Stretch the fingers of your right hand along the first vector and curl them
towards the second vector through smaller angle such that 0˚ < < 180˚.
Then the erected thumb will show the direction of the vector C as shown
in Fig. 2.22
3. Velocity = V = r × 

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 24

Here  is angular velocity and r is the position vector.

4. Acceleration = a = r×
Here  is angular acceleration and r is the position vector.
5. Force on charge q moving with velocity V in magnetic field of strength
B is: F = q ( V × B)
To Prove that: A × B = - B × A
Proof:
If we have two vectors A and B with
angle  between them then
A × B = C = | C | 𝑛̂ - - - - (1)
Here | C | = AB sin 
This shows that the area of a parallelogram with
adjacent sides AandB gives the magnitude of the Fig 2.23
vector C and 𝑛̂is a unit vector, shows the direction of the vector C which is
along positive z-axis as shown in Fig. 2.23
Similarly
B × A = – C = | C | (–𝑛̂) - - - - (2)
Here | C | = AB sin 
This shows that the area of a parallelogram
with adjacent sides A and B gives the magnitude
of vector C and – 𝑛̂is a unit vector, shows the
direction of the vector C along negative z- axis as
shown in Fig. 2.24. Equation (2) can be written
as
Fig 2.24
- B × A = C = | C| 𝑛̂ - - - - (3)
Comparing (1) and (3), we get
A× B = - B×A

CHARACTERISTICS OF VECTOR PRODUCT:

1. Commutative Law:
The vector product of two vectors is non-commutative, i.e.
A× B = –B ×A ⟹ A × B ≠ B × A
2. Associative Law:
The vector product of two vectors is associative, i.e. , if m and n are scalars,
then
(mA) × (nB) = mnA × B = A × mnB = nA × mB
3. Distributive Law:
The scalar product of vectors is distributive, i.e., if A, B, C and D are vectors,

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 25

then
A × (B + C + D) = A × B + A × C + A × D
4. Collinear vectors:
If two vectors A and B are collinear then their cross product is
A×B = 0
Case I. If Aand Bare in the same direction, i.e.,  = 0˚, then
A × B = AB sin  = AB sin 0˚𝑛̂= 0 {... sin 0˚ = 0 }
Case II. If A and B are anti-parallel, i.e.,  = 180˚, then
A × B = AB sin  𝑛̂ = AB sin 180˚ 𝑛̂ = 0 {... sin 180˚ = 0 }

SUMMARY
• In scalars, we need magnitude and proper unit to specify them while in
case of vectors; we need magnitude, proper unit and direction for their
complete specification.
• A unit vector has magnitude equal to one. It is used to show the direction
and is obtained by dividing a vector by its magnitude. Mathematically
̂ = A
𝑨 |A|
• Law of Parallelogram of Forces:
When two forces are acting at a point to form the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, then their resultant will be equal to that diagonal of the
parallelogram which passes through the same point.
• Law of Triangle of Forces:
When two forces form the two sides of a triangle in the same order then
their resultant will be equal to the third side of the triangle in opposite
order.
• Law of Polygon of Forces:
When several forces form the sides of a polygon in the same order, then
their resultant will be equal to the closing side of the polygon in opposite
order.
• If a vector A is making an angle  with the x-axis, then its horizontal
component is Ax = A cos and vertical component Ay = A sin .
• The magnitude of a vector in terms of its rectangular components is:
| A | = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦2
𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑦
and its direction is tan  =   = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐴 .
𝐴𝑥 𝑥
• The scalar product of two vectors with angle  between them is written as:

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 26

A . B = ABcos  while their vector product is written as:

A × B = AB sin  𝑛̂.

EXERCISE
LONG QUESTIONS
2.1. State and explain the law of parallelogram of forces.
2.2. Explain the resolution of a vector in to is rectangular components.
2.3. Describe how a vector is found from its rectangular components.
2.4. Explain the addition of vectors by rectangular components method.
2.5. Describe scalar product with examples.
2.6. Explain vector product with examples. Also write its characteristics.
SHORT QUESTIONS
2.1. Define a unit vector
2.2. Define a component vector.
2.3. State law of parallelogram of forces.
2.4. Describe law of triangle of forces
2.5. State law of polygon of forces.
2.6. Define scalar product.
2.7. Write the characteristics of scalar product
2.8. Describe vector product.
2.9. Write three examples of scalar product.
2.10. Write three examples of vector product.
2.11. Write the characteristics of vector product

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)

Encircle the correct answer.
1- Which of the following is a scalar quantity?
a) Energy b)Velocity c) Force d)Torque
2- Which one is the vector quantity?
a) Density b)Length c)Force d) Work
3- A vector which has magnitude (one) is called
a) Null vector b) Position vector
c) Unit vector d)Negative vector
4- The angle between two rectangular components of a vector is
a) 30˚ b) 60˚ c) 90˚ d) 180˚

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 27

5- A force of 6N is acting along x–axis. Its y–component is

a) 6N b) Zero c) 12N d) 3N
o
6- Cos 60 has the value:
a) 1 b)0.866 c) 0.5 d) 0.707
7- If a vector A makes an angle  with x–axis, its x-component is given
by
a) A Sin b) A tan c) A Cos d)A Cot
8- If two vectors make an angle of90owith each other, their scalar product
is:
a) 0 b) 1 c) -1 d) 2
9- The scalar product of two vectors A and B at an angle  with each
other is
a) AB b) AB Sin c) AB Cos d) AB tan
10- If vectors A and B are parallel to each other then
a) A. B = 0 b) A . B = 1 c) A . B = AB d) A . B = - AB
11- The cross product of vector A with itself (A × A) is
a) A b) 1 c) Zero d)A2
12- In a right angle triangle, if one of its angle is 30o then the other will
have value
a) 0o b) 30o c) 60o d) 90o
13- Which of these statements is correct?
a) A . B = – B. A b) A × B = B × A
c) A . B = B. A d) A . B ≠ B . A
14- Time is example of
a) Vector b) Scalar c) Negative of a vector d)Null vector

PROBLEMS
2.1. Four forces of magnitude 10, 20, 30 and 40 newton act upon a body in
directions making angles of 30˚, 45˚, 60˚ and 90˚ with x–axis. Find
the resultant force.[Ans: 93.13N, = 66˚]
2.2. A crow flies northwards and covers a distance of 8km. It then flies
eastwards and covers a distance of 6km. Find the net displacement
and the direction of this flight.[Ans: 10km, 36.87˚ from North to East.]
2.3. Two forces F1 and F2 are acting on a body. The angle between F1 and
F2 is 60˚. Assume F1 is along x–axis. Find their resultant.
√3𝐹2
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 𝐹1 𝐹2 & tan 𝜃 = ]
2 𝐹1 + 𝐹2

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Scalars and Vectors 02 Phy-132 28

2.4. Calculate the dot product of force and displacement if a force of 10N
displaces the body through 4 meters in the direction of force.
[Ans: 40]
2.5. A river is flowing eastwards with a velocity of 8km/h. A boat starts to
row in it northwards. The velocity of the boat in still water is
6km/hour. Find the velocity of the boat in the river.
[Ans: 10km/h  = 37˚ from East to North]
2.6. Three forces of 40, 30 and 90 newton act on a body making angles of
0˚, 30˚ and 135˚ with the x–axis. Find the resultant force.
[Ans: 78.66N  = 88.28˚ with x–axis]
2.7. A force of 100N makes an angle of 30˚ with x–axis. Find its
horizontal and vertical components.[Ans: 86.6.N, 50N]
2.8. A force of 50N acts on a body at a distance of 0.5m from the axis of
rotation. Find the torque.[Ans: 25N.m]

***

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Motion 03 Phy-132 29

Chapter
03
MOTION
Course contents:
3.1 Review of laws and equations of motion.
3.2 Law of conservation of momentum.
3.3 Angular motion.
3.4 Relation between linear and angular motion.
3.5 Centripetal acceleration and force.
3.6 Equations of angular motion.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
• Describe the difference between distance and displacement.
• Define velocity and acceleration.
• State and explain Newton’s laws of motion.
• Define momentum and explain law of conservation of momentum.
• Describeangular motion.
• Explain angular velocity and angular acceleration.
• Describe the difference between linear motion and angular motion.
• Derive the relation for centripetal acceleration and centripetal force.

REST AND MOTION

Rest:

If a body does not change its position with respect to its surroundings, it is
said to be at rest. For example, a book lying on a table is at rest with respect
to the table.
Motion:
If a body changes its position with respect to its surroundings, it is said
to be in motion. For example, a running bicycle.

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Motion 03 Phy-132 30

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance:
The length of the path followed by a body
between two points is called the distance as
shown by ACB in the Fig. 3.1
Displacement: Fig. 3.1
The shortest distance between two points is
called the displacement as shown by the line 𝐴𝐵 in Fig 3.1. It is a vector
quantity. Its unit in S.I. system is meter.
SPEED AND VELOCITY
Speed:
It is defined as the distance covered by a body in unit time. If ∆S is the
distance covered in time ∆t, then
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∆𝑠
Speed = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑡
It is a scalar quantity. It gives the magnitude of velocity. Its unit in S. I.
system is m/sec.
VELOCITY OR LINEAR VELOCITY:
It is defined as “The rate of change of displacement of a body”. It can also
be defined as “The distance covered by a body in a unit time in a
particular direction”. If the change in displacement of a body is ∆d in time
∆t, then velocity
Displacement
Velocity =
Time
∆d
v=
∆t
It is a vector quantity. Its unit in S.I. system is m/sec.
ACCELERATION OR LINEAR ACCELERATION:
It is defined as the rate of change of velocity of a body, or change in velocity
per unit time. If the change in velocity is ∆v in time ∆t, then acceleration is
given by
∆v
a = ∆t
Acceleration is a vector quantity. Its unit in S.I. system is meter /sec2
Uniform Acceleration:
When the change in velocity of a body is equal, in equal intervals of time then
its acceleration is uniform. At this point, the average and the instantaneous

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Motion 03 Phy-132 31

accelerations become equal.

Force:
Any action that changes or tends to change the state of a body of rest or of
uniform velocity is called force. It is a vector quantity. In S. I. system, its unit
is newton.
newton:
One newton is that force which produces an acceleration of one
meter/sec2 in a body of mass one kilogram.
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Statement:
A body remains at rest or continues to move with uniform velocity unless
acted upon by an external unbalanced force. This is also known as Law of
Inertia.
Explanation:
Newton’s first law of motion consists of two parts.
1. According to the first part, a body at rest remains at rest, e.g., a book lying
on a table remains lying on the table unless acted upon by an external
unbalanced force.
2. According to the second part, a body in motion continues its motion with
constant velocity. We see that a rolling ball stops its motion after covering
some distance. Apparently, it is against the first law of motion. In fact,
several forces are acting on the body which stops it. Main of these is
friction of the ground, air resistance and gravity. If we remove all of these
forces, the body will continue its motion with constant velocity for
maximum time.
Law of Inertia:
The property of the body that opposes any change in its state of rest or of
uniform motion is called inertia.
Example:
When brakes are suddenly applied on a fast moving bus, the passengers will
fall in the forward direction. Its reason is that the passengers are moving with
the same velocity as that of the bus. On applying brakes, the lower parts of
their bodies come to rest with the bus but upper part of the bodies is still
moving. So the passengers will fall in the forward direction. Similarly, if we
apply a gear suddenly on a bus at rest, the passengers will fall in the backward
direction.

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Motion 03 Phy-132 32

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Statement:
When an unbalanced force acts on a body, it produces acceleration in the
body in the direction of the force.The magnitude of the acceleration is directly
proportional to the applied force and inversely proportional to the mass of the
body.
Explanation:
Consider a force F acting on a body of mass m and producing acceleration a
in it. Then
a  F - - - - - (1)
1
a  - - - - - (2)
𝑚
F
Combining these two, we get a  ⟹ F ∝ ma
m
or F= kma - - - - - (3)
Here k is the constant of proportionality. Its value can be calculated as:
When m = 1 kg, a = 1 m/sec2 then F = 1 N, then putting these values in
Eq.(3), we get
1N = k . 1 kg × 1 m/sec2  k= 1
Hence, (3) takes the form
F
a = ⟹ F = ma
m
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION:
Statement:
To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction. Moreover,
action and reaction act upon two different bodies.
Explanation:
Consider the interaction between two bodies A and B as shown in Fig 3.2
The force exerted by A on B is FAB and
the force exerted by B on A is FBA.
Since these two forces are equal and
opposite, so we have
Fig.3.2
FAB = – FBA
It is important to note that two bodies are necessary for action and reaction.
Action and reaction cannot act on thesame body. Also action and reaction

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Motion 03 Phy-132 33

forces never balance each other because they act on two different bodies. But
the forces acting on the same body can balance each other.
Examples:
1. When a bullet is fired from the gun, the bullet moves in the forward
direction due to the force of action. As a reaction, the gun moves in the
backward direction.
2. In a rocket, the hot gases move downward is the force of action. As a
reaction the rocket moves upward.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
There are three basic equations of motion for bodies moving with uniform
acceleration. These equations relate initial velocity, final velocity,
acceleration, time and the distance covered by a moving body.
I. First Equation of Motion:
This equation explains the relation between the initial velocity vi of the
body, its acceleration a and its final velocity vf
after time t. It is stated as Vi Vf
vf = vi + at A B
Proof: Fig. 3.3
Consider a body moving with initial velocity vi
at point A. If a force F acts on the body and
produces an acceleration a in it, then after time t seconds, its final velocity
becomes vf at point B. Then change in velocity of the body is vf – vi, and the
rate of change of velocity of the body is equal to the acceleration acting on the
body, i.e.,
𝑣𝑓 - 𝑣𝑖
a =
t
or vf – vi = at
or vf = vi + at

II. Second Equation of Motion:

This equation explains the relation between the initial Vi Vf
velocity Vi of the body, its acceleration a and the
A B
distance S covered by the body after time t. It is S
stated as Fig. 3.4

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Motion 03 Phy-132 34

1
s = vi t + 2 at 2
Proof:
Consider a body with initial velocity vi, moving with an acceleration a. It will
cover a distance S, in time t and its final velocity becomes vf then its average
velocity is given as
𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣𝑖
vav = - - - - - (1)
2
Distance covered by the body in time t is given by
S = Vav × t - - - - - (2)
Putting the value of Vav from Eq.(1) in Eq.(2), we get
𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣𝑖
S = × t - - - - - (3)
2
According to the first eq of motion
vf = vi + at - - - - - (4)
Putting the value of vf from Eq.(4) in Eq.(3), we get
vi + at + 𝑣𝑖
S = × t
2
2 vi t + a𝑡 2
S =
2
1
 S = 𝑣𝑖 t + a 𝑡2
2
III. Third Equation of Motion:
This equation explains the relation between the initial velocity vi of the
body, its acceleration a and the distance s covered by the body after time t and
the final velocity vf . It is stated as
2aS = 𝑣𝑓 2 - 𝑣𝑖 2 Vi Vf
Proof: A B
Consider a body with initial velocity S
vimoving with acceleration a. After time t its final Fig. 3.5
velocity becomes vf and the body covers a distance
s. Then the average velocity of the body is given as
𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣𝑖
vav = - - - - - (1)
2

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Motion 03 Phy-132 35

From the first equation of motion,

v𝑓 − v𝑖
vf = vi + at ⟹ t = - - - - - (2)
a
Distance covered by the body is given as; AB = s
S = Vav × t - - - - - (3)
Putting the value of vav and t from Eqs.(1) and (2), in Eq.(3),
v𝑖 + v𝑓 v𝑓 − v𝑖
𝑠= ( )( )
2 a
or 2as = (vi + vf ). (vf – vi)
or 2as = 𝑣𝑓 2 - 𝑣𝑖 2
Some rules to be used in the above equations of motion:
1. If a body starts its motion from rest, then use vi = 0.
2. If a moving body stops its motion, then vf = 0.
3. If the velocity of the body is increasing then its acceleration is positive
and its direction is the same as that of the velocity.
4. If the velocity of the body is decreasing then its acceleration is negative
and its direction is opposite to that of the velocity.
Equations of Motion for a Free Falling Body:
If a body is moving freely upward or falling downward then its acceleration a
will be the acceleration due to gravity, i.e, g = 9.8 m/sec2 and its distance S
will show the height h of the body. Then the equations of motion will take the
form:

Motion under Gravity

Linear Motion
Downward Motion Upward Motion
vf= vi + at vf= vi + gt vf= vi-gt
1 1 1
s = vit + 2 at 2 h = vit + 2 gt 2 h = vit -2 gt 2

2aS = 𝑣𝑓 2-𝑣𝑖 2 2gS = 𝑣𝑓 2-𝑣𝑖 2 – 2gS = 𝑣𝑓 2-𝑣𝑖 2

Some rules to be used in the above equations of motion:

1. If a body is dropped downward, then; vi = 0.
2. If we throw a body upward, then; vf = 0.
3. When a body is moving downward, then g will be positive. Fig. 3.6

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Motion 03 Phy-132 36

4. When a body is moving upward, then g will be negative.

Example 3.1: A body of mass 10 kg is moving with an acceleration of
2m/sec2. Find the force acting on the body.
Solution:
Mass of the body = m = 10 kg F 10 kg
Acceleration = a = 2 m/sec2 Fig. 3.7
Force acting on it = F = ?
We know that F = ma
∴ F = 10 × 2 = 20N
N
MOMENTUM
The quantity of motion of a moving body is
known as momentum. In other word, the product W E
of mass and velocity of a body is known as
momentum.
If a body has mass m and is moving with velocity
v then its momentum is S
P = mv Fig. 3.8
In S.I.System its unit is kg-m/sec or N-sec.
Example 3.2: A body of mass 3 kg is moving towards east with a velocity
of 9 m/sec. Find its momentum.
Solution:
Mass of the body = m = 3 kg 3 kg
Velocity of the body = v = 9 m/sec
Momentum = P = ? Fig. 3.9
We know that P = mv = 3 × 9 = 27 kg m/sec
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Statement:
“In the absence of an unbalanced external force, the total momentum of
asystem of colliding bodies
remains constant in a
particular direction”.In other
words“The total momentum
of an isolated system of
interacting bodies remains Fig. 3.10
constant in a particular
direction.”

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Motion 03 Phy-132 37

Explanation:
Consider a system of two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving with
velocities U1 and U2 respectively as shown in Fig. 3.10. Therefore,
Total momentum of the system before collision = m1U1 + m2U2
If U1 is greater than U2 and the bodies collide, then after collision, let their
velocities become V1 and V2, then
Total momentum of the system after collision = m1V1 + m2V2
By the law of conservation of momentum, we have
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
m1U1 + m2U2 = m1V1 + m2V2
Proof of Law of Conservation of Momentum:
Consider a system of two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving along
the same line with initial velocities U1 and U2 respectively. They collide with
each other and after collision their velocities become V1 and V2 as shown in
the figure 3.10. Therefore,
Total initial momentum of the system = m1U1 + m2U2
Total final momentum of the system = m1V1 + m2V2
During collision the two bodies exert equal and opposite forces on
each other. We know that the force acting on a body is equal to the rate of
change of momentum of the body, therefore
m1 v 1 − m1 u 1
Total force acting on body A by B = FBA =
∆t

m2 v 2 − m2 u 2
Total force acting on body B by A = FAB =
∆t
According to Newton’s Third law of motion,
FAB = – FBA
𝑚2 𝑣2 −𝑚2 𝑢2 𝑚1 𝑣1 −𝑚1 𝑢1
= −
∆t ∆t
or m2v2 – m2u2 = – m1v1 + m1u1
or m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 u1 + m2 u2
or m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1v1 + m2 v2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
[
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
] = [ 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
]

Example 3.3: A gun of mass 50 kg fires a bullet of mass 100 gram with a
velocity of 100 m/sec. Find the velocity with which the gun
recoils.
Solution:

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Motion 03 Phy-132 38

Mass of gun = m1 = 50 kg
Velocity of gun = v1 = ?
Mass of bullet = m2 = 100gm
= 0.1 kg
Velocity of bullet = v2 = 100 m/sec
By law of conservation of momentum
m1u1 +m2 u2 = m1v1 + m2 v2
As u1 = 0 & u2 = 0
Fig 3.11
Therefore m1v1 + m2 v2 = 0
m1v1 = – m2 v2
50 × v1 = – 0.1 × 100
0.1 x 100
v1 = − 50
= - 0.2 m/sec
The negative sign shows that the gun moves in the backward direction.
CIRCULAR OR ANGULAR MOTION
When a body moves in a circle, its motion is called circular motion. For
example, a planet revolves round the sun.
Angular Displacement:
The angle,through which a particle moves while revolving in a circle, is called
angular displacement. Its unit is revolution, degree or radian. It is easy to
measure it in radian because when the angle is measured in radian, we can
multiply it with other quantities.
1 radian = 57.3o
Prove that s = r 
Consider a circle with centre o and radius r.
Let S = AB, be the arc of the circle with an angle
 radian at the centre.
Let us take another arc AC = r
so that AOC = 1 radian. Then
Fig. 3.12
Angle AOB Arc AB
= - - - - - (1)
Angle AOC Arc AC

But ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 =  radian and ∠𝐴𝑂𝐶 = 1 radian,

Arc AB = S, and Arc AC = r
so, Eq.(1) becomes

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Motion 03 Phy-132 39

θ rad S
=  𝑆 = 𝑟θ
1 rad r
Angular Velocity:
It is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement. It is a vector
quantity. Mathematically, it is written as
𝜃
 =
𝑡
Its units are rev/sec, deg/sec, rad/sec or rev/min.
Relation between Linear and Angular Velocity ( v = r  ):
Let a body is moving in a circle of radius r. After time t, it covers an arc s and
subtends an angle  at the centre as shown in Fig.3.11, As
s = r
If the time interval ∆t is very small, then the body covers an arc ∆s and
subtends angle ∆ at the centre then
∆s = r ∆ - - - - (1)
Dividing both sides by ∆t and taking limit ∆t → 0, then
Eq. 1 becomes
Limit ∆s Limit ∆θ
∆t ⟶ 0 ∆t
= r ∆t ⟶ 0
∆t
s  Fig. 3.13
As = v and = ω
t t
So v = r
In vector form v = r × 
Direction of Angular Velocity:
Angular velocity is a vector quantity. Its direction is found by right-hand rule
that is stated as: “Curl the fingers of the right hand around the axis of rotation
in the direction of rotation, the thumb will show the direction of angular
velocity .
ANGULAR ACCELERATION:
“The angular acceleration is defined as the rate of change of angular
velocity”. If the change of angular velocity is ∆ in time interval ∆t, then

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Motion 03 Phy-132 40


α =
t
The unit of angular acceleration is rad/sec2, rev/sec2 or deg/sec2.
Relation between Linear and Angular Acceleration ( a = r α ):
We know that the acceleration of a body is given as
Limit ∆𝑣
𝑎 = ∆t ⟶ 0 ∆t
- - - - (1)

If the body is moving in a circle of radius r with angular velocity , then

∆v = r ∆
Putting its value in Eq.(1), we get
Limit ∆ω
a = r ∆t⟶0
∆t
Limit ∆ω
As ∆t⟶0 ∆t
= α so a= r
In vector form, a= r×
Direction of Angular Acceleration ( α ):
The angular acceleration is a vector quantity.
It can have positive or negative value. If the
angular velocity ω increases then α is in the
direction of ω as shown in the Fig. 3.14 (a).
But if angular velocity decreases then the
direction of α is opposite to that of ω as Fig. 3.14
shown in Fig. 3.14(b).
Centripetal Acceleration:
Let a body moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its velocity
continuously changes due to change in direction. This produces acceleration
in the body which is directed towards the centre of the circular path. This is
called the centripetal acceleration.
Centripetal Force:
When a body moves in a circular path, there
is always a force which compels the body to
move in the circular path. This force is
called centripetal force. Mathematically it is Fig. 3.15
written as

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Motion 03 Phy-132 41

mv2
Fc =
r
This equation shows that the centripetal force is directly proportional
to the mass of the body as well as the square of its velocity and is inversely
proportional to the radius of the circle.
Example:
A man is moving a ball of mass m in a circular path with the help of a string.
The man is providing the centripetal force to the ball as shown in the Fig.
3.15(a). If he leaves the string to remove the centripetal force, then the ball
will move in a straight line instead of the circular path as shown in Fig.
3.15(b).
Derivation of formula for Centripetal Acceleration and Centripetal
Force:
Consider a body of mass m moving in a circle of radius r with constant
angular speed . Its linear speed v is also constant. In a small interval of time
∆t, the body moves from P to Q as shown in figure 3.16. In this way, the
length of the arc PQ = v ∆t. Let the velocity of the body at point P and Q be
v and v. The magnitudes of these velocities are the same, i.e., v = v.
They differ only in direction. The change in velocity ∆V is calculated as
follows:
Take a point O outside
the circle. Draw vectors
v = v + ∆v.
The instantaneous acceleration
will be:
Limit ∆v
a = ∆t ⟶ 0 ∆t
The direction of this Fig. 3.16
acceleration will be the same as
that of ∆v. If time is very small, then the acceleration will be directed towards
the centre. In figure 3.16, we see that ∆OAB and ∆CPQ are similar, so
𝑃𝑄 𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝑄 ∆v
=  = - - - - - (1)
𝐶𝑃 𝑂𝐴 𝑟 V
When time is very small then arc PQ = chord PQ = V ∆t
Putting these values in Eq.(1), we get
v∆t ∆v ∆v v2
= ⇒ =
r v ∆t r

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Motion 03 Phy-132 42

∆v v2
or 𝑎𝑐 = =
∆t r
Using F = ma, the centripetal force is given by
𝑚𝑣 2
Fc =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
In Vector form Fc =
𝒓
Comparison of Linear Motion and Angular Motion:

Liner Equations Angular Equations

1. S = vt  = t
2. vf = vi + at f = i +  t
𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 𝜔𝑖 + 𝜔𝑓
3. vav = <> =
2 2

4. 2as = 𝑣𝑓2 – 𝑣𝑖2 2  = 𝜔𝑓2 – 𝜔𝑖2

1 1
5. s = vi t + 2 at 2  = i t + 2  t 2

6. F = ma  = I

EXAMPLE 3.3 A body of mass 2 Kg is moving in a circle with velocity 2

m/sec. If the radius of the circle is 100 cm, find
centripetal acceleration and centripetal force acting on
the body?
SOLUTION: Mass of the body = m = 2 kg
Velocity of the body = v = 2 m/ sec
Radius of the circle = r = 100 cm = 1 m
𝑣2 22
Centripetal acceleration = ac = = = 4 m/sec2
r 1
𝑚𝑣2
Centripetal force = Fc =
r
2×22
Fc = =8N
1

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Motion 03 Phy-132 43

SUMMARY
• The minimum distance between two points is called displacement.
• The rate of change of displacement is called velocity and the rate of
change of velocity is called acceleration.
• Force is that agency which changes or tends to change the state of rest
or uniform velocity of a body.
• One newton is that force which produces an acceleration of 1 m/sec2 in
a body of mass 1 kg.
• Newton’s First Law of motion states that in the absence of an external
force, a body continues its state of rest or uniform velocity.
• Newton’s Second Law of motion states that the acceleration produced
by an unbalanced force is directly proportional to the applied force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
• Newton’s Third Law of motion states that to every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
• Momentum is equal to the product of mass and velocity of a body.
• Centripetal acceleration: When a body moves in a circular path, there
is always an acceleration which is directed towards the centre of the
circle. This is called the centripetal acceleration.
• Centripetal force is that force which compels a body to move in a
circular path.

EXERCISE
LONG QUESTIONS
1. State and explain Newton’s second law of motion.
2. Derive third equaion of motion
3. State and explain the law of conservatin of momentum.
4. Prove that s = r θ
5. Show that v = r ω
6. Diferentiate linear and angular acceleration. Also prove that a = r α
7. Define centripetal force. Derive formula for centripetal force.
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Differentisate distance and displacement.
2. Define uniform acceleration.

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Motion 03 Phy-132 44

3. Define force. Als write its S.I unit.

4. Descibe law of inertia.
5. Describe Newton’s first law of motion.
6. State Newton’s third law of moion.
7. Prove first equation of motion.
8. State law of conservation of momentum?
9. A stone is droped from the top of a building, his the ground after 6 sec.
Find the height of the building.
10. Define momentum.
11. Define angular velocity.
12. Define centripetal force.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
Encircle the correct answer.
1- A mass of 20 kg is at rest. Its momentum is
a) Zero b) 200 kg m/sec c) 196 N.sec d) 20 kg m/sec
2- As we go away from the surface of earth, the value of g
a) Increases b) Decreases
c) Becomes zero d) Remain constant
3- How many feet are in a yard.
a) One b) Two c) Three d) Four
4- S.I is also called
a) M.K.S. System b) C.G.S. System
c) F.P.S. System d)System International
5- Two forces of 5N and 3N are acting on a body making an angle of
180˚ with each other. Their resultant force is
a) 6 N b) 15 N c) 35 N d) 2 N
6- Motion of molecules of a body at absolute zero is
a) Maximum b) Minimum
c) Zero d) Random
7- newton is the unit of
a) work b)force c)energy d) torque
8- Force per unit area is called
a)density b) viscosity c) pressure d) energy
9- The weight of a body is 9.8 N. It mass is
a) 9.8 kg b) 98 kg c) 1 kg d) 10 kg

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Motion 03 Phy-132 45

10- A 5 kg mass is falling freely. Its weight will be

a) 5 N b) Zero c) 19.6 N d) 49 N

PROBLEMS
3.1. A force of 20 N acts on a body of mass 4k g. What is the
acceleration in the body. [Ans : 5 m/sec2]
3.2. The mass of body of 25 kg is initially at rest. If a force of 25 N acts
on it for one minute, find the acceleration produced in it and the
distance covered by the body. [Ans : 1m/sec2, 1800 m]
3.3. A body of mass 3 kg is at rest. How much force will move it to a
distance of 200 m in 10 sec. [Ans : 12 N]
3.4. A car has a weight of 10,000 N starts from rest at a uniform
acceleration. If it covers a distance of 300m in 2 minutes, find the
force, the engine applying on the car. [Ans : 42.5 N]
3.5. A gun of 10 kg fires a bullet of 20 g with a velocity of 50 m/sec.
Find the velocity with which the gun recoils.[Ans : – 0.1 m/sec]
3.6. A body of mass 50g is moving with a speed of 200 cm/sec in a
circle. If the radius of the circle is 100 cm. Find the centripetal
acceleration and centripetal force acting on the body.
[Ans : 4 m/sec2, 0.2 N]
3.7. A body of mass 5 kg is moving due east with a velocity of 10 m/sec.
Find its momentum. [Ans : 50 N.sec]
3.8. A motor is travelling at a speed of 30 m/sec. If its wheel has a
diameter of 1.5 m. Find its angular speed in rad/sec.
[Ans : 40 rad/sec]
3.9. A mass of 4 kg is kept moving in a circle of radius 1 m with constant
speed of 10 m/sec. Find the centripetal force applied.[Ans : 400 N]
3.10. Find the force required to keep a car of mass 2000 kg in an arc of
radius 5 m when it is turning round a corner at 10 m/sec.
[Ans : 40,000 N]

***

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Torque & Rotational Inertia 04 Phy-132 46

Chapter
04
TORQUE,EQUILIBRIUM AND
ROTATIONAL INERTIA
Course contents:
4.1. Torque
4.2. Centre of Gravity and centre of mass
4.3. Equilibrium and its conditions
4.4. Torque and angular acceleration
4.5. Rotational inertia

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
• Explain concept of torquein daily life.
• Differentiate center of mass and center of gravity.
• Describe equilibrium and its conditions.
• Find the moment of inertia of a rigid body.
• Describe the relation between torque and angular acceleration

TORQUE
The turning effect of a force produced in a body about its axis of rotation is
called torque. In other words, the cross product of force and its position
vector is called torque. If F is the force and r is the position vector then
torque is given as
 = r × F
Magnitude:
If  is the angle between F and r then the magnitude of torque is
 = r F sin 
Direction:
Torque is a vector quantity. The direction of  is perpendicular to the plane
containing r and F. It is found by right-hand rule. If we curl the fingers of

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Torque & Rotational Inertia 04 Phy-132 47

the right hand along the direction of rotation then the erected thumb will show
the direction of the torque.
Example:
Consider a door which is capable of rotation
about its hinge as shown in the Fig.4.1. When we
apply force at point A, the door rotates easily. But
when we apply this force at point B, the door does not
rotate so easily. It is because the point B is closer to
the hinge than the point A and has small position
vector. Hence it does not rotate easily. Fig. 4.1
Now if the same force is applied in the direction of
the door, i.e., in such a way that the line of action of the force passes through
the hinge then the door does not rotate at all.
Unit of Torque:
The unit of torque in S. I. system is Nm.
Factors Upon Which Torque Depends:
Torque depends upon the following quantities:
1. The force F.
2. The position vector r, i.e., the perpendicular distance between the line of
action of force and the axis of rotation.
Positive andNegative Torque:
The torque which rotates the body in anti-clockwise direction is termed as
positive while the torque which rotates the body in clockwise direction is
termed as negative.
EXAMPLE 4.1: A force of 25N is applied to open a door. If the point of
application of the force is 25cm from the axis of rotation,
thencalculate the torque applied on the door:
SOLUTION: Force applied = F = 25N
Perpendicular distance of force = OA = r = 25 cm = 0.25 m
Torque =  = F × r = 25 × 0.25 = 6.25 N.m
Centre of Mass:
The centre of
mass of a body is that
point at which the
whole mass of the body
is concentrated. In other Fig. 4.2
words, it is that point in
the body which has only translational motion.

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Torque & Rotational Inertia 04 Phy-132 48

Explanation:
Consider a body which consists of a large number of particles. If the body has
translational motion as well as it has rotational or vibrational motion. There is
only a single point in the body that moves along the straight line. This point
is called the centre of mass of the set of particles as shown by the stroboscopic
photograph of a wrench sliding across a smooth surface.
Centre of Gravity:
The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the whole weight of the
body acts. Through this point the line of action of the weight of the body
passes.
Explanation:
Consider an extended object which
consists of a large number of particles
such that the mass of each particle is m.
The weight of each particle is mg which
is directed towards the centre of earth as Fig. 4.3
shown in the Fig. 4.3
As the size of the extended object is small as compared to that of the earth,
therefore, the acceleration due to gravity is considered as uniform over it.
Each particle of the object experiences the same force mg towards the centre
of the earth. The resultant force on the object is sum of all these forces and it
is given as:
∑ mg = Mg = w
Which is equal to the weight of the body. So the point within the object
through which this resultant force passes is called the center of gravity.
Conclusion:
Since g is uniform over the extended object so the mass of the constituent
particles can be replaced by the total mass of the object at its centre of gravity
in a uniform gravitational field. This point is known as the centre of mass.
So it is concluded that
1. There is no difference between centre of mass and centre of gravity if g
remains uniform.
2. If g is not uniform over the extended object then centre of mass will not
coincide with the centre of gravity.
EQUILIBRIUM AND ITS CONDITIONS
Equilibrium:
A body is said to be in equilibrium if it remains at rest or moves with uniform
velocity. In other words, if a body has zero acceleration (linear as well as
angular acceleration), it is said to be in equilibrium.

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Torque & Rotational Inertia 04 Phy-132 49

KINDS OF EQUILIBRIUM:
There are two kinds of
equilibrium.
1. Static Equilibrium:
If a body does not change its
position with respect to its
surroundings, it is said to be at Fig.4.4(a) Fig.4.4(b)
rest or in static equilibrium. For
example, a book lying on a table in fig.4.4(a)
2. Dynamic Equilibrium:
If a body is moving with uniform velocity, it is said to be in dynamic
equilibrium. For example, the motion of a paratrooper jumped from an
airplane in fig. 4.4(b)
Conditions of Equilibrium:
There are two conditions of equilibrium.
First Condition of Equilibrium:
If the algebraic sum of the several forces acting on a body is equal to zero
then the body will be in translational equilibrium. If the body is acted upon
by n forces F1, F2, F3, - - - Fn and under these forces the body is in
translational equilibrium, then
F1+ F2 + F3 + ... + Fn = 0
or ∑F = 0
Explanation:
Consider a ring upon which two equal
and opposite forces F1 and F2 are acting
as shown in Fig. 4.5
These two forces cancel each other’s Fig. 4.5
effect and the ring is in equilibrium. This
is only possible when F1 and F2 are equal and opposite and both are passing
through the same line to give zero resultant. If the forces are not equal in
magnitude then the ring will begin to move in the direction of the greater
force.
Second Condition of Equilibrium:
If the algebraic sum of all the torques acting on a body about its axis of
rotation is equal to zero then the body will be in rotational equilibrium, i.e.,
Clockwise torque = Anti-clockwise torque
If the body is acted upon by n torques 1, 2, 3, - - - , n, and under these
torques, the body is in rotational equilibrium, then
1 + 2 + 3 + - - - + n = 0  ∑ =0
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Torque & Rotational Inertia 04 Phy-132 50

Explanation:
We can make a rod on the wedge in rotational equilibrium by equating
clockwise torque and anticlockwise torque as shown in the fig. 4.6
Anticlockwise torque = Clockwise torque
w × CG = w1 × AG + w2 × BG
A B G C

0 cm 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

w1 w2
Wedge w

Fig.4.6
NOTE: The body will be in complete equilibrium when it is in both
translational and rotational equilibrium.
EXAMPLE 4.2: A force of 40N is acting on a body towards North. What
would be the magnitude and direction of the other force
required to keep the body in equilibrium. Draw the
necessary diagram:
SOLUTION:
F2= 40N, towards South

TORQUE AND ANGULAR

ACCELERATION: Fig. 4.7
Here we shall find the relation between the torque
and angular acceleration of a rigid body which rotates about an axis. At first,
we find the relation between torque and angular acceleration in case of a very
small body round an axis. For this, consider a light rod of length r whose
one end is fixed at O, acting as the axis of rotation and the other end is free to
rotate, attached by a small mass m as shown in Fig 4.8. Let a force F be
applied tangentially at the mass m on the free end of the rod. The rod starts
rotating in a circle of radius r about the axis O. Hence the torque acting on
the rod is given as:
 = F×r
As the force is acting perpendicular to r, therefore, the magnitude of the
torque is given as:
 = Fr sin 90˚ = F r - - - - (1)
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Torque & Rotational Inertia 04 Phy-132 51

But according to Newton’s second law of motion, the force acting is given as
F = ma
So, eq. (1) becomes
 = mar - - - - (2)
As a = r
∴ Eq.(2) becomes
 = mr2  - - - - (3)
But mr = I2

∴ Eq.(3) becomes Fig. 4.8

 = I - - - - (4)
Here I is the moment of inertia of the rod.
Now consider a rigid body rotating about its axis O. If the body consists of n
small particles of masses m1, m2, m3, - - - , mn having distances r1, r2, r3, - - - ,
rn from the axis of rotation O as shown in
Figure 4.9, then torques acting at m’s are
given by
1 = m1 𝑟12 1
2 = m2 𝑟22 2
3 = m3 𝑟32 3
---- ------
---- ------
Fig. 4.9
---- ------
n = mn 𝑟𝑛2 n
The total torque of the rigid body is given as
 = 1 + 2 + 3 + - - - + n
= m1𝑟12 1 + m2 𝑟22 2 + m3𝑟32 3 + - - - + mn𝑟𝑛2 n
As the body is rigid so all the particles will have the same angular
acceleration,
So 1 = 2 = 3 = - - - = n = 
∴  = 1 + 2 + 3 + - - - + n
= ( m1𝑟12  + m2 𝑟22  + m3𝑟32  + - - + mn𝑟𝑛2  ) - - - (5)
= (m1𝑟12 + m2 𝑟22 + m3𝑟32 + - - - + mn𝑟𝑛2 ) 

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Torque & Rotational Inertia 04 Phy-132 52

n
 = ( ∑ m𝑖 𝑟2𝑖 ) 
i=1
n
Here, I = ( ∑ m𝑖 𝑟2𝑖 )
i=1
= moment of inertia of the whole body about the axis of rotation O.
∴  =  - - - - (6)
This is the total torque of the rigid body.
ROTATIONAL INERTIA OR MOMENT OF INERTIA:
Definition:
“The resistance of a rotating body to change
its state of rotation or rest is called Moment
of Inertia”.
If we want to stop a rotating wheel, we have
to apply force. Similarly, a stationary wheel
resists to be put into motion. The resistance
that a wheel shows against the change of its
state of rotation or of rest is called moment of
inertia. Its unit is kg-m2.
Prove that: I = MK2 Fig. 4.10
Consider a body made up of a large
number of small masses m1, m2, m3, - - - , mn having distances r1, r2, r3, - - - ,
rn respectively from the axis of rotation, then the moment of inertia of the
body about the axis of rotation is given by:
n
2 2 2
I = m1𝑟1 + m2 𝑟2 + m3𝑟3 + - - - + mn𝑟𝑛 = ( ∑ m𝑖 𝑟2𝑖 )
2
i=1
So the moment of inertia of the body is equal to the product of the mass and
the square of the distance from the axis of rotation. Now if m1 = m2 = m3 = - -
- = mn = m, then
I = m ( 𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +𝑟32 + - - - + 𝑟𝑛2 )
Multiply and divide by n , then
𝑚𝑛 (𝑟12 + 𝑟22 + 𝑟32 + − − − + 𝑟𝑛2 )
I =
𝑛

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Torque & Rotational Inertia 04 Phy-132 53

(𝑟12 + 𝑟22 + 𝑟32 + − − − + 𝑟𝑛2 )

But mn = M and let = 𝐾 2 then
𝑛
I = M𝐾 2
(𝑟2 + 𝑟2 2 2
2 + 𝑟3 + − − − + 𝑟𝑛 )
Here K = √ 1 𝑛
K is called the Radius of Gyration.
Radius of Gyration:
Radius of gyration is defined as the square root of the mean of the squares of
the distances of the various mass distributions from the axis of rotation. In
other words, the distance from the axis of rotation of the body to a point where
the whole mass may be supposed to be concentrated is called the radius of
gyration. It is written as
I
K = M
EXAMPLE 4.3: A flywheel of mass 25 kg has radius of gyration 2 m.
Calculate its moment of inertia?
SOLUTION: Mass of fly wheel = M = 25 kg
Radius of gyration = K = 2m
Moment of inertia = I = ?
2
I = MK
= (25) (2)2 = 100 kg-m2

SUMMARY
• Torque is the cross product of the force and the position vector from the
axis of rotation.
• Centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the whole weight of
the body acts.
• When a body has zero acceleration, it is said to be in equilibrium.
• First Condition of Equilibrium: A body will be in translational
equilibrium if the algebraic sum of all the forces acting on the body is
zero, i.e. ∑ F = 0.
• Second Condition of Equilibrium: A body will be in rotational
equilibrium if the algebraic sum of all the torques acting on the body is
zero, i.e., ∑  = 0.
• The relation between torque acting on the body and its angular
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Torque & Rotational Inertia 04 Phy-132 54

acceleration is given as  = I.

• Moment of inertia of a rotating body is its resistance against its change
in acceleration.

EXERCISE
LONG QUESTIONS
1. Define torque. How it is calculated?
2. State and explain the conditions of equilibrium.
3. Prove that: I = mr2
4. Define moment of inertia of a rigid body. Show that I = MK2.
5. Derive relation between torque and angular acceleration.
SHORT QUESTIONS
Answer the following questions.
1. Define torque.
2. Describe the factors on which torque depends upon.
3. Differentiate center of mass and center of gravity.
4. Define equilibrium.
5. State the two conditions of equilibrium.
6. Differentiate static and dynamic equilibrium.
7. Define moment of inertia of a rigid body.
8. Define radius of gyration of a rigid body.
9. Write relation between torque and angular acceleration.
10. A fly wheel of mass 10 kg has radius of gyration 3 m. Find its moment of
inertia.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
Encircle the correct answer.
1- Torque is the product of
a) Mass and acceleration
b) Force and mass
c) Mass and velocity
d) Force and vertical distance of force from axis of rotation.
2- The relation between linear and angular acceleration is
1
a) a = 𝛼 b)  = ar c) a = r  d) a = 2
3- One revolution is equal to
a) 360˚ b) 180˚ c) 90˚ d) 270˚
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Torque & Rotational Inertia 04 Phy-132 55

4- The unit of angular velocity is

a) m/sec b) rad/sec c) meter d) radian
5- The conditions of equilibrium are
a) One b) Two c) Three d) Four
6- Torque has maximum value if angle between r and F is
a) 0˚ b) 30˚ c) 45˚ d) 90˚
7- Torque has zero value if angle between F and r is
a) 0˚ b) 45˚ c) 60˚ d) 90˚
8- The centre of gravity of a body is
a) The centre of the body
b) The point at which the mass of the body acts
c) The point at which the whole weight of the body acts
d) None of these
9- The point at which an applied force produces a linear acceleration
but no rotation is called
a) Centre of body b) Centre of mass
c) Weight of body d) Fulcrum
10- A body will be in translational equilibrium, if

a) F
⃗ =0 b) P
⃗ =0 c) L
⃗=0 d)   = 0
11- A body will be in rotational equilibrium, if

a) L ⃗ =0 b) P⃗ =0 c) F
⃗ =0 d )  = 0

PROBLEMS
4.1. A force of 2N with positive vector of 3m acts on a body with an angle
of 30˚. Find the torque acting on the body.[Ans : 3 N.m]
4.2. How much force should be applied on the long arm of the lever when
a mass of 10 kg is suspended to the short arm of the lever. The ratio in
the length of its arms is 5 : 1. Take g = 9.8m/sec2.[Ans : 19.6 N]
4.3. A 25kg flywheel has a radius of gyration of 2m. What is its moment
of inertia? [Ans : 100Kg . m2]
4.4. If the torque acting on a body (by a force) is 20N.m and its moment
of inertia is 4 kg.m2. Find its angular acceleration.[Ans : 5 rev/sec2]

***

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 56

Chapter
05
WAVEMOTION
Course contents:
5.1. Review Hooke’s law of elasticity.
5.2. Motion under an elastic restoring force.
5.3. Characteristics of simple harmonic motion.
5.4. S. H. M. and circular motion.
5.5. Simple pendulum.
5.6. Wave form of S. H. M.
5.7. Resonance.
5.8. Transverse vibration of a stretched string.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
• Explain Hooke’ law of elasticity.
• Explain motion under an elastic restoring force.
• Describe characteristics of simple harmonic motion.
• Explain S. H. M. and circular motion.
• Describe simple pendulum.
• Illustrate, wave form of S. H. M.
• Explain the phenomenon of resonance.
• Explain transverse vibration of a stretched string.

Elasticity:
Elasticity is that property of a body which opposes any deforming force.
When we apply a force on a body, it produces a change in the body. On
removing the force, the body tends to recover its original condition. This
power of recovery is called elasticity.
STRESS:
The elastic force developed in a body per unit area is called stress. It is also
defined as the resistive force per unit area against the deforming force is
called stress.

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 57

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
Mathematically, Stress = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
Unit of stress:
The unit of stress in S. I. system is N/m2
TYPES OF STRESS:
1. Longitudinal Stress:
The force which acts on the unit area of a body and produces a change in its
length is called the longitudinal stress. It has the following two types.
a) Tensile Stress:
The stress which increases the length of a body is called the tensile stress.
b) Compressive stress:
The stress which decreases the length of a body is called the compressive
stress.
2. Volumetric Stress:
The forces which acts on the unit area of a body and changes its volume is
called the volumetric stress.
3. Shearing Stress:
The force which acts on the unit area of a body and changes the shape of the
body is called shearing stress.
STRAIN:
The fractional change produced in a body due to stress is called strain.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Mathematically, Strain =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
It is of the following three types.
1. Longitudinal Strain:
It is defined as the change in length per unit length of
the body. Let a wire has original length L. On applying a
force, let its length increases by ∆𝐿. Then its longitudinal
strain is given by.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 ∆𝐿
Longitudinal strain = = Fig 5.1
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝐿

2. Volumetric Strain:
It is defined as the change in volume per unit
volume of the body. If a cylinder of gas has original
volume V. On decreasing pressure, let its increase in
volume be ∆V. Then
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑉
Volumetric strain = =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 Fig 5.2

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 58

3. Shearing Strain:
Shearing strain changes the shape of a body without changing its volume.
Suppose, we fix the lower surface of a body and apply a force on its upper
surface such that its vertical
edge turns through an angle
 then it is shearing strain.
Shearing strain is expressed
in radians.
Shearing strain is defined as
change in area per unit area Fig 5.3
of a body. Let ametallic
sheet has original area a. On applying force, its area changes by ∆a, then
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∆𝑎
Shearing Strain = =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎
∆𝑎
But = tan , For small , tan  = , Therefore Shearing Strain = 
𝑎
HOOKE’S LAW:
Within elastic limits, the change produced in a body is proportional to the
force acting on it
Stress ∝ Strain
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
 = E
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Here E is constant, called the modulus of elasticity.
Explanation:
If we draw a graph between stress and strain for an iron wire, we get a
straight line from o to x. In this region,
the strain is directly proportional to the
stress and the body remains elastic. If
we remove the stress, the body recovers
its original position. Point x is called
the elastic limit. If we apply stress more
than the elastic limit, the graph does not
remain a straight line. In this case, the
stress will produce a permanent change
in the body and the body beyond point
x (the elastic limit) becomes plastic. Fig 5.4
Here the length of the body increases rapidly. At last the body will break at y.
It is always considered that the stress may not exceed the elastic limit.

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 59

MODUL I OF ELASTICITY:
(i) Young’s Modulus:
The ratio of stress to longitudinal strain is called Young’s
Modulus. Let F be the force acting on a wire of length L and
cross-sectional area A. If increase in length of the wire is ∆𝐿,
then
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Young’s Modulus =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹⁄ Fig 5.5
𝐴 𝐹𝐿
= ∆𝐿⁄ =
𝐿 𝐴 ∆𝐿
2
Its unit in S I. system is: N/m
(ii) Bulk Modulus:
The ratio of stress to volumetric strain is called Bulk Modulus. Let F be
the force acting on a gas cylinder of volume V and cross-sectional area A. If
the force changes its volume by ∆V, then
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Bulk Modulus =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹⁄ 𝐹𝑉
𝐴
= ∆𝑉⁄ = 𝐴 ∆𝑉
𝑉
2
Its unit in S I. system is N/m .
(iii) Rigidity Modulus: Fig 5.6
Suppose a force F acts on a body at surface area A. If the
shear produced is  radian, then
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Rigidity Modulus =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
∆𝑎
But Shearing Strain =
𝑎
𝐹⁄
𝐴
Rigidity Modulus = ∆𝑎⁄
𝑎
∆𝑎
But = tan θ,
𝑎
For small value of θ, tan𝜃 = θ Fig 5.7
𝐹⁄ 𝐹
𝐴
Therefore Rigidity Modulus = =
𝜃 Aθ
2
Its unit in S I. system is N/m
TYPES OF MOTION:
1. Translatory Motion:
The motion of a body along a straight line is called translatory motion.
For example, the motion of the bullet fired from a gun. Zig-zag also falls in it.

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 60

2. Rotatory Motion:
The motion of a body along a circular path around an axis of rotation
is called rotatory motion. For example, the motion of a stone in a circular path
with the help of a string and the motion of a fly-wheel are rotatory motion.
3. Vibratory Motion:
The to and fro motion of a body around its mean position is called
vibratory motion. For example, the motion of a pendulum, the motion of a
violin string and the motion of a body attached to a string.
4. Periodic Motion:
It is that motion of a body which repeats itself after equal intervals of
time. For example, the motion of a pendulum is periodic motion.
Conditions for vibratory motion:
1. There should be an elastic restoring force.
2. There should be inertia in the vibrating body
MOTION UNDER ELASTIC RESTORING FORCE:
Consider a ball of mass m rolling on a frictionless surface, attached to a
fixed support with the help of a spring as shown in Fig. 5.8. If we apply a
force F on the ball which displaces it through distance x from the mean
position, then according to
Hooke’s law, this applied force
is directly proportional to the
displacement, i.e.
F ∝ x Fig 5.8
or F = kx
Where k is the constant of proportionality and is called the spring
constant. Due to elasticity, the spring applies an equal restoring force in the
opposite direction.
Applied force = F = k x
Restoring force = F = – k x
The negative sign shows that the restoring force is directed towards the mean
position.
Restoring Force:
It is that force which tends to move a body back to its original
position (mean position) when the applied force is removed.
Motion under elastic restoring force:
Consider a ball at point O, attached to a fixed support with the help of
a spring on a frictionless horizontal surface. If we apply a force F on the ball,
it is displaced through a distance xo to the point A. If the applied force is
within elastic limits then an equal restoring force will act on the ball in the
opposite direction. This restoring force acting on the ball at point A is given

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 61

by
F = – k xo
To bring the ball from point O to A, we do some work on it which is
stored in it in the form of potential energy. Now if the ball is released at point
A, the restoring force brings it towards the point O. When it reaches O, all its
P. E. is converted into K. E. Due to inertia; the ball continues to move towards
left and reaches B. At point B, the spring is compressed and all its kinetic
energy is converted into potential
energy. Again, the restoring force
moves the ball towards right and it
reaches the point A. In this way, the
ball continues to vibrate between the
points A and B.
During its vibratory motion,
when the ball is at distance x from the
mean position O, the restoring force
Fig 5.9
acting on it is given by
F = – kx - - - - - - - (1)
Let ‘a’ be the acceleration produced in the ball by the force F at that
instant. Then by Newton’s second law of motion.
F = ma - - - - - - - (2)
Comparing Eqs.(1) and (2), we get, ma = – k x
𝑘
 a = – x - - - - - - - (3)
𝑚
𝑘
Here = constant
𝑚
∴ a = – ( constant) x
 a ∝ x
This equation shows that acceleration of the ball is directly proportional
to its distance from the mean position and the negative sign shows that the
acceleration is directed towards the mean position O. This shows that the
motion of the spring-mass system is a Simple Harmonic Motion.
IMPORTANT TERMS ABOUT VIBRATORY MOTION:
1. Vibration:
One complete round trip of a body about its mean position is called a
vibration.

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 62

2. Time Period:
The time required to complete one vibration is called the time period. It is
denoted by T. Its S. I. unit is second.
3. Frequency:
The number of vibrations completed by a body in one second is called
frequency. It is denoted by f. Its S. I. unit is cycle/sec or Hertz. The relation
between frequency and the time period is given as
1
f =
𝑇
4. Displacement ( x ):
It is the distance of a vibrating body from the mean position at any instant of
time
5. Amplitude ( xo ):
The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from the mean position is
called amplitude
Simple Harmonic Motion:
It is that vibratory motion in which the acceleration is directly
proportional to the displacement from the mean position and it is always
directed towards the mean position
Characteristics of Simple Harmonic Motion:
The Simple Harmonic Motion has the following characteristics
a. Vibratory motion:
The Simple Harmonic Motion is a vibratory motion, i.e., it repeats
itself after equal intervals of time.
b. Nature of motion:
The motion of the body performing S.H.M. is always directed towards
the mean position
c. Direction of acceleration:
The acceleration of the body performing S.H.M. is always directed
towards the mean position
d. Magnitude of acceleration:
The magnitude of the acceleration of a body performing S.H.M. is
directly proportional to the displacement from the mean position. It is
maximum at the extreme points and is zero at the centre
e. Velocity:
The velocity of the body performing S.H.M. is zero at the extreme
points and is maximum at the mean position
f. Kinetic Energy:
In a S. H. M., the K. E. of the body is zero at the extreme positions
and maximum at the mean position.

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 63

g. Potential Energy:
In a S.H.M., the P. E. of the body is proportional to the square of the
distance from the mean position. It is maximum at the extreme positions and
is zero at the centre
h.Total Energy:
In S. H. M., the total energy of the body remains constant
S.H.M AND CIRCULAR MOTION:
Consider a body moving in a horizontal circular path of radius r with constant
angular velocity . It has its projection on the nearby wall. If the body
moves from point A to point P, it covers an
angular displacement  ( = t). At point P,
its linear velocity is given byvP=r 
From the point P, draw perpendicular
PQ on the diameter AB of the circle. The
point Q will be the projection of P. As the
body moves along the circular path with
constant angular velocity , so its projection
moves to and fro along the diameter AB.
We have to prove that the motion of Q is S.
H. M. As the body moves in the circular Fig 5.10
path due to centripetal force, so the
acceleration of Q is always directed towards the centre. At point P, the
centripetal acceleration of the body is given by
v2p r2 𝜔2
ap = = = r 2 - - - - - - - (1)
r r
The acceleration of the point Q will be equal to the horizontal
component of the centripetal acceleration of the body at point P. If we take it
as a, then
a = apcos = r 2cos - - - - - - - (2)
𝑥
But according to the Fig.5.10, cos =
𝑟
x
Putting in (2) we have a = r 2 ( r ) = 2x
As the acceleration is directed towards the mean position, so we write it with
negative sign and have
a = –  2x  𝑎 ∝ −𝑥
This equation shows that the projection of the body moving in a circular path

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 64

performs S. H. M.
Time Period of the point Q:
The time period of the motion of the point Q is the time in which the body
completes one cycle. In this way it covers an angle of 2π radian.
As t = 
When t = T ( Time period of motion) and  = 2π,
2𝜋
Therefore t = 2π  𝑇 =
𝜔
Velocity of the point Q:
The velocity of Q is equal to the horizontal
component of the velocity of the point P. From
the figure, we see that
v = vp sin  = r √𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

= r  √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
But according to the Fig.5.11,
𝑥
cos = , putting it, we have
𝑟
Fig 5.11
𝑥2
v = r √1 −
𝑟2

But r = xo ( the amplitude), therefore

𝑥2
v =  xo√1 −
𝑥𝑜2
SIMPLE PENDULUM:
Construction:
The simple pendulum consists of a small
bob suspended from a frictionless
support by a light inextensible string
Working:
Consider a pendulum of length l with its
mean position at O. When we bring the
bob to the point A and leave it, it starts
its vibration between two extreme points
A and B.
At A, all its energy is the P. E. which is Fig.5.12
equal to the amount of work done in

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 65

bringing the bob from point O to point A. At point A, the restoring force acts
on it, and it starts its motion towards the mean position O. At O, all its P. E. is
converted into K. E. Due to inertia, it continues its motion towards left and
reaches the point B. At B, all its K. E. is again converted into P. E. At B,
restoring force again acts on it and it starts its motion towards the point A. In
this way, the bob of the pendulum continues to vibrate between two extreme
points A and B.
Second’s Pendulum:
It is that pendulum whose time period is equal to 2 seconds
Show that the Motion of a Simple Pendulum is S. H. M:
Consider the pendulum at the point B during its vibratory motion. Let m be
the mass of the bob and x is its displacement from the mean position. Two
forces are acting on the bob at this position.
1. The weight mg of the bob acting vertically downward.
2. The tension T of the string acting along BO.
Weight w = mg can be resolved into two rectangular components as
follows:
(i) Component of weight along the string = mg cos
(ii) Component of weight perpendicular to string = mg sin 
As there is no motion of the bob along the string, so they cancel the effect of
each other. i.e
T = mg cos
Thus, the component mg sin  is the only responsible force for the motion of
the bob towards the mean position. This component will be equal to the
restoring force acting on the bob and is written as
F = – mg sin  - - - - - - (1)
The negative sign shows that this force is directed towards the mean position.
If ‘a’ is the acceleration of the bob at point B, then according to Newton’s
Second Law of Motion,
F = ma - - - - - - (2)
Comparing eqs. (1) and (2), we get
ma = – mg sin 
 a = – g sin 
When  is very small, then sin = 
∴ a = –g - - - - - - (3)
S
We know that S = r  ⟹  = r
x
Here S = x and r = l . Therefore,  = l ( in radians)

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 66

Putting this value in Eq.(3), we get

𝑥 𝑔
a = –g( ) = – ( )x - - - - - - (4)
𝑙 𝑙
𝑔
But is constant
𝑙
Therefore a = – ( constant) x ⟹ 𝑎 ∝ −𝑥
This equation shows that the motion of the simple pendulum is S. H. M.
Time Period:
We know that the time period of S. H. M. is
2𝜋
T = - - - - - - (1)
𝜔
But the acceleration of a body performing S. H. M. is given as
a = –  2x - - - - - - (2)
In case of a simple pendulum,
𝑔
a = –( )x - - - - - - (3)
𝑙
Comparing Eqns. (2) and (3), we get
𝑔 𝑔
2 = ⟹  = √𝑙
𝑙
Putting this value of  in Eq.(1), we get
2𝜋 𝑙
T = ⟹ T = 2π√
𝑔 𝑔
√𝑙

RESONANCE:
Natural Frequency & Natural Time Period:
When a simple pendulum is displaced from its mean position, it vibrates
with a certain time period T and frequency f. Whenever this pendulum is
disturbed, it always vibrates with the same time period. This time period is
known as the natural time period of that pendulum.
As the time period depends upon the length of the pendulum at certain place,
therefore, the simple pendulum of the same
length will always have the same natural
time period.
Definition of Resonance:
When we apply such force on a
vibrating body whose time period is equal
to the natural time period of the body, then
its amplitude of vibration increases. This is
called Resonance.
Fig 5.13
Experiment: Consider a stretched rubber

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 67

cord tied horizontally between two fixed points. Five pendulums are
suspended with the cord.
Three of these pendulums A, C and E have length l1 each and two of these B
and D have length l2 each.
Set the pendulum A to vibrate. It will be seen that C and E will also
begin to vibrate with same amplitude as that of A, while B and D will almost
remain stationary. It is because that A, C and E have the same length and
time period but B and D have different time period and they remain almost
stationary.
Now stop the motion of all the pendulums. Make the length of “A”
equal to that of B and D, i.e., l2. Again, set A to vibrate. It will be seen that
the pendulums B and D will also begin to vibrate with the same amplitude as
that of A while C and E will almost remain stationary. This experiment
explains the principle of resonance.
EXAMPLES OF RSONANCE:
1. When troops are marching on a bridge which can vibrate with certain
natural frequency. If the frequency of the steps of the troops coincides
with the natural frequency of the bridge, then bridge may break due to
resonance. Therefore, the soldiers are ordered to break the steps while
crossing the bridge.
2. If we apply such force on a swing whose time period is equal to the
natural time period of the swing, then the amplitude of the swing can be
made quite large.
3. Tuning of a radio is an example of electrical resonance. By tuning a radio,
its frequency can be made equal to the frequency of the waves of desired
broadcasting station.
4. When the sound waves from a tuning fork are made to enter an air
column, the frequency of this air column is equal to the frequency of the
tuning fork. Then the resonance takes place and loud sound is heard.
Applications of Resonance:
1. It is used to find the natural frequencies of different bodies.
2. It is used to find the speed of the sound
STATIONARY OR STANDING WAVES:
Definition:
When two waves of the same amplitude, time period and speed travel
along the same straight line in the opposite direction, these waves
superimpose to give stationary or standing waves. This is a particular form of
interference of waves.

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 68

Some terms about transverse waves:

Nodes:
Those points in a wave where the amplitude of the wave is zero are called
Nodes.
Antinodes:
Those points in a wave where the amplitude of the wave is maximum are
called Antinodes.
Loop:
The shape produced by a curve crossing itself is called a loop.
TRANSVERSE VIBRATIONS ON A STRETCHED STRING:
Consider a string of length L , is stretched by clamping its two ends, we shall
see what will happen if we pluck the string at different points.
1. Vibrations of the String in One Loop. (First mode):
When the string is plucked at its
middle point, two transverse waves will
start from that point and move towards
the ends in opposite directions. They
are reflected back at the ends and
superimpose to form the stationary
waves. The string will vibrate in one
loop as shown in the Fig. 5.14. Let 1
be the wavelength and f1 be the
frequency of vibration in this mode.
Then Fig 5.14
𝜆1
L=  1 = 2L - - - - (1)
2
If v is the speed of the waves, then
v = 1f1  v = 2L f1
𝑣
 f1 = - - - - - - (2)
2𝐿
2. Vibrations of the String in Two Loop:
(Second mode)
When the same string is plucked from
one-quarter (i.e.1/4 of the length), the string
will vibrate in two loops as shown in Fig.
5.15.
Let 2 be the wavelength and f2 be the Fig 5.15

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 69

frequency of vibration in this mode. Then

L = 2 - - - - - - (3)
Here the wavelength has decreased and the frequency has increased in
the same ratio.
So the speed of the wave will remain the same. Now
If v is the speed of the waves, then
V = 2 f 2  v = L f2
𝑣 v
f2 = = 2 ( ) = 2 f1
𝐿 2L
or 𝑓2 = 2 𝑓1
3. Vibrations of the String in Three Loop. (Third mode):
When the string is plucked from one-sixth (i.e.1/6 of its length), the
string will vibrate in three loops as shown in Fig. 5.16.
Let 3 be the wavelength
and f3 be the frequency of
vibration in this mode. Then
3
3 = L
2
2𝐿
 3 =
3
If v is the speed of the waves,
then
2𝐿
v = 3 f3  v = f3 Fig 5.16
3
v v
f3 = = 3 ( ) = 3 f1
𝜆3 2L

or 𝑓3 = 3𝑓1
Similarly, if the string will vibrate in n loops then
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑓1
Here f1 is called the fundamental frequency and the other
frequencies which are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency are
called overtones or harmonics

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 70

SUMMARY
• Hooke’s Law:
Under elastic limits, stress is directly proportional to the strain produced in
the body.
• Restoring force:
It is that force which tends to restore the original condition of the body
when the applied force is removed.
• S. H. M:
Simple harmonic motion is the vibratory motion in which the acceleration
produced in the body is directly proportional to the displacement from the
mean position and is directed toward the mean position.
• Resonance:
When we apply such force on a vibrating body whose time period is equal
to the natural time period of the body, then its amplitude is increased.
This is called resonance.
• Stationary waves:
When two identical waves travel along the same straight line in opposite
directions, they superimpose to give stationary waves.

EXERCISE
LONG QUESTIONS
1. State and explain the Hooke’s law of elasticity.
2. Discuss motion under elastic restoring force.
3. Show that the motion of the projection of a particle moving in a circular
path is S.H.M.
4. Describe the construction and working of a simple pendulum. Show that
its motion is SHM.
5. Write a note on the phenomenon of resonance..
6. Define stationary waves. Show that the harmonics produced in
stationary waves are integral multiple of the Fundamental frequency.
SHORT QUESTIONS
Answer the following questions.
1. Define elasticity.
2. Define stress and write its types.
3. Define strain and write its types.

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 71

4. State Hooke’s law of elasticity.

5. Describe young modulus of elasticity.
6. Write types of motion.
7. Write conditions for vibratory motion.
8. Describe elastic restoring force.
9. Define time period in vibratory motion.
10. Define simple harmonic motion. Also write its characteristics.
11. Define seconds pendulum.
12. Write formula for time period of a simple pendulum.
13. Define stationary waves.
14. Define harmonics in stationary waves.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
Encircle the correct answer.
1- Time period of simple pendulum is
2𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
a) √ b)√ c) 2√ d) √
𝑔 2𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
2- Which of the following substance has relatively high value of
elasticity?
a) Rubber b) Steel c) Air d) Gold
3- The waveform of S.H.M is similar to
a) Cosine wave b) Sine wave c) Pulsed waves d) Square wave
4- The maximum distance of a vibrating body from mean position is
called
a) Time period b) Displacement c) Amplitude d) Frequency
5- Time period of a second’s pendulum is
a) Zero b) 1 Seconds c) 2 Seconds d) 3Seconds
6- The frequency of second’s pendulum
a) 1Hertz b) 2Hertz c) 0.5Hertz d) 0.25Hertz
7- The length of second’s pendulum is
a) 1 m b) 0.5 m c) 0.6 m d) 0.992 m
8- In a vibrating string, the points where the amplitude is maximum is
called.
a) Crest b) Trough c) Antinode d) Node
9- The distance between two consecutive nodes is
𝜆 𝜆
a) b) c)  d) 2
4 2
10- The wavelength of the fundamental mode of vibration in a string is
𝑙
a)l b) 2l c) 4l d)
2

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Wave Motion 05 Phy-132 72

11- The unit of stress is

a) N/m b) N/m2 c) newton d) joule
12- The example of S.H.M is
a) Motion of a train b) Motion of a fan
c) Motion of a simple pendulum d) Motion of a wheel
13- In S.H.M, the acceleration is always towards
a) right side b) left side c) the center d) None
14- In S.H.M which form of energy is maximum at the center
a) Rotational energy b) Vibrational energy
c) K.E d) P.E
15- The time period of simple pendulum depends upon:
a) Mass b) Weight c) Length d) Amplitude
16- The frequencies other than Fundamental frequency are called:
a) Harmonics b) Triangle c) Crest d) Amplitude
17- The distance between a node and an anti-node is
a) 0.25 b) 0.5 c)  d) 2

PROBLEMS
5.1. A simple pendulum has length 150cm. Find its time period if g = 9.8
m/sec2. [Ans: 2.46 sec.]
5.2. A body of mass 0.5Kg is attached to a spring of spring constant 8N/m
(which is vibrating). Find its time period. [Ans: 1.57 sec.]
5.3. A body of mass 1Kg is hanging with a spring. The body is pulled down
2cm from its equilibrium position, its tension increases by 0.98N. Find
the spring constant and the time period.[Ans: 0.89 sec., 49 N/m]
5.4. The buffer of a railway wagon is compressed 5cm when a force of 200
N is applied to it. Calculate the spring constant.[Ans: 4000 N/m]
5.5. A wire 1 meter long plucked at its centre, vibrates with a frequency of
250 Hertz. Calculate the wavelength and the speed of the wave in the
wire.[Ans: 2m, 500m/sec]

***

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Sound 06 Phy-132 74

Chapter
06
SOUND
Course contents:
6.1 Longitudinal waves
6.2 Intensity, loudness, pitch and quality of sound
6.3 Unit of Intensity level and frequency response of ear
6.4 Interference of sound waves, silence zones, beats
6.5 Acoustics
6.6 Doppler’s Effect

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
• Describe longitudinal waves and their propagation.
• Explain the concepts: Intensity, loudness, pitch and quality of sound.
• Explain units of Intensity level of sound and frequency response of ear.
• Explain phenomena of silence zones, beats.
• Explain Acoustics of buildings
• Explain Doppler’s Effect giving mathematical expressions.

WAVES
A mechanism by which energy is transferred from one place to another
without the movement of the particles is known as wave motion”.
There are three kinds of waves.
1. MECHANICAL WAVES
The waves which require a material medium for their propagation are
known as mechanical waves. For example sound waves, waves on the surface
of water and waves along a string.
2. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
The waves which do not require a material medium for their propagation
are called electromagnetic waves. For example light, heat and radio waves.

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Sound 06 Phy-132 75

3. MATER WAVES
The waves associated with particles are called matter waves. For
example a fast moving electron is associated with waves.
TYPES OF MECHANICAL WAVES
With reference to the movements of the material particles through
which the waves are transmitted waves are classified into two types i.e.
transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
TRANSVERSE WAVES
The waves in which the particles of the medium execute simple
harmonic motion along lines at right angles
to the direction of propagation of waves are
known as transverse waves. For example
water waves, light waves, waves along the
string.
Consider waves in a string as shown in the
fig. 6.1, the portion of the wave above its
mean level is called a crest and the portion
of the wave below its mean level is called a
trough. The distance between two Fig 6.1
consecutive crests or troughs is called
wavelength of the transverse wave and is denoted by ‘’
LONGITUDINAL OR COMPRESSIONAL WAVES
The waves, in which the various particles of the medium vibrate about
their mean positions along the direction of the waves, are known as
longitudinal waves.
To
examine the
nature of the
longitudinal
waves consider
waves produced
in air by a
vibrating strip Fig 6.2
‘A’ in air whose
lower end is clamped by a vice as shown in the Fig 6.2.
The body vibrates between the extreme positions ‘B’ and ‘C’. When it
moves towards ‘C’, it compresses the layer of air immediately in front of it.
This layer then expands and in this way it compresses the second layer. The
second layer then expands and in this way it compresses the third layer. The
third layer compresses the fourth layer and so on. In this way a compression
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moves from layer to layer. When the body moves toward ‘B’ the first layer is
rarefied. The second layer at once expands to restore the first one to its normal
pressure, and in doing so it is rarefied. Then the third layer expands to restore
the second layer to its normal pressure and so it is itself rarefied. In this way, a
rarefaction also moves from layer to layer behind the first compression.
As the body goes on vibrating we get a series of alternate
compressions and rarefactions. In Fig. 6.2, C1, C2, C3 and C4 etc. are the
centers of compressions and R1, R2, R3 and R4 etc. are the centers of the
rarefactions.
The compression means higher pressure as compared to normal
pressure of the air and rarefaction means lower pressure as compared to
normal pressure of the air.
“The distance between two consecutive centers of compressions or
rarefactions is called wavelength.”
If the frequency of vibration be ‘f’ then ‘f’ waves are produced in one second.
If the wavelength be ‘’ then the disturbance travels through a distance ‘f’ in
one second. The velocity of longitudinal waves is thus given by
v = f
SOUND WAVES
Sound may be defined psychologically and physically.
Psychologically it is the sensation produced in ear.
Physically it is said to be the stimulus, due to a sounding body, capable of
producing sensation.
Three things are necessary for the hearing sound.
1. Vibrating body
A body emits sound only when it vibrates. Therefore a vibrating body
is essential to produce sound.
2. Material medium
Whenever a body vibrates it produce compressional waves in air.
These waves which are called sound waves travel through air and
reached to the ear. Thus a material medium is essential for the
propagation of sound.
3. Receiver
A receiver that is ear is essential to hear sound because sound waves
produce the sensation of sound on the ear. Therefore a receiver of the
sound waves is also essential.
SPEED OF SOUND
The speed of sound in dry air at 0 C is about 331.3m/s.

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Sound 06 Phy-132 77

Sound travel faster in solids. Its speed is medium in liquids and slow in
gases. At standard temperature and pressure its speed is 331 m/s. At 20 oC the
speed of sound in air is 334 m/s. Sound cannot travel through vacuum.

INTENSITY OF SOUND
Sound waves carry energy away from the source. The intensity of
sound is determined by the energy transferred.
“The energy transmitted per second through a unit area (held
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the waves) by the sound
waves is called the intensity of the sound waves”.
The unit of intensity of sound will be power unit divided by area unit
i.e. watt/m2.
Mathematically intensity of sound is given by
𝐸
I = - - - - - (1)
𝐴 × 𝑡
Where E = Sound energy
A = Area of the surface
t = Time
𝐽
In M.K.S system the unit of intensity is 𝑚2 𝑠 or W𝑚−2.
LOUDNESS OF SOUND
The magnitude of auditory sensation produced in ear by sound is
called loudness of sound. It is denoted by ‘L’. It depends upon intensity of
sound and the sensitivity of ear.
WEBER-FECHNER LAW
This law states that loudness of sound is directly proportional to the
logarithm of intensity.
L  log10
L = k log10
Where ‘K’ is a constant of proportionality and its value depend upon
system of units.
INTENSITY LEVEL
The difference in loudness of two sounds where one sound is faintest
audible sound is called intensity level.
If the intensities of the two sounds are  and 0and loudness L and L0
respectively, then
According to Weber Fechner law
L = 𝑘𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼
L0 = 𝑘𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼𝑜
Where o is the intensity of faintest audible sound.

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Sound 06 Phy-132 78

According to the definition of intensity level, we can write

Intensity Level = L − Lo
= 𝑘𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼 − 𝑘𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼𝑜
= 𝑘(𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼𝑜 )
𝐼
Intensity Level = 𝑘𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼 - - - - - (1)
𝑜

Where  is the intensity of any given sound and o is intensity of

faintest audible sound which is considered as 10−12 W𝑚−2.
UNIT OF INTENSITY LEVEL
The unit of intensity level id Bell.
‘If the intensity of sound is 10 o (ten times of o), then the intensity level of the
given sound is called one bell’.
We know that
𝐼
Intensity Level = 𝑘𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼
𝑜
Putting  = 10o in above equation we get
10 𝐼𝑜
Intensity Level = 𝑘𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼𝑜
= 𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (10)
= k 1 [ as𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (10) = 1 ]
If we measure intensity level in bel, then k = 1. Thus
Intensity Level = 1bel.
1
Decibel ( dB ) is a smaller unit of Bel and is equal to 10 bel.
𝐼
So Intensity level of sound = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼 dB
𝑜

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF EAR

A normal human ear can hear those sound frequencies which lie
between 20 hertz and 20,000 hertz. If the frequency of sound is higher than
20,000 hertz, it cannot be heard. Sounds of frequencies higher than 20,000 is
called ultrasonic. The sensitiveness of ear for high frequency sounds decreases
with age. Children can generally hear sound of 20 kHz while elderly people
cannot hear anything above 15000 hertz. The sensitivity of an average human
ear is different in different frequency ranges. Normal ear is most sensitive in
the frequency range 2000 to 5000 hertz. There is a threshold value of intensity
level below which we cannot hear. There is also an upper limit of intensity
above which we feel pain rather than of hearing.
PITCH OF SOUND
The property or characteristic of sound by which a shrill sound can be
distinguished from a grave one is called pitch of sound.

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Pitch of sound depends upon the frequency of the sound. The greater is
the frequency, the higher is the pitch and the lower is the frequency the lower
is the pitch.
The sound produced by children and birds etc. are of high pitch i.e. of
high frequency, while the sound produced by man , frogs etc. are of low pitch
i.e. of low frequency.
QUALITY OF SOUND
It is the property of sound by which the sounds of same pitch and
loudness produced by different sources can be distinguished.
It is a common experience that a note of given pitch and loudness sounded on
Piano is easily distinguished from one of exactly the same pitch and loudness
played, for example, on Violin. It is because the quality of the two notes is
different.
The quality of sound depends upon the wave-form of the resultant and
is controlled by the number and relative intensities and phase of harmonics
that are present; the resultant wave-forms have different effects on the ear
even though they have the same pitch and loudness.
MUSICAL SOUND AND NOISE
Audible sounds are classified into two groups, namely musical sounds
and noise. A musical sound is that in which the vibrations of the sounding
body are periodic, follow each other regularly and rapidly, so as to produce a
pleasing effect on the ear without any sudden change in loudness.
The waveform of musical sounds is smooth. Musical sounds can be
produced using a flute, sitar or harmonium, etc. Periodicity, regularity and
continuity are their characteristics. The waveform of noise, on the other hand,
is irregular.
“Sound which produces a pleasing sensation in the ear is called a musical
sound”
“Sound which produces a jarring or a displeasing effect is called a
noise”.
The conditions necessary for the production of a musical sound are
that sounds should follow each other at regular intervals in quick succession
and without sudden changes in loudness.
Noise on the other hand is sounds of very short duration having no
periodicity and their character is changing. Some familiar examples of noise
are the roaring of traffic, sound of hammer etc.
The curve of musical sound is uniform and regular while the curve of
noise is irregular and shows sudden changes in loudness.

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INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAVES

“When two
sound waves of the
same frequency,
wavelength and
amplitude
superimpose on
each other, they
cancel each other at
some point and
reinforce at other Fig 6.3
points, this
phenomenon is known as interference”.
There are two types of interference.
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
“In this case two sound waves arrive at a point in the same
phase. The compression falls on compression and rarefaction falls on
rarefaction. As a result the intensity of the resultant sound wave increases
which in turn increases the loudness of the sound.
For constructive interference the path difference between two sound
waves is given by
S = 0 , , 2  , 3  , - - - - -
or S = n
where n = 0 ,1 ,2 , 3 , - - - -
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
In this case two
sound waves arrive at Resultant
a point in opposite
phase. That is
compression of one
falls on the rarefaction
of the other and they
cancel each other. As Resultant
a result, intensity
decreases which in
turn decreases the
loudness of sound.
For destructive
interference the path
difference between two
sound waves is given Fig 6.4

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Sound 06 Phy-132 81

 3 5
by S = 2, 2 , 2 ,-----

or S = (2n + 1) 2
where n = 0 ,1 ,2 , 3 , - - - -
DEMONSTRATION OF INTERFERENCE BY AN
EXPERIMENT
A vibrating tuning fork
is placed in front of the
opening A. the sound waves on
entering A will split, half the
intensity goes through the tube
‘C’ and the remaining half
through the tube ‘D’. The two
sound waves reunite at the
outlet ‘B’ and can be heard by
a sound detector such as ear
placed at ‘B’.
If the sliding tube ‘D’ is
adjusted so as to make the two
Fig 6.5
paths ACB and ADB equal,
the waves arrive at ‘B’ in phase i.e. without path difference. Then these waves
interfere at ‘B’ constructively and a loud sound is heard at ‘B’. If the sliding
tube ‘D’ is now drawn out, path ADB becomes longer than the path ACB. The
sound waves arriving at ‘B’ via ‘D’ will fall more and more behind those
coming via ‘C’. When the difference of path between the waves is half a wave
length, they interfere destructively and consequently no sound is heard at ‘B’.
If the rubber portion of the tube is pinched so as to stop the sound waves
coming through ‘C’ the ear will again hear the sound. This proves that the
silence is due to the destructive interference of the two sound waves.
SILENCE ZONES
Consider a fog siren
situated on a high cliff. A
ship approaching it may
find itself in a zone of
silence where the siren is
inaudible. When the ship
moves towards or away
Fig 6.6
from the cliff, the sound
again becomes audible. This zone of silence can be explained as being due to
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interference. The sound of a siren ‘S’ can reach the listener ‘L’ on the ship
through two paths; one by the direct path SL and the other by the path SCL
after suffering reflection from the surface of the sea. If these two paths differ
by half a wave length or any odd integral multiple of half the wave length,
then the compression due to one wave will find a rarefaction due to the other
wave at the point ‘L’. Since the compression tends to increase the pressure
while the rarefaction tends to decrease the pressure at ‘L’, the two will cancel
the effect of each other. As a result no sound will be heard at ‘L’.
BEATS
“When two bodies having slightly different frequencies are
sounded simultaneously, the periodic alterations of sound between
maximum and minimum loudness are produced, which are known as
beats”.
The two sound waves from two sources of slightly different
frequencies interfere constructively as well as destructively. When they
interfere constructively maximum loudness is produced and when they
interfere destructively minimum loudness is produced. Hence we can say that
the production of beats is special type of interference.
Consider two tuning forks ‘A’ and ‘B’ vibrating with frequencies 32
Hertz and 30 Hertz respectively placed at equal distance from the ear. Then
the following cases will arise.
1. Let us suppose that at a certain time t = 0 , the two forks are in phase
that is right hand prongs, of both the forks are moving towards right and
are thus sending compressions. These two compressions will reach at the
ear together and thus a loud sound is heard.
1
2. When t = 4 sec. The fork ‘A’
completes 8 vibrations and ‘B’
1
completes 7 2 vibrations. The fork
‘A’ is sending compression while
‘B’ is sending rarefaction. They
will cancel each other and no sound
is heard.
1
3. When t = 2 sec, the fork ‘S’ and Fig 6.7
‘B’ completes 16 and 15 vibrations
respectively. Both the forks are sending compressions which reinforce
each other and thus a loud sound is heard.

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3
4. After t = 4 sec. Fork ‘A’ will complete 24 vibrations and fork ‘B’ will
1
complete 22 2 vibrations. at this instant fork ‘A’ will be sending a
compression while fork ‘B’ will be sending rarefaction. Thus no sound
will be heard.
5. After t = 1 sec. Fork ‘A’ will complete 32 vibrations and fork ‘B’ will
complete 30 vibrations. Both the forks will be sending compressions and
a loud sound will be heard.
From this discussion we can conclude that;
“The number of beats per second is equal to the difference between the
frequencies of the two forks i.e. sounding bodies”.
Mathematically
Number of beats = f1 − f2
± n = f1 − f2
Uses of Beats:
1. The phenomenon of beats is used in finding the unknown frequencies. The two
bodies are sounded simultaneously and the number of beats is counted. The
number of beats will be equal to the difference of the frequency of the
sounding bodies. So if the frequency of one body is known, we can find the
unknown frequency of the other body.
2. The phenomenon of beats is used to tune the musical instruments.
EXAMPLE: Two tuning forks A and B give 4 beats per second. On
loading tuning fork A slightly we get 3 beats per second.
What is the frequency of tuning fork A before and after
loading it that of B is 256?
SOLUTION: Before Loading
Number of beats = n = 4
Frequency of tuning fork B = fB = 256 Hertz
Frequency of tuning fork A = fA = ?
fA − fB = ± n
fA = fB ± n
= 256 ± 4 = 260 or 252
After Loading
Number of beats = n = 3
Frequency of tuning fork B = fB = 256 Hertz
Frequency of tuning fork A = fA = ?
fA − fB = ± n
fA = fB ± n
= 256 ± 3 = 259 or 253

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Sound 06 Phy-132 84

252 and 253 answer could not be correct as frequency could

not increase after loading. Therefore 260 and 259 is correct
answer.
ECHO
Echo is produced when the sound waves reflect from a hard plane
surface for example wall or cliff. The sound which we hear after 50 to 100ms
of the original sound is called echo. If we clap at some distance from a high
wall we hear the sound of our clapping almost at the same moment, but after a
few moments we hear the sound of our clapping once again, it is due to the
reflection of the sound from the wall and is called echo. To hear echo the
obstacle must be at least 17 meters away from the source of sound and
listener.
REVERBERATIONS
The persistence of sound after a sound is produced is called
reverberation. Reverberation is created when a sound is reflected causing
large number of reflections to build up and then decay as the sound is
absorbed by the surfaces of objects present in surroundings including air.
Reverberation is most noticeable when the sound source stops sounding but
the reflections continue, decreasing in amplitude, until they reach zero
amplitude. The length of decay of reverberation is called reverberation time.
ACOUSTICS
Acoustics is the science that deals with the production, control,
transmission, reception, and effects of sound. The study of acoustics revolves
around the generation, propagation and reception of mechanical waves and
vibrations.
When we discuss the properties of buildings such as theaters and
auditoriums, the qualities that determine the ability of such buildings to reflect
sound waves in such a way as to produce distinct hearing are considered. The
acoustic properties of buildings include the discussion of interference, echoes
and reverberation etc. The branch is called architectural acoustics.
An auditorium is said to have good acoustics when speech can be
heard almost equally well throughout the space, without troublesome echoes
and reverberations. The dais and stage should be so designed that speech
sounds are projected out into the audience.
Multiple echoes from the ceiling and walls of the room should not be
entirely absent or the room will be acoustically dead, as if the speaker were
addressing a crowd in the open air.

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DOPPLER’S EFFECT
“The apparent change in the pitch of sound caused by the relative
motion of either the source of sound or the listener is called the Doppler
Effect”.
For example a train while whistling passes near a listener, a
considerable change in the pitch of the note, produced by the whistle, will
occur. When the train is approaching, the pitch of the note increases and when
the train is receding, the pitch decreases.
Doppler Effect can be considered under following cases.
1. WHEN SOURCE IS MOVING TOWARDS A STATIONARY
LISTENER
Consider a source of sound producing sound waves of frequency ‘f’
and wavelength ‘’. The source and listener are at rest. In this case the listener
should receive ‘f’ waves in one second which is occupied in a space of length
‘V’. The wavelength ‘’ can be given as
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠
 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑉
 = 𝑓
- - - - (1)
Now suppose the source is moving with velocity ‘VS’ towards the
listener at rest as shown in the figure, the ‘f’ waves will be contained in length
‘V − VS’ and the apparent wavelength ´ is given by
𝑉 − 𝑉𝑆
´ = 𝑓
- - - - (2)
The apparent or changed frequency of the sound waves can be given
by
𝑉
f ´ = 𝜆′ - - - - (3)
Putting the value of ´ in
equation (3) we get
𝑉
f ´ = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑆
𝑓
𝑉
f´ = f - - - (4)
𝑉− 𝑉𝑆
Equation (4) shows that
f´> f
Therefore, the apparent
frequency or pitch of the Fig 6.8
sound increases when the
source moves towards a stationary listener.

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2. WHEN THE SOURCE MOVES AWAY FROM THE STATIONARY

LISTENER
When the source is
moving away from the
stationary listener with speed
‘VS’, then after one second f
waves will occupied in a
distance ‘V + VS’ as shown
in the figure. It means that the
apparent wavelength will
increase i.e. Fig 6.9
𝑉 + 𝑉𝑆
´ = 𝑓
- - - (1)
The apparent or changed frequency of the sound waves can be given by
𝑉
f ´ = 𝜆′ - - - - (2)
Putting the value of ´ in equation (2) we get
𝑉
f ´ = 𝑉+ 𝑉 𝑆
𝑓
𝑉
f´ = f - - - - (3)
𝑉 + 𝑉𝑆
Equation (3) shows that f ´ < f , therefore, the apparent frequency or
pitch of the sound decreases when the source moves away from a stationary
listener.
3. WHEN THE LISTENER IS MOVING TOWARDS A STATIONARY
SOURCE
When source is at rest, the wavelength of the sound waves is given by
𝑉
 = 𝑓 - - - - (1)
Let the source is at rest and the listener is moving towards him with a
velocity ‘VL’. In this case the speed of the waves will appear to the listener
equal to ‘V + VL’ because the waves and the listener move in opposite
directions. Since wavelength remains same and the apparent frequency can be
given as.
𝑉 + 𝑉𝐿
f´ = - - - - (2)
𝜆
𝑉 + 𝑉𝐿
= 𝑉
𝑓
𝑉 + 𝑉𝐿
f´ = f - - - - (3)
𝑉
This equation shows that f ´ > f i.e. the pitch of the sound increases
when the listener moves towards a stationary source.

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4. WHEN THE LISTENER MOVES AWAY FROM A STATIONARY

SOURCE
When source is at rest, the wavelength of the sound waves is given by
𝑉
 = 𝑓 - - - - (1)
When the listener moves with speed ’VL’ away from the source at
rest, the speed of waves will appear to the listener equal to ‘V − VL’.
𝑉 − 𝑉𝐿
f´ = - - - - (2)
𝜆
𝑉 − 𝑉𝐿
= 𝑉
𝑓
𝑉 − 𝑉𝐿
f´ = f - - - - (3)
𝑉
This equation shows that f´ < f i.e. the pitch of the sound decreases
when the listener moves away from a stationary source.
Example:A caris moving towards a building with the speed of 30 ms-1.Its
horn is producing sound of the frequency of 750 Hz. What will
be the apparent frequency for a listener in the building?
Assume that the speed of sound is 334 ms-1.
Solution:
In this case the source is moving towards stationary listener.
𝑉
So, f ´ = (𝑉− 𝑉 )× f
𝑆
f = 750 Hz
V = 334 ms-1
VS = 30 ms-1
f´ = ?
𝑉 334
f´ = f = × 750
𝑉− 𝑉𝑆 334 − 30
334
f ´ = (304) × 750 = 824.01Hz
APPLICATIONS OF DOPPLER’S EFFECT
1. Doppler’s effect has been successfully applied to light. The frequency of
light from certain stars is found to be slightly different from the
frequency of same light on earth. This is due to the motion of stars. By
measuring the difference of frequency, the velocity of these stars can be
determined.
2. The waves sent out from radar are reflected from the airplane. If the
plane is moving away from the radar then the frequency of reflected
waves is decreased. If the airplane is moving towards the radar then
frequency of the reflected waves is increased. By calculating frequency
difference the direction and speed of an airplane is determined.
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Sound 06 Phy-132 88

3. When sonar (sound waves under water) is reflected from moving

submarine, the change in frequency of sonar give the speed and direction
of the submarine.

SUMMARY
• Sound waves are mechanical waves and they are longitudinal waves.
They require a material medium for their propagation.
• Sound waves travel through air in the form of compression and
rarefaction. The wavelength of a sound wave is the distance between
two consecutive compressions or rarefactions
• Energy transferred per second through unit area held perpendicular to
the direction of the sound is called intensity of sound and its unit is
Wm-2.
• The intensity level of sound is measured in dB.
• The characteristic of sound by which a shrill sound is distinguished
from a grave one is called the pitch of sound.
• When two sound waves of same frequency superimpose on each other
it is called interference of sound waves. If these waves reinforce each
other’s effect such interference is called the constructive interference
and if they cancel each other’s effect then it is called the destructive
interference.
• Audible frequency range for a normal human ear is 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
• Pleasant sound is called musical sound but unpleasant sound is called
noise.
• Beats are produced when we hear simultaneously two sounding bodies
having slightly different frequencies.
• When reflected sound is heard separately from the original one heard
directly, it is called echo.
• The apparent change in the frequency (or pitch) of sound for the
listener due to relative motion between the source of sound and the
listener is called Doppler’s Effect.

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Sound 06 Phy-132 89

EXERCISE
LONG QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish between longitudinal and transverse waves.
2. Define interference of sound waves. Explain constructive and destructive
interference.
3. Describe the phenomenon of Beats.
4. Write note on the acoustic requirements of an auditorium.
5. What do you mean by Doppler’s Effect? Find relationship for the
apparent frequency when source of sound is moving towards the
stationary listener.
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between mechanical and electromagnetic waves.
2. Define transverse waves and give two examples of transverse waves.
3. Define longitudinal waves and give one example.
4. Define intensity of sound. What is its unit?
5. Define Loudness of sound.
6. Define intensity level of sound.
7. Define Pitch of Sound.
8. Define quality of sound.
9. Differentiate between musical sound and noise.
10. Define interference of sound waves.
11. Define constructive and destructive interference.
12. Define Silence Zones?
13. Define phenomenon of Beats.
14. Describe two uses of Beats.
15. Define Doppler’s effect.
16. Describe any two application of Doppler’s effect.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)

Encircle the correct answer.
1- The velocity of sound in air at 0 oC is:
a) 3 × 108 m/s b) 330 km/s c) 331.3 m/s d) 3300 m/s
2- Sound waves are:
a) Transverse waves b) Longitudinal waves
c) Electromagnetic waves d) Matter waves
3- The speed of sound is greatest in:
a) Iron b) Water c) Air d) Vacuum

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Sound 06 Phy-132 90

4- Unit of intensity level of sound is:

a) Graham Bel b) Hertz c)Wm-2 d) Decibel
5- Sounds of frequencies higher than 20,000 hertz are called:
a) Harmonic b) Ultrasonic c) Supersonic d) Beats
6- The property or characteristic of sound by which a shrill sound can
be distinguished from a grave one is called:
a) Pitch of sound b) Quality of sound
c) Wavelength of sound d) Intensity of sound
7- The unit of intensity of sound is:
a) watt/m b) watt/m2 c) N/m d) Bell
8- Ear of normal human being response to the frequencies of sound
between:
a) 20 to 200 Hz b) 20 to 2000 Hz
c) 20 to 20,000 Hz d) 2000 to 30,000 Hz
9- For destructive interference of sound waves the condition for path
difference is:
a) S = n  b) S = 2n 

c) S = (2n + 1)  d) S = (2n + 1) 2
10- Two tuning forks of frequencies 250 and 252 hertz are heard
simultaneously. The number of beats will be:
a) 1 b) 2 c) 4 d) 502
11- The change in the pitch of sound caused by the relative motion of
either the source of sound or the listener is called the:
a) Doppler’s Effect b) Beats c) Echo d) Acoustics
12- The relationship between velocity ‘V’, frequency ‘f’ and wavelength
‘’ of a wave is:
f
a) f = V  b) V = f  c)  = V f d) V =


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Sound 06 Phy-132 91

PROBLEMS
6.1 A man is at a distance of 30 meter from a wall. Find the time interval
after which he will hear echo of his sound.
(Take velocity of sound = 334 m/s) [Ans. 0.179 s]
6.2 The sound of the thunder is heard after 2 seconds of the flash. Find the
distance of the clouds if velocity of sound is 340 ms-1. [Ans. 780 m]
6.3 The frequency of the siren of a car is 2000 Hz. What will be its
apparent frequency for a listener at rest, while the car is approaching to
him with a velocity of 20 m/sec? (Take velocity of sound = 334 m/s)
[Ans. 2127.38 Hz]
6.4 Two tuning forks A and B give 3 beats per second. On loading tuning
fork A slightly we get 2 beats per second. What is the frequency of
tuning fork A before and after loading it that of B is 250?
[Ans. Before loading 253 Hz, after loading 252 Hz]
6.5 Velocity of sound in air is 340 ms-1 and its frequency is 15 kHz. Find
its wavelength. [Ans. 0.0226 m]

***

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Light 07 Phy-132 92

Chapter
07
LIGHT
Course contents:
7.1 Review laws of reflection and refraction
7.2 Image formation by mirrors and lenses
7.3 Optical Instruments
7.4 Wave theory of light
7.5 Interference, diffraction, polarization of light waves
7.6 Applications of polarization in sunglasses, optical activity and stress
analysis

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
• Explain laws of reflection and refraction.
• Use mirror and lens formula to solve problems
• Use the concepts of image formation by mirrors and lenses to describe
working of optical instruments, e.g. microscopes, telescopes, camera
and sextant.
• Explain wave theory of light.
• Explain phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization of light
waves.
• Describe important applications of polarization.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
When light travelling in one
medium meets the surface of another
medium, a part of light is sent back. The
turning back of the light from the
boundary of a medium is called reflection
of light.
Reflection of light is shown in the Fig. 7.1.
AB is a plane mirror. A ray of light travelling
along PO is reflected at the point O and is Fig 7.1
sent back along a new direction OQ. NO is a
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Light 07 Phy-132 93

perpendicular to the surface AB at point O which is called point of

incidence.PO is called the incident ray. OQ is called the reflected ray. The
angle between incident ray and the normal to the surface at point of incidence
is called angle of incidence
The angle between reflected ray and the normal to the surface at point
of incidence is called angle of reflection. Angle of incidence is represented by
i and angle of reflection is represented by r.
KINDS OF REFLECTION
There are two kinds of reflection.
1- Regular reflection
If parallel rays of light after reflection
from a surface remain parallel to each
other then it is called regular reflection.
Regular reflection takes place from
smooth surfaces like mirrors.
2- Irregular or diffuse reflection
If parallel rays of light after reflection
from a surface do not remain parallel to
each other then it is called irregular or
diffuse reflection. Irregular reflection Fig 7.2
takes place from rough surfaces like
wall.
LAWS OF REFLECTION
There are two laws of reflection.
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface at the
point of incidence, all lies in the same plane.
2. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
i.e. i = r
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
When a beam of light is incident upon the boundary (making some
acute angle) separating two transparent media such as air and glass, some of
the light is reflected in the same medium while the remaining portion enters
the second medium and its path undergoes a change in direction.
The bending of light when it enters from one medium to the other
is called refraction of light.
Or
The phenomenon is which the path of light undergoes a change in
its direction while it enters from one medium to the other is known as the
refraction of light.

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Light 07 Phy-132 94

Or
The change in direction of light when it passes from one medium
to another is called refraction of light.
In figure the refraction of
light from air to glass is shown.
AO is the incident ray, O is point
of incidence, OB is the refracted
ray. OC is the reflected ray.
NON´ is the normal to the
separating boundary at the point
of incidence. The angle between
normal and the incident ray is
called angle of incidence and is
represented by i, while the angle
between the refracted ray and the
normal is called angle of
refraction and is denoted by r.
When light travels from Fig 7.3
water to air, the refracted ray
bends away from the normal and air is said to by optically rare than water.
When light travels from air to glass, the refracted ray bends towards the
normal and the glass is said to be optically denser than air. In general
LAWS OF REFRACTION
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the surface at the
point of incidence, all lie in the same place.
2. For any two given media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to
the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for all angles of incidence.
This law is also known as Snell’s Law.
Mathematically
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∠𝑖
n = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∠𝑟
Here ‘n’ is constant and is called refractive index of the second
medium with respect to the first. Usually the refractive index of any medium
is determined with respect to air, the refractive index of which is
approximately equal to 1. The refractive index of glass with respect to air is
found 1.5 while the refractive index of water with respect to air is 1.33. In
general the refractive index of any medium is the ratio of speed of light in
vacuum (which is 3 × 108 m/s) to the speed of light in that medium
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
Refractive index of a medium = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

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Light 07 Phy-132 95

Example: Light passes from air into diamond at an angle of incidence of

45o. Calculate the angle of refraction if the refractive index of
diamond is 2.42.
Solution: Angle of incidence = ∠i = 45o
Refractive index = n = 2.42
Angle of refraction = ∠r = ?
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∠𝑖
Refractive index = n = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∠𝑟
𝑆𝑖𝑛 45𝑜
2.42 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∠𝑟
0.707
Sin ∠r = 2.42
Sin ∠r = 0.292
∠r = Sin-1 0.292 = 17o
Example: A ray of light traveling in air strikes the glass surface at an
angle of 49o with the normal while the angle of refraction is
30o. What is refractive index of glass?
Solution: Angle of incidence = ∠i = 49o
Refractive index = n = ?
Angle of refraction = ∠r = 30o
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∠𝑖
Refractive index = n = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∠𝑟
𝑆𝑖𝑛 49𝑜 0.7547
n = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 30𝑜 ⟹ n = 0.5000
n = 1.509
MIRROR
If the reflecting surface is plane the mirror is called a plane mirror.A
plane mirror makes an image of objects placed in front of it.It is made by
using a straight piece of glass and some highly reflecting and polished surface
such as silver surface. The reflecting surface almost reflects all the light
coming on it. The mirrors used in bathrooms and in dressing tables are
examples of plane mirrors.
IMAGE FORMATION BY A PLANE MIRROR
Rays from the object placed in front of a plane mirror reflect according
to laws of reflection. These rays after reflection from the mirror appear to be
coming from behind the mirror and the image is formed behind the mirror.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IMAGE FORMED BY A PLANE MIRROR
The image formed by the plane mirror has following characteristics.
1. The image formed by a plane mirror is as far behind the mirror as the
object is in front of the mirror.
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Light 07 Phy-132 96

2. The image formed by the plane mirror is laterally inverted. It means that it
is not upside down but left and right inverted.
3. The image formed is imaginary.
Virtual or Imaginary image:
An image is called virtual or imaginary if rays of light do not actually go at
the place of image but only appears to go to or come from the point of
formation of the image. Secondly an imaginary or virtual image cannot be
taken on a screen.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
If the reflecting
surface is a part of a hallow
sphere then it is called
spherical mirror.
A portion of a
polished hallow sphere is
called a spherical mirror.
Spherical mirrors
Fig 7.4
are of two types depending
upon whether the inner or the outer surface of the sphere is polished i.e.
reflecting. If the inner surface of the sphere is reflecting then the mirror
formed by its part is called concave mirror and if the outer surface of the
sphere is reflecting surface then the mirror formed by its portion is called
convex mirror.
TERMS RELATED TO SPHERICAL MIRROR
Center of curvature
The center of the sphere of which the spherical mirror is made is
known as the center of curvature of the spherical mirror. It is represented by
‘C’.
Aperture
The boundary of a spherical
mirror is usually circular. The diameter of
this circular boundary is called the
aperture.
Pole
The center of the mirror is called
its pole and it is denoted by ‘P’.
Principal axis Fig 7.5
The straight line passing through
the center of curvature and the pole of the mirror is called the principal axis.

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Radius of curvature
The radius of the sphere of which spherical mirror is a part is called
radius of curvature or the distance between the center of curvature and the
mirror is called the radius of curvature. It is denoted by ‘r’.
PRINCIPAL FOCUS AND FOCAL LENGTH
When a parallel beam of light, parallel to the principal axis of a
concave mirror incident on it, all the rays are
reflected so as to converge to a point on the
principal axis of the mirror. This point is
called principal focus and is denoted by ‘F’.
The concave mirror is also called converging
mirror.
If light from a distant source ( i.e.
parallel rays of light ), parallel to the
Fig 7.6
principal axis of a convex mirror incident on
it, all the rays are reflected so as to diverge
and appear to come from a point on the
principal axis , behind the mirror. This
point is called the principal focus of the
convex mirror. The convex mirror is also
called diverging mirror.
FOCAL LENGTH
The distance between the principal focus
and the pole of the mirror is called its Fig 7.7
focal length and is denoted by ‘f’.

Relation between focal length and radius of curvature

The focal length of a spherical mirror is one half of its radius of
curvature. Focal length is represented by ‘f’ and radius of curvature is
represented by ‘R’. Therefore
1
f = 2r
GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION OF IMAGES FORMED BY
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
We have the following rules for concave mirrors
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis after reflection passes through the
focus.
2. A ray passing through the focus is reflected parallel to the principal axis.

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Light 07 Phy-132 98

3. A ray passing through the center of curvature is reflected back along its
own path.
4. A ray incident at the pole of the mirror reflected making an equal angle
on the other side of the principle axis.
We have the following rules for convex mirrors.
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis after reflection diverges so as to
appear coming from the principal focus.
2. A ray going towards the principal focus of the mirror becomes parallel
to the principal axis after reflection from the mirror.
3. A ray going towards the center of
curvature of the mirror reflects back
on the same path.
4. A ray incident at the pole is reflected,
making the same angle with the
principal axis.
By using any of the three rays or even
two we can draw the image of the Fig 7.8
object as shown in the diagram.
IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONCAVE MIRROR
The nature of an image of an object formed by a concave mirror
depends upon the distance of the object from the mirror. There may be
following different cases.
1. THE OBJECT IS AT INFINITE DISTANCE FROM THE
CONCAVEMIRROR
Suppose an object is placed at an infinite distance from a concave mirror.
The rays coming from the object will be
parallel to each other. These rays after reflection
from the concave mirror will cross each other and
form the image of the object at principal focus of
the mirror. Nature of the image:
▪ Image is formed at ‘F’
▪ It is real.
▪ It is inverted. Fig 7.9
▪ It is smaller than the object.
2. THE OBJECT IS BEYOND CENTER OF CURVATURE.
An object is placed beyond center of
curvature of a concave mirror. Image formation is
shown in Fig. 7.10.
Nature of the image:
▪ Image is formed in between ‘F’ and ‘C’,
▪ It is real. Fig 7.10
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Light 07 Phy-132 99

▪ It is inverted.
▪ It is smaller than the object.
3. THE OBJECT IS AT CENTER OF CURVATURE.
An object is placed at center of
curvature of a concave mirror. Image
formation is shown in Fig 7.11.
Nature of the image:
▪ Image is formed at ‘C’,
▪ It is real.
▪ It is inverted.
▪ It is of the same size as the object. Fig 7.11

4. THE OBJECT IS IN BETWEEN F AND C

An object is placed in between the principal
focus and the center of curvature of a concave
mirror. Image formation is shown in Fig. 7.12.
Nature of the image:
▪ Image is formed beyond ‘C’,
▪ It is real.
▪ It is inverted.
▪ It is larger than the object. Fig 7.12
5. THE OBJECT IS AT PRINCIPAL FOCUS
An object is placed at the principal
focus of a concave mirror. A ray coming from
the object parallel to the principal axis of the
mirror will pass after reflection through the
principal focus of the mirror. Another ray
which is incident at the pole will reflect
making the same angle with the principal axis.
These rays after reflection from the mirror will
become parallel to each other and the image of Fig 7.13
the object is supposed to form at an infinite
distance.
Nature of the image:
▪ Image is formed at infinite distance.
▪ It will be real.
▪ It will be inverted.
▪ It will be very large in size.

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6. THE OBJECT IS IN BETWEEN THE PRINCIPAL FOCUS AND

POLE OF THE CONCAVE MIRROR
Suppose an object is placed in
between the principal focus and the pole
of a concave mirror. A ray coming from
the object parallel to the principal axis of
the mirror will pass after reflection
through the principal focus of the mirror.
Another ray which is incident at the pole
will reflect so that it will make the same
angle with the principal axis as the
incident ray makes. These rays after Fig 7.14
reflection from the mirror will diverge and
never meet each other in front of the mirror though they appear to be coming
from a point behind the mirror and the image of the object will be formed at
that point.
Nature of the image:
▪ Image is formed behind the mirror.
▪ The image is virtual or imaginary.
▪ It is erect.
▪ It is larger in size than the object.
IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONVEX MIRROR
Convex mirror gives virtual images
only. The nature of any image formed by a
convex mirror can be described as
▪ It is always erect.
▪ It is always formed in between ‘P’
and ‘F’.
▪ It is always virtual.
▪ It is always smaller in size than the Fig 7.15
object
THE MIRROR EQUATION
The distance of an object from a spherical mirror is denoted by ‘p’ and
the distance of the image formed by the spherical mirror from the pole of the
mirror is denoted by ‘q’. The distance between pole and the principal focus of
a spherical mirror is called its focal length and is denoted by ‘f’. The
relationship between these three quantities i.e. p, q and f is called Mirror
Equation.
The Mirror Equation is

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Light 07 Phy-132 101

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑝 𝑞

DERIVATION OF MIRROR EQUATION FOR A

CONCAVE MIRROR
Consider an object OB is placed in front of a concave mirror. IM is the
image of the object. The distance of the object from the mirror is ‘p’ and the
distance of the image from the mirror is ‘q’. The focal length of the mirror is
‘f’.
From the geometry of the figure
Triangles OBP and IMP are similar because angle ∠𝐵𝑃𝑂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝑀𝑃𝐼
are equal being angle of incidence and angle of reflection respectively. Further
∠𝐵𝑂𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝑀𝐼𝑃 are also equal as both are right angles.
There fore
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝑃
= - - - - - - (1)
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝑃
Also the triangles EPF and IMF are similar
There fore
𝐸𝑃 𝐹𝑃
=
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐹
Because EP = OB, therefore
𝑂𝐵 𝐹𝑃
=
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐹
From figure IF = IP - FP,
Therefore,
𝑂𝐵 𝐹𝑃
= - - - - (2)
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐹𝑃
Comparing equation (1) and (2), we get
𝑂𝑃 𝐹𝑃 Fig 7.16
=
𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐹𝑃
By putting values, we get
𝑝 𝑓
=
𝑞 𝑞 − 𝑓
By cross multiplication, we get
𝑝𝑞 − 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑓𝑞
Dividing above equation by, ‘𝑝𝑞𝑓’, we get
1 1 1
− =
𝑓 𝑞 𝑝

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1 1 1
 = + - - - - - (3)
𝑓 𝑝 𝑞
Equation (3) is the mirror equation for a concave mirror.
REAL AND VIRTUAL IMAGE
“An image formed by the actual intersection of rays is called real
image”
“An image which is formed by the apparent intersection of rays
when their directions have been produced backwards is called virtual
image”.
SIGN CONVENTION
To solve the problems using mirror equation all distances are
measured from the mirror as origin.Distances of real objects and images are
taken as positive whereas the distances of virtual or imaginary objects and
images are taken as negative.
On this convention a concave mirror has a real principal focus and
hence a positive focal length and a convex mirror have a virtual principal
focus and a negative focal length.
DERIVATION OF MIRROR EQUATION FOR A CONVEX
MIRROR
Consider an object OB isplaced in front of a convex mirror. IM is the
image of the object. The distance of the
object from the mirror is ‘p’ and the
distance of the image from the mirror is
‘q’. The focal length of the mirror is ‘f’.
From the geometry of the figure
triangles OBP and IMP are similar.
There fore
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝑃
= - - - - (1) Fig 7.17
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝑃
Also the triangles EPF and MIF
are similar, therefore
𝐸𝑃 𝑃𝐹
=
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐹
Because EP = OB, therefore
𝑂𝐵 𝑃𝐹
=
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐹
From figure IF = PF - PI
𝑂𝐵 𝑃𝐹
= ---- (2)
𝐼𝑀 𝑃𝐹 − 𝑃𝐼
Comparing equation (1) and (2), we get
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Light 07 Phy-132 103

𝑂𝑃 𝑃𝐹
=
𝐼𝑃 𝑃𝐹 − 𝑃𝐼
Putting values, we get
𝑝 −𝑓
= ---- (3)
−𝑞 −𝑓 − (−𝑞)
(as the image is imaginary and mirror is convex the distance of image is taken
as negative and focal length is as taken as negative)
By cross multiplication, we get
−𝑝𝑓 + 𝑝𝑞 = 𝑓𝑞
Dividing above equation by, ‘𝑝𝑞𝑓’, we get
1 1
−𝑞 +
𝑓
= 1𝑝
1 1 1
= + - - - - (4)
𝑓 𝑝 𝑞
EXAMPLE 1: The height of an object is 6 cm and it is placed in front of
a concave mirror at a distance of 10 cm. The radius of
curvature of the mirror is 10 cm, find the height and
position of the image formed.
SOLUTION:
p = 10 cm, r = 10 cm, q = ?
𝑟 10
r= 10 cm  f = 2 = 2 = 5 cm
The Mirror Equation is
1 1 1
= 𝑝 + 𝑞
𝑓
Putting value in this equation
1 1 1
= 10 + 𝑞
5
1 1 1
 = −
𝑞 5 10
1 2− 1
=
𝑞 10

 q = 10 cm
𝑞 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
Now =
𝑝 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
10 𝑐𝑚 6 𝑐𝑚
10 𝑐𝑚
= 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

 Size of the image = 6 cm

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EXAMPLE 2: An object is placed in front of a convex mirror at a

distance of 10 cm. Its image is formed at a distance of 5
cm behind the mirror. Find the focal length of the mirror.
SOLUTION:
p = 10 cm, q = − 5 cm, f = ?
The Mirror Equation is
1 1 1
= 𝑝 + 𝑞
𝑓
Putting value in this equation
1 1 1
= 10 + −5
𝑓
1 1 1
 = −
𝑓 10 5
1 1− 2 −1
= =
𝑓 10 10

 f = − 10 cm
Focal length is negative because the mirror is convex.

LENSES
Lenses or magnifying glass have been in use for centuries. Lenses of
different types play an important part in our everyday life. Lenses are used in
cameras, spectacles, projectors, microscopes and telescopes etc.
“A lens is a piece of transparent medium having two opposite
surfaces either both curved or one curved and one plane.
Or
“A lens is a piece of refracting medium bounded by either two
spherical surfaces or one spherical and one plane surface”.
CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
There are two types of lenses.
1. CONVEX OR CONVERGING LENS
Those lenses which converge a pencil of
parallel rays are called converging lenses. Such
lenses are thicker in the middle and thinner on the
edges.
2. CONCAVE OR DIVERGING LENS
Those lenses which diverge a pencil of Fig 7.18
parallel rays are called diverging lens. Such
lenses are thinner in the middle and thicker on the edges.

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TERMS RELATED TO LENSES

PRINCIPAL AXIS
The straight line joining the centers of curvature of the two spherical
surfaces of a lens is called the principal axis.
APERTURE
The diameter of the lens is called its aperture.
PRINCIPAL FOCUS
When a beam of light
parallel to principal axis is incident
on a convex lens, the beam of light
after refraction converges to a point
‘F’ on the principal axis on the
other side of the lens. This point is
known as principal focus of convex
lens.
When a beam of light Fig 7.19
parallel to principal axis is incident
on a concave lens, the beam after refraction through the lens diverges and
appears to diverge from a point ‘F’ on the principal axis on the same side of
lens. This point is known as principal focus of concave lens.
CENTER OF CURVATURE
A simple lens is usually a piece of glass bounded by spherical
surfaces. These spherical surfaces are the portion of spheres. The centers of
these spheres are called the center of curvature and are denoted by ‘C’.
OPTICAL CENTER
The optical center of a lens divides the line joining the centers of
curvature of the two surfaces in the
ratio of their radii of curvatures. It is a
fixed point for a given lens. The ray of
light passing through the optical center
of a lens are not deviated but only
slightly displaced parallel to their
original direction. When the lens is
thinthis displacement is sufficiently
small to be ignored, so that in all our
diagrams rays going through the center
of curvature of the lens are drawn
straight. The center of lens is thus Fig 7.20
called the optical center. It is denoted
by ‘O’.

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FOCAL LENGTH
Focal length of a lens is the distance between the optical center and the
principal focus. It is denoted by ‘f’.
A lens has two principal foci and center of curvature
Light may pass through a lens in either direction; there will be two
principal foci equidistant from the optical center, one on either side of the
lens. These are denoted by ‘F’ and ‘F´ ‘. Similarly a lens has two center of
curvature, one on either side of the lens.
POWER OF A LENS
The reciprocal of the focal length of a lens (taken in meters) is called
the power of the lens.
The unit of power of a lens is dioptre.
1
Power of a lens = 𝑓
DIOPTRE
It is the power of the lens of one meter focal length.
1
Power in Dioptres =
Focal length in meters
CONSTRUCTION OF RAY DIAGRAM
The following three classes of rays are used in geometrical
constructions to locate the image
formed by a converging lens.
1. Rays parallel to the
principal axis will pass
through the principal focus
on the other side of the lens
after refraction through the
lens. As shown by Ray 1 in
Fig. 7.21. Fig 7.21
2. Rays passing through the
principal focus will become parallel to the principal axis after
refraction through the convex lens. As shown by Ray 3 in Fig. 7.21.
3. Rays passing through the optical center of the convex lens will pass
through the lens without deviation. As shown by Ray 2 in Fig. 7.21.

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The following three classes of rays are used in geometrical

constructions to locate the
image formed by a
diverging lens.
1. Rays parallel to the
principal axis after
refraction through the lens
will appear to be
diverging from the
principal focus. As shown
by Ray 1 in Fig. 7.22.
2. Rays going towards the
principal focus on the Fig 7.22
other side of the lens will
become parallel to the principal axis after passing through the concave
lens. As shown by Ray 2 in Fig. 7.22.
3. Rays through the optical center will pass through the lens without
deviation. As shown by Ray 3 in Fig. 7.22.

IMAGE FORMED BY A CONVEX LENS

The nature and position of the image formed by a convex lens depends
upon the position of the object from the lens. The nature of the image formed
in different cases is as follows.
WHEN THE OBJECT IS AT AN INFINITE DISTANCE FROM THE
LENS
When the object is at an
infinite distance from the lens the
rays coming from the object will
be parallel to oneanother and
after refraction from the lens they
will form an image as show in
the diagram. The nature of the
image will be as follows.
▪ The image is real
▪ The image is inverted Fig 7.23
▪ The image formed is at ‘F’
▪ The image is smaller in size than the object.

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WHEN THE OBJECT IS IN BEYOND THE CENTER OF

CURVATURE
When the object is beyond the center of curvature of the convex lens
the rays coming from the object
will intersect each other after
refraction from the lens and
form an image as show in the
diagram. The nature of the
image will be as follows.
▪ The image is real
▪ The image is inverted Fig 7.24
▪ The image formed is in
between ‘F’ and ‘C’.
▪ The image is smaller in size than the object.
WHEN THE OBJECT IS AT 2F OF A CONVEX LENS
When the object is at the center of curvature or ‘2F’ of the convex lens
the rays coming from the object
will intersect each other after
refraction from the lens and form
an image as show in the diagram.
The nature of the image
will be as follows.
▪ The image is real
▪ The image is inverted Fig 7.25
▪ The image formed is at ‘2F’
or ‘C’ on the other side.
▪ The image is same in size as that of the object
WHEN THE OBJECT IS IN BETWEEN ‘F’ AND ‘2F’
When the object is in between ‘F’ and ‘2F’ of the convex lens the rays
coming from the object will intersect each other after refraction from the lens and
form an image on the other side of the
lens as show in Fig 7.26.
The nature of the image will be as
follows
• The image is real
▪ The image is inverted
▪ The image formed is beyond
‘2F’ on the other side of the lens Fig 7.26
▪ The image is larger in size than
the object.

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WHEN THE OBJECT IS AT ‘F’

When the object is at ‘F’ of the convex lens the rays coming from the
object will become parallel to each
other after refraction from the lens
and will intersect each other at
infinity, where the image will form as
show in the diagram.
The nature of the image will be as
follows.
▪ The image will be real Fig 7.27
▪ The image will be inverted
▪ The image formed will be at an infinite distance on the other side of the
lens
▪ The image is larger in size than the object.
WHEN THE OBJECT IS IN BETWEEN ‘F’ AND OPTICAL CENTER
When the object is in between ‘F’ and optical center of the convex lens
the rays coming from the object will diverge
after refraction from the lens and will not
intersect each other. They will appear to
diverge from a point on the same side as
that of the object, where the image will be
formed as show in the diagram.
The nature of the image will be as
follows.
▪ The image is virtual.
▪ The image is erect Fig 7.28
▪ The image formed will be on the same
side of the lens as that of the object and is behind the object.
▪ The image is larger in size than the object.
IMAGE FORMED BY A CONCAVE LENS
The nature of the image formed by a concave lens does not depend upon the
distance of the object from the lens as it is in
the case of a convex lens. The nature of the
image formed by a convex lens is always as
follows.
▪ It is always virtual.
▪ It is always erect
▪ It is always smaller in size than the
object
▪ It always formed in between theprincipal
focus andthe optical center of the lens on Fig 7.29

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the same sides as that of the object.

SIGN CONVENTIONS
An image is said to be real if the rays of light actually pass through it
and a real image can be thrown on a screen. An image is said to be virtual if
the rays of light do not pass through it, but only appear to diverge from it.
Therefore the focal length of the convex lens is real and that of a concave lens
is virtual. According to sign conventions the distances of real object and
images are taken positive and the distances of the virtual images and objects
are taken negative. The distances are measured along the principal axis from
the optical center of the lens.
LENS FORMULA
The distance of the object from the lens is denoted by ‘p’, the distance
of the image formed is denoted by ‘q’ and the focal length of the lens is
denoted by ‘f’. The relationship between ‘p’, ’q’ and ‘f’ is called lens formula.
Lens formula is
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑝 𝑞
DERIVATION OF LENS FORMULA FOR A CONVEX
LENS
Consider an object OB is placed in front of a convex lens. IM is its real
image. ‘p’ is the distance of the object from the lens and ‘q’ is the distance of
the image from the lens. ‘f’ is the focal length of the lens.
From the geometry of the figure (7.30) Triangles OBC and IMC are
similar
There fore
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐶
= - - - - (1)
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐶
Similarly triangles CEF and IMF are also similar.
There fore
𝐶𝐸 𝐹𝐶
=
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐹
Because CE = OB , therefore
𝑂𝐵 𝐹𝐶
=
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐹
Because IF = CI - CF,
Therefore
𝑂𝐵 𝐹𝐶
= - - - - (2) Fig 7.30
𝐼𝑀 𝐶𝐼−𝐶𝐹
𝑂𝐵 𝑓
=
𝐼𝑀 𝑞−𝑓
Comparing equation (1) and (2)

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𝑂𝐶 𝐹𝐶
=
𝐼𝐶 𝐶𝐼−𝐶𝐹
By putting values, we get
𝑝 𝑓
=
𝑞 𝑞−𝑓
By cross multiplication
𝑝𝑞 − 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑞𝑓
Dividing by "𝑝𝑞𝑓"
1 1 1
− =
𝑓 𝑞 𝑝
1 1 1
 = + - - - - - - (3)
𝑓 𝑝 𝑞
Equation (3) is the lens formula for a convex lens.
DERIVATION OF LENS FORMULA FOR A CONCAVE
LENS
Consider an object OB placed
in front of a concave lens. IM is the
image of this object formed by the
lens. The distance of the object from
the lens is ‘p’ and the distance of the
image from the lens is ‘q’. The focal
length of the lens is ‘f’.
From the geometry of the figure
(7.31), triangles OBC and IMC are
similar
There fore
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐶 Fig 7.31
= - - - (1)
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐶
Similarly triangles CEF and IMF are also similar.
There fore
𝐶𝐸 𝐹𝐶
= 𝐼𝐹
𝐼𝑀
Because CE = OB, therefore
𝑂𝐵 𝐹𝐶
=
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐹
Because IF = CF – CI, therefore
𝑂𝐵 𝐹𝐶
= - - - - (2)
𝐼𝑀 𝐶𝐹−𝐶𝐼
Comparing equation (1) and (2)
𝑂𝐶 𝐹𝐶
=
𝐼𝐶 𝐶𝐹−𝐶𝐼

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Putting values in above equation, we get

𝑝 −𝑓
=
−𝑞 −𝑓 −(− 𝑞)

(As the lens is concave, so its focal length is taken as negative. Image is
imaginary so its distance is also taken as negative)
By cross multiplication
−𝑝𝑓 + 𝑝𝑞 = 𝑞𝑓
Dividing by "𝑝𝑞𝑓"
1 1 1
−𝑞 + =
𝑓 𝑝
1 1 1
 = + - - - - (3)
𝑓 𝑝 𝑞
So, equation (3) is used as lens equation for a concave lens.
MAGNIFICATION
It is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the image to those
of the object.
Or
The ratio between the size of the image and the object is called
magnification.
It is given as
Size of the Image
Magnification = Size of the Object
ℎ𝑖
𝑀 = ℎ𝑜
It is found that the ratio between the size of the image and the object is
same as the ratio between their respective distances from the lens, there fore
ℎ 𝑞
𝑀 = ℎ𝑖 = 𝑝
𝑜
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠
So, =
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠
EXAMPLE : An object of 12 cm height is placed at 24 cm from a convex
lens of focal length 12 cm. Find the nature of the image.
SOLUTION:
p = 24 cm, f = 12 cm, q = ?
ho = 12 cm, hi = ?
Lens formula
1 1 1
= 𝑝 + 𝑞
𝑓
1 1 1
= +
12 24 𝑞
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1 1 1
 = −
𝑞 12 24
1 2 − 1 1
= =
𝑞 24 24

 q = 24 cm
ℎ𝑖 𝑞
Now =
ℎ𝑜 𝑝
ℎ𝑖 24
=
12 24
 ℎ𝑖 = 12 𝑐𝑚
EXAMPLE: An object of 2 cm height is placed at a distance of 20 cm
from a concave lens. Its image is formed at 4 cm from the
lens. Find the focal length of the lens and the height of the
image.
SOLUTION:
p = 20 cm, q = − 4 cm, f = ? ,
ho = 2 cm, hi = ?
Lens formula
1 1 1
= 𝑝 + 𝑞
𝑓
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 20 4
1 1 − 5 −4
 = =
𝑓 20 20
20
 f = − = − 5𝑐𝑚
4
ℎ𝑖 𝑞
Now =
ℎ𝑜 𝑝
ℎ𝑖 4
=
2 20
4
 ℎ𝑖 = × 2
20
 ℎ𝑖 = 0.4 𝑐𝑚
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
In order to see our surrounding objects more clearly, we need the help
of some devices, called optical instruments. The device to see very small
objects is called microscope. Distant objects are seen through a telescope.
There are many other such instruments used in our daily life.
In optical instruments suitable arrangements of lenses, mirrors and
prisms are used. Our eye is a natural optical instrument which functions like a
convex lens.
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Here we discus some of the optical instruments.

MAGNIFYING GLASS OR SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
A convex lens of short focal
length is called a simple microscope.
If an object is placed between the lens
and its principal focus, an erect, virtual
and magnified image of the object is
formed as shown in Fig 7.32. A convex
lens is thus also called a magnifying
glass.
Visual Angle:
The apparent size of an object Fig 7.32
depends upon the angle subtended by it at
the eye. This angle is called the visual angle. The greater is the visual angle,
the greater is the apparent size of the
object.
Least distance of distinct vision:
If we wish to see the fine
details of a small object, we bring it
as close to the eye as possible, thus
increasing the visual angle and getting
Fig 7.33
a large and real image on the retina of
the eye. But a normal person cannot see clearly an object if it is closer than the
least distance of distinct vision, which is 25 cm as shown in Fig 7.33.
A convex lens helps us to see the
details of an object by bringing it closer
than 25 cm; such a convex lens is known
as a magnifying glass. As it is shown in
the Fig 7.34, the object OB which when
viewed by an unaided eye cannot be seen
distinctly. A convex lens is then
interposed between the eye and the
object so that the image is set at least
distance of distinct vision from the eye
and the image becomes most distinct.
The rays of light forming the virtual and
magnified image IM of the small object
AB as seen through the lens by placing Fig 7.34
the eye very close to it are shown in Fig
7.34.

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Magnifying Power:
The magnifying power of a magnifying glass is defined as the ratio of
the angle subtended by the image at the eye to the angle subtended by the
object at the eye when both the image and the object are situated at the
distance of distinct vision.
Thus if  is the angle which the image IM subtends at the eye and  is the
angle which the object OB ( which is equal to DM ) subtends at the eye when
both are placed at the least distance of distinct vision ‘d’ then,
𝛽
Magnifying Power = 𝑀 = 𝛼
Since angles are small  = tan 
and  = tan 
Therefore
tan 𝛽
𝑀 = tan 𝛼
𝑂𝐵
𝐶𝐵⁄ 𝑂𝐵 × 𝐶𝑀
= 𝐷𝑀 = 𝐷𝑀 × 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑀
𝐶𝑀
M = ( Because OB = DM )
𝐶𝐵
𝑑
 M = - - - - - - (1)
𝑝
Since the image is virtual and at the least distance of distinct vision
from the lens, therefore
q = −d
Putting values in lens formula
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑝 𝑞
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑝 −𝑑
Multiplying both sides by ‘d’
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑝 + −𝑑
𝑓
𝑑 𝑑
 = − 1
𝑓 𝑝
𝑑 𝑑
 𝑝
= 𝑓
+ 1 - - - - - (2)
From equation (1) & (2)
𝑑
M = 1 + - - - - - (3)
𝑓

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Equation (3) shows that the magnification of a simple microscope depends

upon the focal length of the convex lens. The lens of smaller focal length will
have greater magnification.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
The magnification produced by a simple microscope is generally not
sufficient. Therefore a
combination of two convex
lenses of different focal
lengths is employed to have
a larger magnification. The
instrument so designed is
known as a compound
microscope.
The lenses are
arranged as shown in the
Fig 7.35. The lens in front
of which object is placed is
called objective lens. The
lens through which the
image is viewed by the eye Fig 7.35
is called eye piece. The
focal length of the objective lens is shorter than as compared to the eye piece.
The two lenses are placed in two metal tubes so as to have common
principal axis. The eye piece fitted in a draw tube can slide within the main
tube.
The object is placed at a distance slightly greater than the focal length
of the objective lens at its principal axis. A real, inverted and magnified image
is formed by the objective lens within the focal length of the eye piece. This
intermediate image serves as an object for the eye piece. Eye piece acts as a
magnifying glass and the final, virtual, inverted and magnified image is
formed as shown in the diagram.
The magnification of a compound microscope is equal to the product
of the magnifications of both the lenses.
M = M1  M2 - - - - - (1)
Now
Distance of the image q
M1 = =
Distance of the object p
As in this case the ‘p’ is nearly equal to the focal length of the
objective i.e. ‘fo’ and ‘q’ is nearly equal to the length of the tube of the
microscope, there fore

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L
M1 = - - - - (2)
fo
and
d
M2 = 1 + f - - - - (3)
e
Where ‘d’ is the least distance of distinct vision and ‘fe’ is the focal
length of the eye piece.
From equations 1, 2 and 3
L 𝑑
Magnification of microscope = M = f (1 + 𝑓 )
o 𝑒

TELESCOPES
When an object is at a great distance, it subtends a small angle at the
eye. The function of a telescope is to increase the angle which a distant
object appears to subtend at the eye, and therefore produces the same
effect as if the object were either larger or else closer to the eye.
The telescopes are of two types.
1. REFRACTING TELESCOPES
In refracting telescopes, a real image of a distant object is formed at the
focus of the objective or object glass. This image is them seen through a
magnifying glass, called the eye piece or eye lens. Following are the
important kinds of refracting telescopes.
▪ The Astronomical Telescope
This is a kind of telescope which is used to see the astronomical
objects. The final image formed by it is imaginary and inverted.
▪ The Terrestrial Telescope
This is a kind of telescope which is used to see distant objects at the
earth. Final image formed by this telescope is imaginary and erect.
To get the erect image an additional convex lens called field lens or
erecting lens is used.
▪ The Galilean Telescope
This telescope makes an erect and imaginary image. Objective lens
of this telescope is convex but eye piece is concave.
2. REFLECTING TELESCOPES
In a reflecting telescope, concave mirrors of very large diameter are used
to collect more light coming from the distant object. A real image of a
distant object is formed at the focus of a concave mirror. This image is
then seen through an eye-piece, as in the case of refracting telescope.

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CAMERA
It is an optical instrument which is used to form a real and diminished
image of an object on a screen.
It consists of a lens or lens system placed in front of a dark box. The
film is at the screen at opposite side of the lens in the dark box. The distance
between the lens and the screen can be changed to get a sharp and well-
defined image of the object on the screen. The screen is a sensitive plate or
film which is exposed to light only for a short time. The light is controlled by
a shutter which is a screen having a circular aperture at its center. The
diameter of this aperture can be varied to control the light. The time of
exposure of light is usually a small fraction of a second.
The exposed film is carefully taken to a dark room where it is washed
in a solution called the developer. Then it is washed in another solution called
the fixer. In this way we get what is called the negative as bright parts of the
object appear dark in the image
formed on the plate and dark parts
of the object appear bright. Another
sensitive plate is placed below the
negative in a dark room and is
exposed to light for a suitable time.
The new exposed plate is also
treated with the developer and fixer.
In this way we get the print. What is
dark in the negative becomes bright
and bright becomes dark in the
positive or print. In this way the
original colours of the object or Fig 7.36
landscape are exposed on the print
or positive.
SEXTANT
A sextant is a device for measuring the angle between two objects with
great precision. Most commonly it is associated with navigation at sea. A
sextant can also be used to help calculate the height of trees, buildings, flag
poles or any other vertical object.

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It uses two
mirrors and a lever
which arcs across the
instrument at slightly
over 60 degrees, hence
the name sextant.
Important parts
of a sextant are shown
in Fig. 7.37.
The working
principle of a sextant is
that a given ray of light
is reflected from two
mirrors in succession, Fig 7.37
then the angle between
the first and last direction of the ray is twice the angle between the mirrors.
This angle is read off on the arc of the sextant whileshooting an object (taking
an altitude).
Working steps are as follows:
1. Choose an observation point from which you can clearly see both the top
and the bottom of the object you wish to measure. Determine the exact
distance between the observation point and the base of the object. Let it
is “D”.
2. Set the sextant to zero and look at the object through the eyepiece,
adjusting your view until it is in the center of the frame.
3. Adjust the sextant arm to split the screen in two halves. Continue
moving the arm until the top half of the object on one side of the image
is aligned with the bottom half of the object on the other side of the
image.
4. Read the angle from the arc of the sextant. Let this angle is “”.
5. Use a following formula to calculate the height of the object.
Height of the object = Distance of object × tan 
ℎ𝑜 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃 - - - - - - (1)
NATURE OF LIGHT
Light is radiant energy, usually referring to electromagnetic
radiation. Human eye is sensitive to this radiation; hence this is responsible
for the sense of sight. Visible light is usually defined as having
a wavelength in the range of 400 nm to 700 nm. Its speed in vacuum is 3 × 108
m/s approximately.

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1. Corpuscular theory of light

Isaac Newton stated in his Hypothesis of Light that light was
composed of corpuscles (particles of matter) which were emitted in all
directions from a source. Newton's theory could be used to predict
the reflection and refraction of light. It also explains the rectilinear motion
of light. This theory could not explain interference, diffraction and
polarization of light.
2. Wave theory of light
Huygens proposed that light travels in the form of waves in a medium.
The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other
like sound waves. The phenomenon of reflection and refraction can also
be explained on the wave theory of light.
Huygens presented a principle about the motion of light waves.
According to him, when a wave passes through a medium, the particles of
the medium begin to perform the simple harmonic motion. The locus of all
the points in the medium with the same phase is called a wave front.
In case of a point
source of light the wave
fronts will be concentric
spheres with center at
the source ‘S’ such a
wave front is known as
spherical wave front.
At a very large distance
from the source a small Fig 7.38
portion of a spherical wave front will become very nearly plane, as shown
in Fig. 7.38. This type of wave
front is called as plane wave front.
The direction in which wave
moves, is always normal to the
wave front. Thus a ray of light
means the direction in which a light
wave propagates and it is always
along the normal to the wave front.
HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE
According to Huygens principle Fig 7.39
1. Every point on a wave front can
be considered as a source of secondary spherical wave fronts.
2. The new position of the wave front after time ‘t’ can be found by
drawing a plane tangential to the secondary wave lets.

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Light 07 Phy-132 121

As shown in the figure at the old wave front points P1, P2, P3,
P4 and P5 acts as secondary sources and after time ‘t’ the position of the
new wave front is shown in Fig 7.39.
Thomas Young showed by means of a diffraction experiment that light
behaved as waves. He also proposed that different colours were caused by
different wavelengths of light. By the year 1821, Fresnel was able to show
that polarization could be explained only by the wave theory of light and
only if light was entirely transverse.
3. Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Theory
Faraday proposed that light was a high-frequency electromagnetic
vibration, which could propagate even in the absence of a medium such as
the ether.
Maxwell discovered that self-propagating electromagnetic waves
would travel through space at a constant speed, which happened to be
equal to the previously measured speed of light. From this, Maxwell
concluded that light was a form of electromagnetic radiation. Soon
after, Hertz confirmed Maxwell's theory experimentally by generating and
detecting radio waves in the laboratory, and demonstrating that these
waves behaved exactly like visible light.
4. Quantum theory
In 1900 Max Planck, attempting to explain black body
radiation suggested that although light was a wave, these waves could gain
or lose energy only in finite amounts related to their frequency. Planck
called these packets of light energy "quanta".
In 1905, Albert Einstein used the idea of light quanta to explain
the photoelectric effect, and suggested that these light quanta had a "real"
existence. These packets of energy later on named as photons.
Eventually according to the modern theory of quantum
mechanics light is considered to have dual nature i.e. both a particle and a
wave.
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT WAVES:
Light waves are transverse waves. Like sound waves and waves
produced in water, light waves also show the property of interference. The
combination or interference of two trains of similar light waves produces dark
and bright bands called interference bands or fringes. When light waves of the
same amplitude are held close to each other, then at some places the two
waves reinforce and at some other points they cancel each other’s effect.
Definition:
When two light waves from different coherent sources meet together,
then the distribution of energy due to one wave is disturbed by the other.

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This modification in the distribution of light energy due to super-position of

two light waves is called "Interference of light".
CONDITIONS FOR INTERFERENCE
In our daily life although we observe that light from different light
sources reach at a point simultaneously but we do not observe interference of
light. The reason is that for interference there are essential conditions without
which the phenomenon of interference cannot take place. These conditions are
as follows.
1. Phase coherence
The sources must be phase coherent, that is, they must maintain a
constant phase with respect to each other. Two sources of waves are
said to be coherent if there is a fixed phase relationship between the
waves they emit.
2. Monochromatic sources
The sources of light must be monochromatic i.e. they must be emitting
light of same frequency and wavelength.
3. Principle of superimposition
The principle of superimposition must apply. The light of two sources
must superimpose.
4. Distance between the sources
The two sources of light should be very close to each other.
The light from a source comes from a large number of individual
atoms, each of which sends out bursts of light only during a short interval at
instants which may be different for different atoms. When we turn on the light
source, we start the overall process of the emission of light but we do not have
any control on the instants at which the atoms emit light, that is, the various
atoms emit light just at random. Thus there is no question of having phase
coherence between two separate light sources. Hence, we can expect to get an
interference pattern of light only when the two interfering sources of light
have phase coherence.
Those sources of light which emit light waves continuously of same
wavelength, and time period, frequency and amplitude and have zero phase
difference or constant phase difference are coherent sources.
One method for producing two coherent light sources is to use a single
source of light and divide its light into two parts by small openings i.e. slits.
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
When two waves superimpose or combine so as to produce a
resultant wave of amplitude greater than that of either of the individual
waves the interference is called constructive one.
• In constructive interference, two waves of light reinforce each other.
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Light 07 Phy-132 123

• In constructive interference, a bright fringe is obtained on the screen.

Condition for constructive interference
For constructive interference, path difference ‘S’ between two waves
is m
Path difference = m
where m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …..
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
When two waves combine so as to produce a resultant wave of
amplitude less than the amplitude of the individual waves, the
interference s called destructive one.
• In destructive interference, two waves cancel the effects of each other.
• Due to destructive interference a dark fringe is obtained on the
screen.
Condition for destructive interference
For destructive interference, path difference ‘S’ between two waves is:
1
Path difference = S = (𝑚 + )
2
where m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …..
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
The phenomenon of bending of incident light towards the
geometrical shadow of a sharp wedge is called diffraction of light.
Or
The bending and spreading of light waves around sharp edges or
corner or through small openings is called diffraction of Light.
Condition for diffraction
Diffraction effect depends upon the size of obstacle. Diffraction of
light takes place if the size of obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of
light.
Light waves are very small in wavelength, i.e. from 4 × 10-7 m to 7 ×
-7
10 m. If the size of opening
or obstacle is near to this limit,
only then we can observe the
phenomenon of diffraction.
Ordinary obstacles, such
as tables, chairs, doors, walls
etc. are too big for the light
waves. That is why the shadows
of these objects have sharp
edges and light seems to travel Fig 7.40

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Light 07 Phy-132 124

in straight lines. But, when the obstacle is of small width, the shadow does not
show sharp edges and light waves do bend round its edges.
The space outside the geometrical shadow is seen bordered by
alternate bright and dark fringes of rapidly falling intensity and decreasing
width.
The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained on the basis of
Huygens principle, which tells us that for any kind of wave motion we may
regard each point on a wave front as a new source. Diffraction is a special
type of interference.
POLARIZATION OF LIGHT
A wave may be transverse or longitudinal. Polarization is a
phenomenon associated only with transverse waves.
Light waves are electromagnetic waves that is produced by vibrating
electric charges. Like all electromagnetic waves light has both an electric and
a magnetic component.
The transverse nature of light
waves is quite different from
any other type of wave as the
vibrations of the electric and
magnetic fields occur in more
than one plane of vibration.
A light wave that is
vibrating in more than one
plane is referred to as un-
polarized light. Light emitted Fig 7.41
by the sun, by a lamp, or by a
candle flame is un-polarized light.
Polarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in
a single plane. The process of transforming un-polarized light into
polarized light is known as polarization.
There are a variety of methods to polarize light. For example:
• Polarization by Transmission
• Polarization by Reflection
• Polarization by Refraction
• Polarization by Scattering
Suppose we produce transverse waves in a long stretched string passing
through two slits S1 and S2 in two different cards. The transverse waves
produced in the string may have any direction perpendicular to the string. But
the slit S1 will transmit only those vibrations which are parallel to its axis. If
S2 is placed parallel to S1 then it will also transmit waves. Now rotate slit S2 to

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make it perpendicular to the slit S1, we shall get no vibrations at point ‘N’.
The transverse waves transmitted by S1 are said to be polarized.
Light waves are also transverse waves because they also show the property of
polarization. When a ray of light falls on two tourmaline crystals placed with
their crystallographic axes parallel, the beam transmitted. If, however, one of
the crystals is rotated with respect to the other, the emergent beam becomes
dimmer and dimmer and ultimately the light is totally cut of when the axes of
the two crystals become perpendicular to each other as shown in Fig 7.42. On
further rotation, the light appears and becomes brightest when the axes are
again parallel.
Light consists of transverse wave in which the vibrations take
place in all directions
in a plane
perpendicular to the
direction in which the
light is travelling.
When such a beam
passes through a Fig 7.42
crystal, one
component of the vibrations is absorbed, and the other component is
transmitted. Consequently the emerging beam differs from incident light
in the sense that all the vibration are in one direction. Such a beam of
light is said to be plane polarized.
According to electromagnetic theory a light wave consists of a
periodic variation of electric field vector accompanied of a magnetic field
vector at right angle to it. Tourmaline and many other materials have their
internal molecular structure such that by their interactions, the electric
vibrations are confined in a particular plane and are executed parallel to only
one direction. Therefore, when light passes through such a crystal, it becomes
plane polarized. This interaction which makes light polarized may be one of
reflection from a transparent surface, refraction through a crystal, selective
absorption in certain crystals or scattering by small particles.
POLAROID
Polaroid was invented in 1929, and is used to produce plane polarized
light. A Polaroid is a transparent plastic sheet in which special needle-like
crystals of Herapathite (or iodoquinine sulfate is a chemical compound whose
crystals are dichroic and thus can be used for polarizing light) have been
embedded and orientated. This sheet allows light to pass through it only if the
electric vector is vibrating in a specific direction.

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APPLICATIONS OF POLARISATION
Polarization of light has many technical and scientific applications.
▪ One use of the polarized light is the determination of the concentration of
optically active substance such as sugar.
▪ Polaroids are used to make curtain less windows. An outer polarizing disc
is fixed in position and an inner one may be rotated to adjust the amount
of light admitted.
▪ Control of headlight glare in night driving is possible if each car has light
polarizing head lights and a light polarizing viewer. Polaroid glasses
eliminate the glare of light because it is partly polarized by reflection from
water and pavements.
▪ In photography it is often desirable to enhance the effect of sky and
clouds. Since light from the blue sky is partially polarized by scattering,
suitable orientated polarizing disc in front of the camera lens will serve as
a sky filter.
▪ Polarization is used in glare-reducing sunglasses.
▪ Polaroid filters are used to perform stress analysis tests on transparent
plastics.
▪ Polarization is also used in the entertainment industry to produce and
show 3-D movies.
▪ Some optical measurement techniques are based on polarization.

SUMMARY
• The turning back of the light from the boundary of a medium is called
reflection of light.
• The bending of light when it enters from one medium to the other is
called refraction of light.
• For any two given media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence
to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for all angles of
incidence. This law is known as Snell’s Law.
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∠𝑖
Mathematically n = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∠𝑟
Here ‘n’ is constant and is called refractive index of the second medium
with respect to the first.
• A mirror is a plane, convex or concave surface which form image of
objects placed in front of them by reflection of light.
• A lens is a piece of transparent material bounded by two surfaces. If rays
of light parallel to the principal axis of the lens converge at a point after
passing through a lens it is called converging or convex lens and if they

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diverge after passing through the lens it is called diverging or concave

lens.
1 1 1
• The equation = 𝑝 + 𝑞 is called mirror equation for spherical
𝑓
mirrors and lens formula for lenses. Where ‘f ’is the focal length of
mirror or lens, ‘p’ is the distance of object from mirror or lens and ‘q’ is
the distance of image from mirror or lens.
• A microscope is an optical instrument used to observe very small objects
which cannot be seen clearly with naked eye and a telescope is an
optical instrument used to observe distant objects clearly.
• A camera is used to take photo graphs. It consists of a light tight body
having opening at one face to enter light in it through the lens and a light
sensitive film at opposite face of the light tight box. Light entering it
falls on the photo sensitive film which is then developed into a photo
graph.
• A sextant is a device for measuring the angle between two objects with
great precision. Most commonly it is associated with navigation at sea.
A sextant can also be used to help calculate the height of trees,
buildings, flag poles or any other vertical object.
• Corpuscular theory of light was propounded by Sir Isaac Newton and
Wave theory of light was propounded by Christian Huygens. According
to quantum theory of light it has dual nature. It behaves like particles as
well as waves.
• Every point on a wave front can be considered as a source of secondary
spherical wave fronts. This statement is called Huygens’ Principle.
• When two light waves from different coherent sources meet together,
then the distribution of energy due to one wave is disturbed by the other.
This modification in the distribution of light energy due to super-
position of two light waves is called "Interference of light".
• The bending and spreading of light waves around sharp edges or corner
or through small openings is called diffraction of Light.
• Light consists of transverse wave in which the vibrations take place in
all directions in a plane perpendicular to the direction in which the light
is travelling. When such a beam passes through a crystal, one component
of the vibrations is absorbed, and the other component is transmitted.
Consequently the emerging beam differs from incident light in the sense
that all the vibration are in one direction. Such a beam of light is said to
be plane polarized.

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Light 07 Phy-132 128

EXERCISE
LONG QUESTIONS
1. Derive mirror equation for a concave mirror.
2. Derive a mirror equation for a convex mirror.
3. Derive lens formula for a concave lens.
4. Derive lens formula for a convex lens.
5. Explain the working of a simple microscope. Derive relation for its
magnification.
6. Explain the construction and working of a compound microscope.
7. Define interference of light. Describe constructive and destructive
interference.
8. Describe working of a camera.
9. Define polarization of light. Describe any three uses of polarization.
SHORT QUESTIONS
1- Describe laws of reflection?
2- Describe laws of refraction?
3- What are the characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror?
4- Define Principal focus and focal length of a concave mirror.
5- Draw ray diagram to show the image of an object placed in between F
and C of a concave mirror.
6- Differentiate between real and virtual images.
7- Define focal length of a convex lens.
8- Define power of the lens. Write its unit.
9- An object is in between F and 2F of a convex lens. Draw its ray diagram
and describe the nature of the image.
10- Define least distance of distinct vision.
11- Define interference of light.
12- Describe constructive and destructive interference of light.
13- Write conditions for the interference of light.
14- Define diffraction of light.
15- Describe two applications of polarized light.
16- Describe use of sextant.
17- Describe wave nature of light.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ’s)

Encircle correct answers.
1- The velocity of light is:
a) 3 × 108 m/s b) 330 km/s c) 330 m/s d) 3 × 105 m/s
2- Light waves are:
a) Mechanical waves b) Longitudinal waves
c) Electromagnetic waves d) Matter waves
3- Corpuscular theory of light was propounded by:
a) Newton b) Huygens c) Einstein d) Maxwell
4- Wave theory of light was proposed by:
a) Newton b) Huygens c) Maxwell d) Einstein
5- The turning back of a part of light from the boundary of a medium is
called:
a) Refraction b) Rarefaction c) Polarization d) Refraction
6- The bending of light when it enters from one medium to the other is
called:
a) Reflection b) Refraction c) Dispersion d) Diffraction
7- The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant for all angles of incidence. This law is known
as:
a) Snell’s law b) Hook’s law c) Lenz’s law d) Law of reflection
8- The relationship between focal length ‘f’ and radius of curvature ‘r’
of a spherical mirror is:
𝑟
a) f = 2 r b) f = 2 c) f = 2 r2 d) R = 2 f 2
9- If an object is placed at C of the concave mirror, then the image
formed will be:
a) At F b) Behind the mirror c) At C d) In between C and F
10- If an object is placed within the focal length of a concave mirror then
the image formed will be:
a) Real and erect b) Virtual and inverted
c) Real and behind the mirror d) Virtual and behind the mirror
11- The radius of curvature of a concave mirror is 40 cm, its focal length
will be equal to:
a) 80 cm b) 20 cm c) 40 cm d) 4 cm
12- The unit for the power of lens is:
a) Watt b) cm c) meter d) dioptre

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13- The focal length of a lens is 20 cm; its power in dioptre will be equal
to:
a) 20 D b) 0.5 D c) 2 D d) 5 D
14- If an object is placed in front of a convex lens in between its F and 2F
then the image will be:
a) Virtual b) Erect c) Real and inverted d) Real and erect
15- The least distance of distinct vision is:
a) 20 cm b) 25 cm c) 15 cm d) 5 cm
16- A convex lens of short focal length is used as:
a) Simple microscope b) Compound microscope
c) Simple telescope d) Sextant
17- Magnifying power ‘M’ of a simple microscope is equal to:
q d d q
a) 1 + f b) 1 + f c) 1 - f d) 1 - f
18- The phenomenon of bending of incident light towards the geometrical
shadow of a sharp wedge is called:
a) Dispersion of light b) Interference of light
c) Polarization of light d) Diffraction of light
19- To measure the height of distant objects we use:
a) Camera b) Telescope c) Microscope d) Sextant

PROBLEMS
7.1 Light enters from air to another medium. Find the refractive index of
the medium if speed of light in it is 1.75 × 108 m/s. Speed of light in
air is 3 × 108 m/s. [Ans: 1.71]
7.2 Light enters from one medium to the second. If the angle of incidence
is 29° and angle of refraction is 20°, then find the refractive index of
the second medium. [Ans: 1.417]
7.3 An object of 3 cm height is placed in front of a concave mirror of focal
length 7 cm at a distance of 15 cm. Find the position and height of the
image formed. [Ans: q = 13.125 cm, hi = 5.625 cm]
7.4 An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from a concave mirror and
its real image is formed at a distance of 15 cm from the mirror, find the
focal length of the mirror. [Ans: 6 cm]
7.5 How much apart an object be placed in front of a concave mirror of
focal length 25 cm to get its real image of double size? [Ans: 37.5 cm]

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Light 07 Phy-132 131

7.6 Focal length of a concave mirror is 10 cm. A virtual image of an object

is formed at a distance of 15 cm form the mirror. Find the distance of
the object form the mirror. [Ans: 6]
7.7 Focal length of a convex lens is 20 cm. An object is placed at a
distance of 25 cm from the lens. Find the position of the image.
[Ans: 100 cm]
7.8 How much apart an object be placed in front of a convex lens of focal
length 10 cm to get a virtual image of double size? [Ans: 5 cm]
7.9 Focal length of a concave lens is 10 cm. An object is placed at a
distance of 20 cm from the lens. Find the distance of the image formed
from the lens. [Ans: - 6.66 cm]
7.10 Focal length of a simple microscope is 5 cm, find its magnification.
[Ans: 6]
7.11 Power of a convex lens is 2.5D. Find its focal length in centimeters.
[Ans: 40 cm]

***

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Optical Fiber 08 Phy-132 132

Chapter
08
OPTICAL FIBER
Course contents:
8.1 Optical communication and problems
8.2 Review of total internal reflection of light and critical angle
8.3 Structure of optical fiber
8.4 Fiber material and manufacture
8.5 Uses of optical fiber

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
• Explain the structure of the optical fiber.
• Explain principle of working of optical fiber
• Describe use of optical fiber in industry and medicine

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

When light rays enter from a denser medium into a rare medium, the
light rays bend away from the normal.
Suppose light rays from glass are entering into air, as shown in the fig
8.1. In this case the angle of refraction r is always greater than the angle of

Fig 8.1
incidence i. As the angle of incidence is increased, the corresponding angle
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Optical Fiber 08 Phy-132 133

of refraction is also increased till a stage is reached when the refracted ray
makes an angle of refraction equal to 90°.
The angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90° is
called critical angle. Critical angle is denoted by c.
If angle of incidence is greater than c, the ray is totally reflected into
the denser medium at the interface. This phenomenon is called the total
internal reflection.
Total internal reflection takes place only when a beam of light travels
from a denser medium to a rare medium and the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle.
When angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle the light
instead of refraction is refracted back into the same medium making an angle
equal to the angle of incidence. Then it is called total internal reflection of
light.
RELATION BETWEEN CRITICAL ANGLE AND REFRACTIVE
INDEX
According to Snell’s law
𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑟
Where 𝑛1 is the refractive index of the first medium and 𝑛2 is the
refractive index of the second medium.
When angle of incidence is equal to critical angle the angle of
refraction will be equal to90𝑜 . The refractive index of air is equal to 1. Putting
values in above equation we get:
𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐶 = 1 × 𝑆𝑖𝑛 90𝑜 = 1
1
𝑛1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 - - - - (1)
𝐶
Equation (1) shows that the refractive index of a medium is equal to the
reciprocal of the sine of its critical
angle. Material Refractive Index
Refractive Index: Air 1.000293
The refractive index is a Hydrogen 1.000132
way of measuring the speed of Water 1.33
light in a material. Light travels Ice 1.309
fastest in a vacuum. The speed of Crown glass 1.52
light in a vacuum is about 300,000 Flint glass 1.62
km/s. The refractive index of a Plexiglas 1.49
medium is calculated by dividing Diamond 2.42
the speed of light in a vacuum by
the speed of light in that medium. The refractive index of vacuum is therefore
1, by definition.

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EXAMPLE 1: Find critical angle of glass,if its refractive index is 1.5.

SOLUTION:
Refractive index of glass = n = 1.5
Critical angle of glass = c = ?
We know that the relationship between critical angle and refractive
index is
1 1
n =  1.5 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝐶 𝐶
1
 Sin c = 1.5 = 0.666
 c = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1(0.666)
 c = 42°
OPTICAL FIBER
An optical fiber (or optical fibre) is a flexible, transparent fiber made of
extruded glass (silica) or plastic, slightly thicker than a human hair. It can
function as a waveguide, or “light pipe” to transmit light between the two ends
of the fiber. The principle of its working is based on the total internal
reflection of light
as shown in the
fig 8.2.
Applied
science and engin
eering concerned
with the design
and application
Fig 8.2
of optical fibers
is known as fiber optics.
Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications where
they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data
rates) than wire cables. Optical
Fiber is rapidly replacing
conventional method of
communication by using metal
wire.
CONSTRUCTION OF
OPTICAL FIBER
The internal part of the
fiber is called core and it is
made up of transparent
material usually of silica. The Fig 8.3

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Optical Fiber 08 Phy-132 135

signal is transmitted through this core. It is enveloped with an outer part

having high refractive index called cladding. This fiber is covered by a plastic
layer called buffer. Buffer is used for the purpose of providing such functions
as mechanical isolation, protection from physical damage and fiber
identification.
Then there is a layer of material to strengthen it also called Kevlar. Then PVC
outer jacket covers it. A number of fibers are enveloped in a TVC Nylon to
form a cable.
The construction of an optical
fiber is shown in the fig 8.3. Kevlar is
made of carbon and it is light weight,
having ability to absorb light. The
purpose of Kevlar is to strengthen the
fiber to avoid its breakage when pulled
through a tube. The outer diameter of the
wire is normally 100 to 300 m and the
inner diameter is 50 to 100 m. The Fig 8.4
diameter of the cable depends upon the
number of optical fiber passing through it.
FIBER MATERIAL AND MANUFACTURE
The raw material for optical fiber is sand from which silica glass is
made. To make the refractive index of the material varying Germanium,
Phosphorus, Boron and Florence are added. From core to the outer surface,
Germanium and Phosphorus increases the refractive index whereas Boron and
Florence decreases the refractive index.
Standard optical fibers are made by first constructing a large-diameter
"preform" with a carefully controlled refractive index profile, and then
"pulling" the preform to form the long, thin optical fiber.
KINDS OF THE OPTICAL FIBER
Optical waves are propagated through the core of the optical fiber. The
propagation of the optical signal through the fiber is due to the phenomenon
of total internal reflection within the fiber. Many signals can be transmitted
through the fiber at the same time. The number of signals which can be
transmitted through the fiber depends upon the wave length of the wave and
the difference of the refractive index between the core and the outer surface of
the fiber.
Mono-mode Optical Fiber
If only one wave can be transmitted through a fiber then it is called
Mono mode fiber or Single mode fiber or SMF. Mono mode optical fiber has
very narrow core as compared to multi-mode optical fiber.

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Multi-mode Optical Fiber

The fiber through which a number of signals can be transmitted
simultaneously is called Multi mode optical fiber or MMF. Multimode fiber is
of two types; Step index fiber and Graded index fiber.
Step Index Fiber
In step index fiber the refractive index of the fiber is constant. So the
total internal reflection takes place at the edge of the core. It is also used for
the transmission of
the single signal.
Graded Index Fiber
In a graded
index fiber the
refractive index is not
constant. It decreases
gradually from core
to the outer surface.
Therefore the signals
instead of reflecting
from the outer
surface of the fiber
refract inside the
fiber as shown in the Fig 8.5
fig 8.5.
ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER
The advantages and disadvantages of an optical fiber can be estimated
by its comparison with the metal wire used for the same purpose. The
advantages of optical fiber are as follows.
1. In a metal wire electrical signal is transmitted where as in optical fiber the
light signal is transmitted. In metal wire the losses of energy is greater
than those in the optical fiber. Attenuation in modern optical cables is far
less than in electrical copper cables.
2. Optical fiber can transmit wide frequency range than the metal wire.
3. Communication through metal wire is effected by electric and magnetic
fields where as in optical fiber the communication is not affected by these
fields.
4. Metal wires due to greater density of copper as compared to silica are
heavier than the optical fiber. Optical fiber is light weight.
5. Raw material of optical fiber is abundant and easily available.
6. On optical fiber the effect of temperature is comparatively less.

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Optical Fiber 08 Phy-132 137

7. Over hearing in metal wires is possible where as it is not possible in case

of optical fiber.
8. In metal wire cross talk is possible if they are in touch with each other
whereas there is no possibility of over talk in optical fiber, as the signal
does not leave the fiber.
DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER
Following are the disadvantages of the optical fiber as compared to the
metal wire.
1. Though the raw material of an optical fiber is abundant, but the
manufacturing cost of the optical fiber is very high.
2. Strength of the metal wire is much greater than the optical fiber, which is
easily breakable. There are many problems of transportation.
3. Remote power feeding is not possible in case of optical fiber.
4. Its splicing (joining) is very difficult.
USES OF OPTICAL FIBER
• Optical fibers are widely used in fiber –optic communications, where
they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher
bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables.
• Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them
with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference.
• Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that
they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined
spaces.
• Optical fiber is replacing metal wire in telecommunication. It is now a
day’s used in telephone cables, T.V channels, video phone, fax and telex
etc.
• Optical fiber is used in surgery to transmit laser into the internal parts of
the body. For example to crush stone inside the kidney optical fiber is
used. A coherent bundle of fibers is used, sometimes along with lenses,
for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is used to
view objects through a small hole.
• Optical fiber is used in industry to transmit laser into the internal parts of
the machinery to find faults.
• They are used as light guides in medical and other applications where
bright light needs to be shone on a target without a clear line-of-sight
path. In some buildings, optical fibers route sunlight from the roof to
other parts of the building.

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Optical Fiber 08 Phy-132 138

SUMMARY
• Optical fiber is made up of transparent material usually of glass. It is
thin and flexible and is used as light guide for its transmission.
• The basic principle used for the transmission of light through optical
fiber is total internal reflection of light.
• It has an inner part of transparent material called core and an outer part
of transparent medium of higher refractive index than the core called
cladding.
• Optical fiber is now a days replacing conventional metal wire in the
field of telecommunication and information technology as it has
number of advantages over the metal wire.
• Mono-mode and multimode optical fiber are the main kinds of optical
fiber. The multimode optical fiber is further divided into step index
multimode optical fiber and graded index multimode optical fiber.
• The major parts of an optical fiber are core, cladding, buffer,
strengthen material and outer jacket.
• It has vast uses in fields other than communication. For example in
medical it is used to image internal organs by using instrument called
endoscope.

EXERCISE
LONG QUESTIONS
1- Explain total internal reflection.
2- Find the relationship between critical angle and refractive index.
3- Write uses of optical fiber.
4- Write note on the material, structure and types of optical fibers.
5- Describe advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber as compared to the metal
wire.
SHORT QUESTIONS
1- Define critical angle
2- Define refractive index?
3- Write relationship of critical angle and refractive index.
4- What is optical fiber?
5- Define total internal reflection.
6- Describe three advantages of optical fiber over metal wire.
7- Describe difference between mono-mode and multimode optical fiber.
8- Differentiate between step index and graded index optical fiber.

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Optical Fiber 08 Phy-132 139

9- Describe two uses of optical fiber.

10- Describe principle of transmission of light through optical fiber.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ’s)
Encircle the correct answers.
1- The angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90° is
called:
a) Critical angle b) Crucial angle
c) Right angle d)Visual angle
2- The relationship between critical angle ‘C’ and refractive index ‘n’ is:
1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 1 1
a) n = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 b) n = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 c) n = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 d) 𝜃𝐶 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑛
𝐶 𝐶
3- The refractive index of glass is:
a) 1.33 b) 1.52 c) 2.5 d) 1.4
4- The refractive index of water is:
a) 1.5 b) 1.33 c) 2.33 d) 0.33
5- The raw material for optical fiber is:
a) Copper b) Silver c) Plastic d) Silica
6- The signals are transmitted through optical fiber by:
a) Refraction b) Total internal Reflection
c) Dispersion d) Diffraction
7- The signals transmitted through optical fiber are:
a) Electrical signals b) Light signals
c) Sound waves d) Gamma rays
8- The optical fiber through which only one signal is transmitted at a
time is called:
a) Mono mode b) Multi mode
c) Multi mode Step index d) Multi mode Graded index
9- The diameter of the core of single mode optical fiber is approximately
equal to:
a) 5 mm b) 8m c) 5 m d) 5 cm
10- The diameter of the core of multi-mode fiber is approximately equal
to:
a) 50 mm b) 50 m c) 5 m d) 50 cm
11- The central part of the optical fiber is called
a) Cladding b) Core c) Optical center d) Kevlar

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PROBLEMS
8.1. Refractive index of a material is 1.52, if the angle of incidence is 30°,
find the angle of refraction.(Ans: 19.2o)
8.2. The angle of incidence is 60° and angle of refraction is 30°, find the
refractive index of the material.(Ans: 1.73)
8.3. Find critical angle of water. The refractive index of water is 1.33.
(Ans: 48.7o)
8.4. Refractive index of water is 1.33 if the angle of refraction is 30° ,
find the angle of incidence. . (Ans: 41.6o)
8.5. Refractive index of diamond is 2.42, find its critical angle. .
(Ans: 24.4o)

***

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Laser 09 Phy-132 141

Chapter
09
LASERS
Course contents:
9.1. Corpuscular theory of light.
9.2. Emission and absorption of light.
9.3. Absorption and stimulated emission of light.
9.4. Laser principle.
9.5. Structure and working of lasers.
9.6. Types of lasers with brief description.
9.7. Applications (basic concepts).
9.8. Material processing.
9.9. Laser welding.
9.10. Laser assisted machining.
9.11. Micro machining.
9.12. Drilling, scribing and marking.
9.13. Printing.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
• Describe corpuscular theory of light.
• Differentiate between emission and absorption of light.
• Describe absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission of
light.
• Illustrate the principle of laser.
• Explain the structure and working of lasers.
• Describe applications of laser.

CORPUSCULAR THEORY OF LIGHT:

According to Newton, light consists of tiny particles which emit from the
source of light and travel along straight lines with great speed like water
flowing in the stream. These particles are called corpuscles. When these
particles enter the eye, they create sensation of sight on striking with the retina

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of eye. This is called the corpuscular theory of light. This theory explains the
rectilinear motion of light and reflection and refraction of light. According to
this theory, velocity of light in denser medium
like glass is greater than in rare medium like air
which is wrong. This theory could not explain
the interference, diffraction and polarization of
light
Bohr’s Atomic Model:
In 1913, Neil Bohr presented his theory
of atomic structure using the quantum theory of
Max Planck. According to him an atom is a
neutral particle. All its positive charge lies in the
Fig. 9.1
nucleus and negatively charged electrons revolve
around the nucleus in different orbits
According to Bohr’s atomic model
1. An electron moves around the
nucleus only in particular stable
orbit. As long as the electron
remains in this orbit it will not
absorb or emit any energy.
2. Each orbit has a definite amount of
energy associated with it.
3. When an electron absorbs energy Fig. 9.2
from an external source, it jumps
from lower energy orbit E1 to higher energy orbit E2 and absorbs energy
equal to the difference in energies of the two orbits i.e.
E2 – E1 = ∆E = hf12
Similarly when an electron jumps from higher energy orbit E2 to lower
energy orbit E1, it emits energy hf12 in the form of a photon of light.
4. The angular momentum of an electron in an orbit is given as
nh
mVr = 2π
Here m is the mass of the electron, r is the radius of the orbit, V is the
linear velocity of the electron, and n is the orbit number and h is the Planck ’s
constant with value:
h = 6.63  10-34 J. sec.

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Laser 09 Phy-132 143

ABSORPTION AND EMISSION OF LIGHT:

Absorption of Light:
Suppose we have an electron with energy E1,
moving in orbit No. 1. We strike it with a photon
of light having energy E2 – E1 = hf. The electron
absorbs this energy and goes to the higher
energy orbit No. 2 with energy E2. In this way
after absorbing energy from the photon of light,
the electron goes into the excited state. This is
called the absorption of light
Emission of Light:
When an excited electron is revolving higher Fig. 9.3
energy orbit No.2 with energy E2. It jumps to the
lower energy orbit No.1 with energy E1 and emits
energy E2 – E1 in the form of a photon of light.
This is called the emission of light
Ground State:
The least energy level of a particle is called the
ground state. In other words, the least energy
stable state of a particle is called the ground state
of that particle
Excited State:
If a particle goes from ground (stable) state to the Fig. 9.4
higher energy state (unstable state),then this
higher energy state is called the excited state.
ABSORPTION, SPONTANEOUS EMISSION &
STIMULATED EMISSION OF LIGHT:
Suppose
we have an atom
in ground state
with energy E1.
When we strike it
with a photon of
light with energy
difference E2 –
E1 = hf12. Here h Fig 9.5(a)
is Planck’s constant and f12 is the frequency difference of ground state and
excited state. The electron absorbs this energy and goes into the excited state
with energy E1 as shown in the Fig.9.5(a). This process is called the

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absorption of light.
Now the atom can go from excited state to the ground state by two ways.
1. If the atom goes by itself from excited state to the ground state with the
emission of a photon of light of energy hf12. Then, it is called the
spontaneous emission of light as shown in Fig. 9.5 (b).
2. If we strike the atom in excited state E2 with a photon of light with energy
hf12, then the atom goes to the ground state and we get two photons of
light with energy hf12. One is the emitted photon and the other is the
incident photon. Both the photons are of same frequency and amplitude
and are phase coherent i.e. of same phase. This is called the stimulated
emission of light as shown in Fig. 9.5 (c).
LASER:
Laser is the abbreviation of “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiations”. It means to amplify the waves of light by stimulated emission of
radiation. Laser amplifies only the visible part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. In other words, laser amplifies only rays of light. Laser light has
following properties.
1. Laser light is monochromatic i.e.
of single wavelength.
2. Laser light is bright.
3. Laser light is phase coherent.
Laser Principle:
The basic principle of laser is to
amplify the light waves by the
stimulated emission of radiations
This principle of laser is based on the
Fig. 9.6
‘Quantum theory of light”. When we
strike an excited atom with energy E2 by such a photon of light whose energy
is hf12 ( Heref12 is the frequency
difference of ground state and excited
state). Then stimulation of light
produces in the excited atom and the
atom comes into the ground state as
shown in Fig. 9.6. Two photons of
light are also produced which are Fig.9.7
monochromatic and phase coherent.
These two photons can produce stimulated emission in two other excited
atoms. In this way the stimulated emission can be produced in a large number
of atoms in a very short interval of time and we get a laser light as shown in

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Laser 09 Phy-132 145

Fig.9.7
CONDITIONS FOR LASER:
The following conditions are necessary for
the production of laser light. Collimated light
1. Collimated Light:
To produce laser, we must have collimated
O
light i.e. in which all light rays are parallel. It Source
is achieved by placing the light source at the of light
principal focus of a double convex lens as Fig. 9.8
shown in the Fig. 9.8
2. Population Inversion:
When an atom absorbs photon and go
to higher state E3 it is called excited
state. It produces a rapidly decaying
photon and comes to excited level E2,
which is a meta-stable state. If we
have more number of atoms in meta-
stable excited state than in ground
state then it is called the population
inversion as shown in Fig. 9.9 Fig. 9.9
3. Meta-stable State:
Meta-stable state is necessary to produce laser. It is that excited state in which
the atoms can stay more than the usual excited state. Usually an atom can stay
in excited state for 10-8seconds. But in meta-stable state, an atom can stay in
excited state for 10-3 seconds or more. For Ruby laser, the energy for meta-
stable state E2 is 1.79 eV and for unstable state E3 it is 2.25 eV as shown in the
Fig. 9.9
CONSTRUCTION (STRUCTURE) OF LASER:
Laser consists of following
three things.
1. Pumping Source:
It is a device to keep more
atoms in the excited state than
in the ground state i.e. to
produce population inversion. Fig. 9.10
It is usually consists of a
Xenon flash lamp as shown in Fig. 9.10.

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Laser 09 Phy-132 146

2. Active Medium:
To produce a laser beam, we require some material medium with
particular characteristics by which we can have the atoms in the excited state.
In ruby laser, the impure ruby rod with chromium atoms acts as active
medium as shown in Fig. 9.12. In fact the function of active medium is to
provide raw material for laser action to occur.
3. Resonator (Resonant Cavity):
It consists of a cylindrical tube with reflecting mirrors at the two ends. One
of the mirrors is totally reflecting and the other is partially reflecting. The
mirrors reflect the light again and again and thus amplify the light as shown in
Fig.9.10
WORKING (OPERATION) OF LASER:
Consider an atom which has three energy states with E1 as ground state and E2
E3 are excited states as shown in figure 9.11. In ground state if we strike an
atom with a photon of light with
energy (E3 – E1). The atom
absorbs this energy and goes to
the temporary excited state E3.
Here the atom spontaneously
emits a rapidly decaying photon
and goes to the lower energy
state E2. It is called the
permanent excited state or meta-
stable state. Here more atoms are
collected than the ground state as Fig. 9.11
shown in Fig. 9.11. Thus we get
population inversion. In energy E2 we strike atom with such a photon of light
with energy E2 – E1. Then it brings the atom in the ground state E1 with the
emission of two photons which are phase coherent. This is called the
stimulated emission of light. These two photons can produce stimulated
emission of light in two more excited atoms. In a small interval of time, we
get a large number of photons. The mirrors at the ends of the laser tube reflect
the laser light again and again and amplify it making light more intense. Then
this light is emitted through the partial reflecting mirror as shown in Fig. 9.10
TYPES OF LASER:
Laser is found in solid, liquid or gaseous state. Its frequency depends upon the
material used. Its power varies from one milliwatt to one megawatt.

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Laser 09 Phy-132 147

1. Solid Laser:
If the laser material is in the form of solid, then it is called the solid
laser. For example, ruby laser, glass or semiconductor laser.
Ruby Laser:
Ruby is the crystalline form of
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and it can emit
light of all colors. In ruby, a small
amount of chromium is mixed. The
color of laser depends upon the amount
of chromium added in it as shown in
Fig. 9.12
Construction and Working: Fig.9.12
The ruby crystal is in the form of a
cylinder with parallel ends. One end of the ruby cylinder is totally reflecting
while other is partially reflecting. A xenon flash tube surrounds the ruby
cylinder as shown in Fig. 9.12. Chromium ions in ruby absorb light energy
and get temporary excited state E3. Here they emit a rapidly decaying photon
and go to lower excited state or meta-stable state E2. Here, when we fall a
photon on the atom with energy E2 – E1 then laser is emitted.
2. Gas Laser:
When the laser material is in the form of a gas then it is called a gas laser for
example Helium–Neon gas laser.
3. Liquid Laser:
In liquid laser, a color is mixed in Methanol or some other liquid of this kind
and thus laser is produced.
LASER APPLICATIONS:
Laser is an intense, monochromatic and coherent light. It is successfully being
used in many fields of life. Some of its uses are given below
1. Material Processing:
A material is produced after passing through different steps. This is called
material processing. During preparation, characteristics and quality of a
material can be changed by using laser. The absorption of laser radiations in a
material depends upon the thickness of the material and its density. Using
laser, we can control the quality of the products. For example, by using laser,
we can change the thickness of the metals. Similarly the thickness and density
of plastic and paper can be checked by using laser. Similar method is used in
the preparation of steel, rubber, aluminum and cloth
2. Laser Welding:
The power of laser light varies from one milliwatt to one megawatt. So laser

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Laser 09 Phy-132 148

can be used for very small and large welding. Laser can weld those things that
cannot be welded by usual methods. We can weld even 0.0006 inch thick wire
with the help of laser. With laser, we can do micro welding and small thermo
couples can also be welded. Low energy laser is used to weld eye retina.
Carbon dioxide laser is used for metal welding. Laser welding has following
advantages.
1. Laser welding can be done in room with less pollution.
2. Complicated materials can be cut and welded with laser.
3. We can do very thin and correct welding.
4. During welding, we do not need to grip the material
3. Laser Assisted Machining:
Machining is a process in which different things are cut to form different parts
of the machine. Then these different parts and components are joined to form
the machine. Different things can be cut and joined to form a machine with
the help of laser. In this way laser is helpful in the construction of a machine
4. Micro Machining:
Machine–work with very small bodies is called micro machining. A well-
focused laser beam can trace and mend a printed circuit. Laser beam can be
used to mend the mask used in photography. It can be used to develop the
microcircuit. For example, in the beginning computers are only placed in big
rooms due to their large size. But now the size of a computer is so small that it
can be lifted by hand. Small components of machines can be made and after
combining them small machines can be framed. This is only possible by laser
5. Laser Drilling:
Laser is a powerful controlled light which can cut hard things such as steel
and can drill in diamond. It can drill a hole of 20 micrometer only in one
millisecond. Holes can also be drilled in soft things such as rubber and plastic
with the help of laser. Carbon dioxide laser is used to drill a hole in baby
nipple, paper of cigarette and capsule so that medicine can dissolve in the
body soon. Carbon dioxide laser is also used to drill a hole in glass, electronic
chipboard and other electronic instruments. Laser drilling has the following
advantages.
1. We can drill a hole at correct place.
2. It is possible to drill quickly.
3. Hole can be drilled in hard as well as in soft things.
4. The drilling process can be seen with the help of a monitor.
Scribing:
Scribing means to write on a hard material (such as brick, stone or wood)
by scratching. First we mark on the body then we write on the body by
scratching. Laser has made it easy to scratch a hard material

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Laser 09 Phy-132 149

Marking:
It is easy to mark on the brittle thing such as glass and ceramic with the
help of laser
6. Laser Printing:
We can use laser printer with the computer for printing. It takes data from
the computer and makes its image in its memory system. This image is then
transformed to a light sensitive drum with the help of laser beam. The drum
prints that image on the paper. A very fine quality print is obtained by laser
printer
7. Medical use of Laser:
1. Kidney stone can be broken with the help of laser and can be removed
out from the body without operation.
2. Hairs can be planted on head and extra hair from the face can be
removed by laser.
3. Eye retina can be attached with laser.
4. Laser is used to cure cancer.
Small tumors can be removed from the body without bleeding by laser
8. Laser in Medicine:
Laser is used to study the structure of a cell. Laser is used to change
the tissues and to sterile the thing. It is used to diagnose different diseases and
to prepare medicines for the diseases. Hair can be planted, cancer can be
treated, eye retina can be joined, kidney stone can be broken and tumors can
be uprooted without bleeding with the help of laser. Moreover,
• Laser is used to find the composition of medicines.
• Laser is used to increase the durability of medicines.
• Laser controls the chemical reaction in medicines.
• Laser is used in the production of herbal medicines.

SUMMARY
• Corpuscular Theory of Light:
Light consists of small particles which move in straight lines like water
flowing in the stream. These particles are called corpuscles.
• When a particle receives energy from an outside source, it goes from
inner orbit to the outer orbit.
• When an atom goes from excited state to the ground state. It emits light
in the form of a photon.
• In spontaneous emission of light, an atom goes from excited state to the
ground state by itself with the emission of a photon of light.

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Laser 09 Phy-132 150

• In stimulated emission of light, an excited atom is bombarded with a

photon of light. As a result the atom goes to the ground state with the
emission of two photons of light which are phase coherent.
• Laser acts on the principle of stimulated emission of radiations.
• In population inversion, more atoms are in excited state than the number
of atoms in the ground state.
• Meta stable state is that excited state in which an atom can stay for 10–3
sec or more.

EXERCISE
LONG QUESTIONS
1. Write a note on Bohr’s atomic model.
2. Discuss absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission of
light.
3. Define laser. Describe its principle.
4. Describe the working of laser.
5. Write a note on gas laser.
6. Write note on any three applications of laser.
SHORT QUESTIONS
Answer the following questions.
1. Describe Newton’s corpuscular theory of light.
2. Write main points of Bohr’s atomic model.
3. Describe absorption of light.
4. Define ground state and excited state.
5. De-abbreviate the word LASER.
6. Define population inversion in laser.
7. Describe meta-stable state in laser.
8. Define pumping source in laser.
9. Describe active medium in laser.
10. Describe the use of laser in medicine.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ’s)

Encircle the correct answer.
1- The corpuscular theory of light was put forward by
a) Einstein b) Max Planck c) Young d)Newton
2- Neil Bohr put forward his theory in
a) 1887 b) 1902 c) 1913 d) 1917
3- When an electron goes from higher energy level to lower energy
level it
a) Emits light b) Does not emit light
c) Absorbs light d) None of these
4- Laser is a device which can produce
a) An intense beam of light b) Coherent light
c) Monochromatic light d) All of these
5- The most widely used types of gas lasers are
a) Helium b) Neon
c) Carbon dioxide d) All of these
6- The meta-stable states of atoms are
a) Excited atomic states of long period
b) De–excited atomic state c) Ground states of atom
d) None of these
7- The excited atoms return to their ground state in
a) 10–8sec b) 10–5sec c) 10–3sec d) 1015sec
8- An atom can exist in meta-stable state for
a) 10–5sec b) 10–3sec c) 10–8sec d) 10–10sec

***

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Electromagnetic waves10 Phy-132 152

Chapter
10
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Course contents:
10.1. Magnetic field around a current carrying conductor.
10.2. Electric field induced around a changing magnetic flux.
10.3. Moving fields.
10.4. Types of electromagnetic waves.
10.5. Generation of radio waves.
10.6. Spectrum of electromagnetic waves.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
• Define electromagnetic waves.
• Describe the magnetic field around a current carrying conductor.
• Illustrate electric field induced around a changing magnetic flux.
• Describe moving fields.
• Explain the mechanism of electromagnetic waves.
• Illustrate the types of electromagnetic waves.
• Explain the generation of radio waves.
• Describe the spectrum of electromagnetic waves.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:
The waves which do not require a material medium for their propagation
from one place to the other place are known as electromagnetic waves. For
example, radio waves, microwaves, light waves, x-rays etc.
MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CURRENT CARRYING
CONDUCTOR:
When we pass current through a wire, a magnetic field is induced around the
wire. This field is perpendicular to the direction of current and it can be found
by right hand rule.

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Electromagnetic waves10 Phy-132 153

Right Hand Rule:

If we grip the current carrying wire
in our right hand such that the thumb
points in the direction of the current then
the curled fingers show the direction of
the magnetic field.
In Fig.10.1(a), magnetic lines of
force are shown by concentric circles
which are produced due to current flowing
in the wire. The magnetic field has the
following properties. Fig 10.1(a)
1. The magnetic field exists as long as
the current continues to flow.
2. The lines of force are circular.
3. The strength of the magnetic field is greater
near the wire and decreases as the distance
increases from the current carrying wire.
4. The direction of the magnetic lines of force
can be found by right hand rule.
5. The value of magnetic field at a distance r
from the wire can be found by the relation
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 Fig 10.1(b)
B=
2𝜋 𝑟
𝜇𝑜
where = constant
2𝜋
This equation shows that the magnetic field “B” is proportional to the
amount of current “I” passing through the wire and is inversely proportional to
the distance from the wire.
ELECTRIC FIELD INDUCED AROUND A CHANGING
MAGNETIC FLUX:
In 1831, Michal Faraday told that when a magnetic is moved towards
or away from the loop of a wire or when the loop of a wire is moved towards
or away from a magnetic, a current is produced in the loop of the wire as
shown in Fig. 10.2. This current can be detected by connecting a
galvanometer with the loop of wire. It is due to the fact that magnetic lines of
force, emitting from the magnet changes (magnetic flux) with the motion of
either the magnet or the loop of the wire. Due to this motion, current passes

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Electromagnetic waves10 Phy-132 154

through the loop of wire. This current passes due to the e.m.f produced in the
coil. This shows that an electric field is produced due to a changing magnetic
flux.
According to Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic
induction, a changing magnetic
flux produces an induced
electromotive force.
Consider a circular
wire loop of radius r and the
magnetic flux through it is
increased by an amount ∆ in (a) (b)
time ∆t. This change of Fig 10.2
magnetic flux is produced by
changing the magnetic field at the centre of the loop through a circular area A
as shown in the Fig.13.2.
According to Faraday’s law, an e.m.f. () or potential difference will
be induced in the loop.
𝑑𝜑
 = ---- (1)
𝑑𝑡
Due to this induced e.m.f, an induced current flows in the loop. As the
charges (electrons) move, they will experience some force. This force
experienced by a unit charge is called electric intensity. The electric intensity
will have same value at all points of circular loop with same radius.
The direction of intensity is determined by Lenz’s law.
It means that a unit positive charge if free to move all the way around
the loop is pushed by the electric field of constant strength E through the
whole length 2πr of the loop. It receives energy equal to E × 2πr from the
induced electric field. This energy per unit positive charge is the induced emf,
that is,
𝑑𝜑 1 𝑑𝜑
 = 2πr E = or E =
𝑑𝑡 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑡
This shows that the induced electric field around the changing
magnetic flux must run around in circles and the magnitude of this induced
field must decrease inversely with the distance from the centre.
NOTE: It is important to note that if a current flows, it will be in such a

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Electromagnetic waves10 Phy-132 155

direction that the magnetic field it produces tends to counteract the change in
flux that induces the emf.
MOVING FIELDS:
A changing magnetic flux creates an
electric field and a changing electric flux
creates a magnetic field. This shows that,
if a change of electric or magnetic flux is
taking place through any region, the
electric and magnetic fields will
propagate out of this region in the
surrounding space.
Consider a region A through which
magnetic flux is changing as shown in
Fig. 10.3 This change of magnetic flux
will set up an electric field in the Fig 10.3
surrounding region C. This electric field
in the region C will change electric flux through it and this will set up a
magnetic field around it. Thus each field generates the other field and the
package of electric and magnetic fields will move through space. These
moving fields are called electromagnetic waves.
Mechanism of Electromagnetic Waves:
Consider a slab of magnetic
field which is pointing towards x-axis
and moving parallel to y-axis as
shown in Fig. 10.4 (a). Imagine a
certain region ad of space which is
just adjacent to AD. When the
magnetic field moves into this region,
it will create a change of flux in it. Fig 10.4(a)
The change of magnetic flux in ad
will create an electric field in the
surrounding region. When the flux
through ad increases, the direction of
∆ will be the same as that of the
field, i.e. towards the x-axis. Right
hand rule and Lenz’s law show that
electric field will be generated
Fig 10.4(b)
parallel to z-axis in the region where

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Electromagnetic waves10 Phy-132 156

the magnetic field is present as shown in figure (10.4) (b). The magnetic field
and the generated electric field both will move with the slab along y-axis.
Now we consider the effect
of motion of this electric field as
shown in Fig. 10.5 (a). When the
moving slab of electric field sweeps
into the region ad, adjacent to AD, an
increase of electric flux ∆e takes
place in this region. The direction of
∆e will be the same as that of the
Fig 10.5(a)
field, i.e., along the z-axis. Due to
this increase of electric flux in the
region ad, a magnetic field will be
induced in the surrounding region.
This magnetic field will be along x-
axis as shown in Fig. 10.5 (b).
So a moving magnetic field
generates a moving electric field and
this electric field generates a moving
magnetic field. The motion of these Fig 10.5(b)
fields will be possible only when
they move with a certain definite speed. Maxwell showed that in free space,
this speed is
1
C =
√𝜖𝑜 𝜇𝑜
Here  is permittivity of free space = 8.85 × 10 - 1 2 F/m and µo is the
permeability of free space = 1.26 × 10 - 6 H/m and c is the velocity of
electromagnetic waves = 3 × 10 - 8 m/sec.
TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:
1. Radio waves:
These are the electromagnetic waves with wavelength from few
decimeter to several meters and frequency up to few giga (109) Hz. These are
generated from electronic devices. These are used the transmission of radio
signal.
2. Microwaves:
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelength from 0.1mm
to 1 decimeter and frequency from few giga (109) Hz to few tera (1012) Hz.

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Electromagnetic waves10 Phy-132 157

These are generated from electronic devices. There are used in radar and
microwave even.
3. Infrared waves:
These are the electromagnetic waves with wavelength from 1
micrometer to 0.1 millimeter and frequency from 1012 hertz to 1014 hertz.
These are emitted from hot bodies. Their energy varies from 0.01 eV to 2 eV.
4. Visible Waves:
Visible waves have wavelength from 400 nanometers to 750 nanometers and
frequency of 1014 hertz. They have energy of 2eV to 3eV. We can see things
around us in the presence of unable waves.
5. Ultraviolet waves:
Ultraviolet waves are electromagnetic waves with wavelength of 1 nanometer
to 400 nanometer and frequency of 1014 hertz to 1017. This energy varies from
3 eV to 1000 eV. They are emitted from atomic sparks and arcs. These are
used in photoelectric effect.
6. X-Rays:
X-Rays are electromagnetic waves with wavelength from 1
nanometer to 1000 nanometers and frequency from 1017 hertz to 1019 hertz.
They have energy from 103eV to 105eV. They are emitted from electron
impact on solid. They are used to detect broken bones in a human body.
7. γ–Rays:
γ–Rays are electromagnetic wave with wavelength from less than 10-11meter
and frequency greater than 1020 hertz. They are emitted from radioactive
nuclei.
GENERATION OF RADIOWAVES:
Radio waves are generated by a radio
transmitting antenna. An antenna is a loop of
wire charged by an alternating voltage of
frequency  and time period T as shown in
the figure.
Due to alternating supplied voltage, charge
on the antenna constantly reverses its
direction. So if charge on the top of the
antenna is +q at any time, it will be – q after
time T/2. This change is due to the
accelerated motion of electrons and it creates Fig 10.6

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Electromagnetic waves10 Phy-132 158

a changing magnetic field around it. In this way, electromagnetic waves are
generated which propagate away from the antenna. The propagation of
electromagnetic waves is shown in Fig. 13.6
If such a wave
is intercepted by
conducting wire, the
oscillating electric
field will develop an
oscillating voltage in
it.
The electromagnetic
waves are transmitted
in the form of
concentric spherical
wave fronts that are as
shown in Fig. 10.7. Fig 10.7

SPECTRUM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:

Radio waves are not the only example of electromagnetic waves. We have a
large variety of them according to the effect that they produce. This effect
depends upon the value of their frequencies. For example, they produce the
sensation of light, if their frequencies range from 3 ×1012 cps to 8 × 1012 cps.
These frequencies are of red and violet colours respectively. The
electromagnetic waves between these frequencies are visible to eye. Special
instruments are used to detect waves of higher and lower frequencies. The
electromagnetic waves are periodic waves. The speed of electromagnetic
waves in free space is c = 3 × 108m/sec. The wavelength  of an
𝑐
electromagnetic wave of frequency  is given by  =
𝜈
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
The arrangement of all the electromagnetic waves in a pattern showing
their frequency, wave length and energy etc. is known as spectrum of
electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves spectrum is shown in the Fig.
10.7 indicating all the important electromagnetic waves in ascending
frequency.
The spectrum shows that gamma rays are high energy waves. Their
frequency is also very high, but their wave length is low. The radio waves are

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Electromagnetic waves10 Phy-132 159

of low energy and low frequency waves. But their wave length is large as
compared to other electromagnetic waves.

Fig 10.7

Visible light is a very small portion of electromagnetic wave spectrum.

The visible light spectrum is highlighted. The wavelength is shown in
nanometers. Violet light has high frequency and low wave length but red light
has low frequency and high wave length.

SUMMARY
• The magnetic field induced around a wire by passing current through it
is always perpendicular to the direction of the current.
• According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, a changing
magnetic flux produces an induced electric field which is given by
1 𝑑𝜙
E =
2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑡

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Electromagnetic waves10 Phy-132 160

• A changing magnetic flux creates an electric field and a changing

electric flux creates a magnetic field. These fields will move in a
direction which is perpendicular to both of these fields. These are called
moving fields.
• The electromagnetic waves include radio waves, microwaves, infrared
waves, visible waves, ultraviolet rays, X-rays, gamma rays, cosmic rays,
etc.
• The radio waves are generated by a transmitting antenna and are
received by the receiving antenna of a radio receiver. Their frequency is
given by
1
f =
2𝜋 √𝐿𝐶

EXERCISE
LONG QUESTIONS
1. Explain magnetic field produced around a current carrying conductor.
2. Describe electric field induced around a changing magnetic flux.
3. Explain the mechanism of electromagnetic waves.
4. Illustrate briefly the types of electromagnetic waves.
5. Explain the generation, transmission and reception of radio waves.
6. Write a note on electromagnetic wave spectrum.
SHORT QUESTIONS
Answer the following questions.

1. Define electromagnetic waves.

2. Define a magnetic field.
3. Describe the right hand rule.
4. Define magnetic flux.
5. Describe moving fields
6. Define micro waves.
7. Define ultraviolet waves.
8. Describe radio waves.

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Electromagnetic waves10 Phy-132 161

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)

Encircle the correct answer.
1- The field around a moving charge is called
a) Gravitational field b) Electric field
c) Magnetic field d) Atomic field
2- The magnetic effect near the current carrying conductor was
discovered by
a) Coulomb b) Faraday c) Ampere d) Hans Oersted
3- Which one of the following metals is non–magnetic substance?
a) Brass b) Cobalt c) Nickel d) Iron
4- The magnetic field at a point due to a current carrying conductor is
proportional to
a) Thickness of the conductor b) Resistance of the conductor
c) Distance from the conductor d) Current through conductor
5- Two lines of magnetic force
a) Can cross each other b) Always cross each other
c) Can never cross each other d) None of the above
6- A changing magnetic flux produces around itself an induced.
a) Magnetic field b) Gravitational field
c) Electromotive force d) Electric field
7- The electric field induced around a changing magnetic flux varies as
a)r b) r - 1 c) r 2 d) r 3
8- The electromagnetic waves travel in free space with the speed of
a) Sound b) Light c) Positive rays d) Cathode rays
9- The average temperature of earth atmosphere is
a) 250 K b) 300 K c) 350 K d) 200 K
10- The minimum frequency of radio waves is
a) 1 M Hz b) 5 M Hz c) 50 M Hz d) 10 M Hz
11- In electromagnetic waves, the electric and magnetic field are
a) Parallel b) Opposite c) Perpendicular d) All are correct

***

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Artificial Satellites11 Phy-132 162

Chapter
11
ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
Course contents:
11.1. Review law of gravitation.
11.2. Escape velocity.
11.3. Orbital velocity.
11.4. Geosynchronous and geostationary satellites.
11.5. Use of satellites in data communication.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
• Describe the law of gravitation.
• Define and explain Escape velocity.
• Explain Orbital velocity.
• Describe Geosynchronous and geostationary satellites.
• Illustrate the use of satellites in data communication.

NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION:

Statement:
This law states that everybody in the universe attracts every other body with a
force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.
Explanation:
If we have two bodies A and B of mass m1 and m2 respectively are placed
such that the distance between their centers is r as shown in Fig. 11.1. The
force of attraction between them is given as
F  m1 m2 - - - - (1)
1
and F  2 - - - - (2)
𝑟
Combining eq. (1) and (2) we get
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑚2
F  2 or F = G
𝑟 𝑟2

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“G” is the constant of

proportionality which is known
as universal gravitational
constant.
Its value in S.I system is
6.673 × 10-11 N.m2/kg2.
In vector form, this force
is written as: Fig 11.1
𝑚1 𝑚2
F = –G 𝑟̂
𝑟2
Negative sign shows that force between these two bodies is attractive.
DETERMINATION OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATIONAL
CONSTANT G, BY CAVENDISH METHOD:
In 1798, Cavendish found the
value of gravitational constant G, using
the apparatus called torsion balance.
The apparatus consists of a light rod
which is suspended at the centre by a
fine quartz fiber. The other end of the
fiber is attached to a fixed support. Two
similar balls each of mass m are
attached at the ends of the rod. A lamp–
scale arrangement is attached to the
fiber to see the deflection in the rod.
Now two similar heavy balls,
each of mass M are brought near the
small balls on opposite sides of the rod.
They exert a force of attraction on the Fig 11.2
suspended balls. According to
Newton’s law of gravitation, the magnitude of the force at each end of the rod
is given as in Fig. 11.2
𝑚𝑀
F = G 2
𝑟
Here ‘r’ is the distance between the center of ball M and m. This force
produces torque and twists the fiber due to the deflection of rod through an
angle . The twist produced in the fiber is proportional to the magnitude of the

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Artificial Satellites11 Phy-132 164

torque. Mathematically, it is written as:

  
or  = c - - - - (1)
Here ‘c’ is the constant known as torsion constant which depends upon
the nature of the fiber. If ‘l’ is the length of the rod then magnitude of the
torque ‘’ on the right side of the rod is given as:
𝑚𝑀 𝑙
 = G ×
𝑟2 2
Here  = Force × Distance from center
𝑙
and = distance of each of the mass m from the center of the rod.
2
Similarly torque ‘’ on the left side of the rod is given as
𝑚𝑀 𝑙
 = G 2 ×
𝑟 2
Since both torques are anti–clock wise. Therefore total torque on the
rod is equal to the sum of these two torques.
𝑚𝑀 𝑙 𝑚𝑀 𝑙
So  = 1 + 2 = G 2 × + G 2 ×
𝑟 2 𝑟 2
𝑚𝑀𝑙
 = G - - - - (2)
𝑟2
Comparing Eq. (1) and (2) we get
𝑚𝑀𝑙
G = c
𝑟2
𝑐 𝜃 𝑟2
 G= - - - - (3)
𝑚𝑀𝑙
Knowing the values of c, , r, M, m and l we can find the value of G
which is equal to 6.673 × 10-11 N.m2/kg2.
MASS OF THE EARTH:
We can find the mass of the earth using law of Universal Gravitation.
The mass of Earth is Me and its radius is Re. Let a body of mass m be placed
at the surface of the Earth. The radius of the body is very small so the
distance between the body and the center of the Earth is taken as Re. Then the
gravitational force with which the Earth attracts the body towards its center is

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Artificial Satellites11 Phy-132 165

𝐺 𝑚 𝑀𝑒
F= - - - - (1)
𝑅𝑒2
But the force with which the
earth attracts the body towards its
center is equal to the weight of the
body
F = w = mg - - - - (2)
As these two forces are equal
so comparing eq. (1) and (2)
𝐺 𝑚 𝑀𝑒
mg =
𝑅𝑒2
𝐺 𝑀𝑒
 g =
𝑅𝑒2
𝑔 𝑅𝑒2 Fig 11.3
 Me =
𝐺
Putting value of Re = 6.4 × 106m
g = 9.8 m/sec2
G = 6.673 × 10-11 N.m2/kg2
2
9.8 × (6.4 × 106 )
Me = = 6 ×1024 kg.
6.673 × 10−11
ESCAPE VELOCITY
“The minimum velocity that is required to project a particle from the
earth’s surface to an infinite distance is called the escape velocity”.
Let we throw a ball of mass ‘m’ upward in the air. It returns back on
the earth from some height. If we throw the ball with larger velocity, it turns
back from higher point. If the ball is thrown upward with such velocity that it
goes out of the pull of the earth, it is called the escape velocity. For this, the
K.E of the ball is equal to the absolute P.E of the ball. We know that
gravitational force is given as
𝐺𝑀𝑚
F =
𝑅2

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Artificial Satellites11 Phy-132 166

Here, m. is the mass of the body at the surface of earth, M is the mass of the
earth, G is the gravitational constant and R is the radius of the earth. Potential
energy is given as
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
P.E = Work = F . S = × R =
𝑅2 𝑅
When K. E = P. E

1 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Then 𝑚 𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑐 = - - - - (1)
2 𝑅2

2𝐺𝑀
𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √ - - - - (2)
𝑅

In case of equilibrium, the gravitational force acting on the body is equal to

the weight of the body.
W = F
𝐺𝑀𝑚
mg =
𝑅2
GM = gR2 - - - - (3)
Putting value of GM from Eq (3) in Eq (2)

2 𝑔 𝑅2
𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √ = √2𝑔𝑅
𝑅
As g = 9.8 m/sec2 and R = 6.4 × 106m
𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √ 2 × 9.8 × 106
= 11200 m/sec = 25000 mile/hour
This shows that escape velocity of the body at the surface of earth is 11200
m/sec or 25000 miles/hour.
ORBITAL VELOCITY:
It is the velocity required by a body to move it around the earth in a certain
orbit.
Let we have a planet with mass m. It is revolving around the earth in an orbit
which is at a distance “r” from the center of the earth. If the velocity of the planet in
that particular orbit is Vo, then the gravitational force between the earth and the
planet is given as:

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Artificial Satellites11 Phy-132 167

𝐺𝑀𝑚
F = - - - - (1)
𝑟2
But to move around the earth in an orbit, the planet requires a centripetal force
which is provided by the earth.
𝑚 𝑉𝑜2
FC = - - - - (2)
𝑟
As these two forces are
equal so comparing eq. (1) and (2)
we get
𝑚 𝑉𝑜2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
=
𝑟 𝑟2
𝐺 𝑀
or 𝑉𝑜2 =
𝑟
or
𝐺𝑀
Vo = √ 𝑟
But √𝐺 𝑀 is constant, therefore
1
Vo = constant ×
√𝑟 Fig 11.4
1
or Vo ∝
√𝑟
So the orbital velocity is inversely proportional to the square root of the
radius of the orbit.
GEOSYNCHRONOUS OR GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES:
In 1945, Arther C. Clark
gave the concept of geostationary
satellite which appears to remain
stationary with respect to a certain
point on the earth. It can cover
about 40% area of the earth.
According to him, three such
satellites at a distance of 120˚
around the earth can cover the
whole world as shown in fig. a.
The data communication and T.V.
transmission can be sent anywhere
in the world through these Fig 11.5(a)
satellites. The Olympic matches
and world cup can also be telecast live through these satellites.

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Artificial Satellites11 Phy-132 168

A geostationary satellite is at a height of 35800 km from the earth’s surface

and it moves around the earth in such a way that appears to be stationary from a
certain point at the earth i.e. it covers a complete circle (360˚) around the earth in 24
hours. Its distance from the center of
earth is (6400 + 35800) = 42200 and
the circumference of the orbit is
42200 × 2π = 265000 km . So it
covers a distance of 26500 km in 24
hours and in this way its speed is
11000 km/hour.
The PTV transmissions are
sent to 32 countries in Asia and
many countries in Europe and
America through satellite. We see
T.V. programs by using dish
antennas through these satellites.
These satellites are also used to Basic concept of telecommunication
broadcast radio programs and Fig 11.5(b)
weather forecast through internet.
To find the orbital radius of a geostationary satellite:
The orbital velocity of a satellite is found by the following formula:
𝐺𝑀
Vob = √ 𝑟 - - - - (1)
This orbital velocity is equal to the average speed of the satellite.
𝑆 2πr
V = = - - - - (2)
𝑡 T
Comparing Eq (1) & (2)

√𝐺 𝑀
2πr
=
T 𝑟
Squaring both sides
4π2 r2 GM
=
T2 r
GMT2
or r3 = - - - - (3)
4π2
Here G = 6.67 × 10-11 N m2/kg2
M = 5.98 × 1024 kg

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Artificial Satellites11 Phy-132 169

T = 24 hours = 86400 sec

Putting these values we get
6.67 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024 × (86400)2
r3 = 22 2
4×( )
7

r = 42250 × 103m = 42250 km

This orbital radius of satellite is from the center of earth. Therefore, the
distance of satellite from the surface of earth is
h = r – R = 42250 – 6400 = 35850 km
USE OF SATELLITE IN DATA COMMUNICATION:
The use of satellites in
data communication is shown
in the figure. First, a local
microwave system is used for
data transmission in
telephone and T.V in a
country then the information
are sent to the Earth station in
that country as shown in the
fig. The earth station sends
the information to the
satellite. The satellite sends
this information (signal) to
another earth station in the
other country from where the
information is sent to the
destination. This is done by
the following three ways.
Satellite communication system
Fig 11.6
1. Ground – Ground
Communication:
In this method, the signal information is sent to the earth station from the
central office through microwave system. The earth station sends this signal to
the satellite through uplink and in return, the satellite sends this signal to

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another earth station through down link. Then this signal is sent to the
required central office or to the required destination. This system is called
ground–ground system.
In this system an electromagnetic
modulated carrier signal is sent to the satellite
through uplink. The satellite receives a part of
this signal and sends it back towards the required
earth station through down link. In this way the
satellite acts as a repeater and is called a repeater
satellite, a transponder or a processing satellite.
2. Ground - Cross Link - Ground
Fig 11.7
Communication:
In this system, a satellite receives a signal
from the earth station and sends it to
another satellite in space. The other satellite
provides this signal to the required earth–
station. Therefore it is called ground–cross
link–ground system. In it, a cross-link of
signal is taken place between two such
satellites which are not seen by each other.
Communication is possible by it to remote areas
which are not possible by usual methods.
Fig 11.8
3. Ground- User Relay:
In this system, an earth station sends a
signal to a satellite through uplink. From
the satellite, the signal is sent to an
airplane a ship or other services. In this
way the receiving body is not stationary
and it does not take help from the earth
station. In it, the satellite works as a relay
and sends the earth signal to an airplane or
a ship. Sometimes, the user which receives Fig 11.9
the signal sends a message to the satellite
which is received by the earth station through this satellite. The link from

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Artificial Satellites11 Phy-132 171

satellite to the user is called forward link and from user to satellite is called
return link.
Advantages:
• The transmission of information is possible across a wide area through
satellite communication and only three satellites are enough to cover the
whole world.
• These provide continuous and uninterrupted service to the specific areas.
• Their signal quality is better than a microwave link.
• More power can be transmitted and received through satellite.
• They have the ability of more bands, therefore a microwave link have
the capacity of more channels than a coaxial cable.
• As they cover a large area, so they are cheap as compared to other
sources.
Disadvantages:
• They are costly.
• Transmission is not possible at poles through satellites.
• As the satellites are at much height there may be a time delay between
the sending signal and the receiving signals.

SUMMARY
• Newton’s law of Gravitation: In the universe, everybody attracts every other
body with a force which is directly proportional to the product of masses of the
two bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
their centers.
• Escape Velocity: It is the velocity acquired by a body in order to escape from
the gravitational field of the earth.
• Orbital Velocity: It is the velocity acquired by a body to move it around the
earth in a certain orbit.
• Geosynchronous Satellite: It is that satellite which appears to be stationary
from a certain point at the surface of earth.

EXERCISE
LONG QUESTIONS
1. State and explain Newton’s law of gravitation.
2. Describe Cavendish method to determine the gravitational constant.

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3. Find the value of escape velocity on the surface of earth.

4. Show that orbital velocity is inversely proportional to the square root of
the radius of the orbit.
5. Describe a Geostationary satellite. Find the radius of its orbit from the
surface of earth
6. Explain the transmission of data through satellite.
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. State Newton’s law of gravitation.
2. Define escape velocity.
3. Define orbital velocity.
4. Define geostationary satellite.
5. Define ground-ground communiation.
6. Define ground-cross link-ground communiation.
7. Define ground-user relay.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
Encircle the correct answer.
1. The value of universal gravitational constant G is
a) 6.2 × 10-11N .m2/kg2 b) 1.6 × 10-11 Coulomb
c) 9.1 × 10-31kg2 d) 10 N
2. The unit of force in C.G.S system is
a) Newton b) Erg c) Dyne d) Pound
3. A satellite can cover the area on earth
a) 25% b) 30% c) 35% d) 40%
4. A synchronous satellite can complete its cycle around the earth in
a) 12 hours b) 24 hours c) 36 hours d) 48 hours
5. The communication system of a satellite is like
a) Microwave repeater b) X–rays
c) –rays d) Ultraviolet rays

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