DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

INTRODUCTION
Limitations in design: The materials used for the machine and others such as
cooling etc., imposes a limitation in design. The limitations stem from saturation of
iron, current density in conductors, temperature, insulation, mechanical properties,
efficiency, power factor etc.

1. Saturation: Higher flux density reduces the volume of iron but drives the iron to
operate beyond knee of the magnetization curve or in the region of saturation.
Saturation of iron poses a limitation on account of increased core loss and excessive
excitation required to establish a desired value of flux. It also introduces harmonics.

2. Current density: Higher current density reduces the volume of copper but
increases the losses and temperature.

3. Temperature: poses a limitation on account of possible damage to insulation

and other materials.

4. Insulation (which is both mechanically and electrically weak): poses a limitation on account
of breakdown by excessive voltage gradient, mechanical forces or heat.

5. Mechanical strength of the materials poses a limitation particularly in case of

large and high speed machines.

6. High efficiency and high power factor poses a limitation on account of

higher capital cost. (A low value of efficiency and power factor on the other hand
results in a high maintenance cost).

7. Mechanical Commutation in dc motors or generators leads to poor

commutation.

Apart from the above factors Consumer, manufacturer or standard

specifications may pose a limitation.
Materials for Electrical Machines
Some of the desirable properties a good conductor should possess are listed below.
1. Low value of resistivity or high conductivity
2. Low value of temperature coefficient of resistance
3. High tensile strength
4. High melting point
5. High resistance to corrosion
6. Allow brazing, soldering or welding so that the joints are reliable
7. Highly malleable and ductile
8. Durable and cheap by cost.

The some of the properties that a good magnetic material should

possess are listed below.
1. Low reluctance or should be highly permeable or should have a high value of
relative permeability μr.
2. High saturation induction (to minimize weight and volume of iron parts)
3. High electrical resistivity so that the eddy EMF and the hence eddy current loss is
less
4. Narrow hysteresis loop or low Coercivity so that hysteresis loss is less and efficiency
of operation is high
5. A high curie point. (Above Curie point or temperature the material loses the
magnetic property or becomes paramagnetic, that is effectively non-magnetic)
6. Should have a high value of energy product (expressed in joules / m3).

Nickel iron alloys have high permeability and addition of molybdenum or chromium
leads to improved magnetic material. Nickel with iron in different proportion leads to
.‫ﺗﺘﻤﺘﻊ ﺳﺒﺎﺋﻚ اﻟﻨﯿﻜﻞ واﻟﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﺑﻨﻔﺎذﯾﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﯿﺔ وإﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﻟﯿﺒﺪﯾﻨﻮم أو اﻟﻜﺮوم ﺗﺆدي إﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﻤﻐﻨﺎطﯿﺴﯿﺔ‬
‫ﯾﺆدي اﻟﻨﯿﻜﻞ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﺑﻨﺴﺐ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ إﻟﻰ‬
(i) High nickel permalloy (iron +molybdenum +copper or chromium), used in current
transformers, magnetic amplifiers etc.
(ii) Low nickel Permalloy (iron +silicon +chromium or manganese), used in
transformers, induction coils, chokes etc.
(iii) Perminvor (iron +nickel +cobalt)
(iv) Pemendur (iron +cobalt +vanadium), used for microphones, oscilloscopes, etc.
(v) Mumetal (Copper + iron)
d) Amorphous alloys (often called metallic glasses):
Amorphous alloys are produced by rapid solidification of the alloy at cooling rates of
about a million degrees centigrade per second. The alloys solidify with a glass-like
atomic structure which is non-crystalline frozen liquid. The rapid cooling is achieved
by causing the molten alloy to flow through an orifice onto a rapidly rotating water
cooled drum. This can produce sheets as thin as 10μm and a meter or more wide.
Insulating materials.
To avoid any electrical activity between parts at different potentials, insulation is used.
An ideal insulating material should possess the following properties.
1) Should have high dielectric strength.
 2) Should with stand high temperature.
3) Should have good thermal conductivity
4) Should not undergo thermal oxidation
5) Should not deteriorate due to higher temperature and repeated heat cycle
6) Should have high value of resistivity (like 1018 Ωcm)
7) Should not consume any power or should have a low dielectric loss angle δ
8) Should withstand stresses due to centrifugal forces (as in rotating machines), electro
dynamic or mechanical forces (as in transformers)
9) Should withstand vibration, abrasion, bending
10) Should not absorb moisture
11) Should be flexible and cheap
12) Liquid insulators should not evaporate or volatilize

Insulating materials can be classified as Solid, Liquid and Gas,

and vacuum
Solid:
Used with field, armature, and transformer windings etc. The examples are:
1) Fibrous or inorganic animal or plant origin, natural or synthetic paper, wood, card
board, cotton, jute, silk etc.
2) Plastic or resins. Natural resins-lac, amber, shellac etc.
Synthetic resins-phenol formaldehyde, melamine, polyesters, epoxy, silicon resins,
bakelite, Teflon, PVC etc.
3) Rubber: natural rubber, synthetic rubber-butadiene, silicone rubber, hypalon, etc.
4) Mineral: mica, marble, slate, talc chloride etc.
5) Ceramic: porcelain, steatite, alumina etc.
6) Glass: soda lime glass, silica glass, lead glass, borosilicate glass
7) Non-resinous: mineral waxes, asphalt, bitumen, chlorinated naphthalene, enamel etc.
Liquid:
Used in transformers, circuit breakers, reactors, rheostats, cables, capacitors etc., & for
impregnation. The examples are:
1) Mineral oil (petroleum by product)
2) Synthetic oil askarels, pyranols etc.
3) Varnish, French polish, lacquer epoxy resin etc.
Gaseous:
1) Air used in switches, air condensers, transmission and distribution lines etc.,
2) Nitrogen use in capacitors, HV gas pressure cables etc.,
3) Hydrogen though not used as a dielectric, generally used as a coolant
4) Inert gases neon, argon, mercury and sodium vapors generally used for neon sign
lamps.
5) Halogens like fluorine, used under high pressure in cables
 No insulating material in practice satisfies all the desirable properties. Therefore a
material which satisfies most of the desirable properties must be selected.

Choice of Specific Electrical and Magnetic loadings

1- Specific magnetic loading:
Following are the factors which influences the performance of the machine.

(i) Iron loss: A high value of flux density in the air gap leads to higher value of flux in
the iron parts of the machine which results in increased iron losses and reduced
efficiency.
(ii) Voltage: When the machine is designed for higher voltage space occupied by the
insulation becomes more thus making the teeth smaller and hence higher flux density
in teeth and core.
(iii) Transient short circuit current: A high value of gap density results in decrease in
leakage reactance and hence increased value of armature current under short circuit
conditions.
(iv) Stability: The maximum power output of a machine under steady state condition
is indirectly proportional to synchronous reactance. If higher value of flux density is
used it leads to smaller number of turns per phase in armature winding. This results
in reduced value of leakage reactance and hence increased value of power and hence
increased steady state stability.
(v) Parallel operation: The satisfactory parallel operation of synchronous generators
depends on the synchronizing power. Higher the synchronizing power higher will be
the ability of the machine to operate in synchronism. The synchronizing power is
inversely proportional to the synchronous reactance and hence the machines designed
with higher value air gap flux density will have better ability to operate in parallel
with other machines.
2- Specific Electric Loading:
Following are the some of the factors which influence the choice of specific electric
loadings.
(i) Copper loss: Higher the value of q larger will be the number of armature of
conductors which results in higher copper loss. This will result in higher temperature
rise and reduction in efficiency.
(ii) Voltage: A higher value of q can be used for low voltage machines since the space
required for the insulation will be smaller.
(iii) Synchronous reactance: High value of q leads to higher value of leakage reactance
and armature reaction and hence higher value of synchronous reactance. Such
machines will have poor voltage regulation, lower value of current under short circuit
condition and low value of steady state stability limit and small value of synchronizing
power.
(iv) Stray load losses: With increase of q stray load losses will increase.

Standard specifications.
1. Output: kW (for generators), kW or Hp (for motors)
2. Voltage: V volt
3. Speed: N rpm
4. Rating: Continuous or Short time
5. Temperature rise: θ0C for an ambient temperature of 400C
6. Cooling: Natural or forced cooling
7. Type: Generator or motor, separately excited or self-excited-shunt, series, or
compound, if compound type of connection – long or short shunt, type of
compounding – cumulative or differential, degree of compounding – over, under or
level. With or without inter poles, with or without compensating windings, with or
without equalizer rings in case of lap winding.
8. Voltage regulation (in case of generators): Range and method
9. Speed control (in case of motors): range and method of control
10. Efficiency: must be as for as possible high (As the efficiency increases, cost of the
machine also increases).
11. Type of enclosure: based on the field of application – totally enclosed, screen
protected, drip proof, flame proof, etc.
12. Size of the machine etc.

Q1) Name the magnetic materials used for Yoke, Transformer Stampings and
permanent magnet.
Yoke of a dc machine, transformer stamping, permanent magnet
Yoke of a dc machine – cast steel
Transformer stamping – silicon steel
Permanent magnet – hard magnetic material (Al, Ni, Co)

Q2) what are the electrical properties of insulating materials?

• high dielectric strength
• high resistivity
• low dielectric hysteresis
• good thermal conductivity
• high thermal stability
Q3) Mention the methods used for calculating the mmf for tapered teeth.
• Graphical method
• Three ordinate method ( Simpson’s Rule)
 Bt 1/3 Method

Q4) Define field form factor.

Field form factor Kf is defined as
Kf = (Average gap density over the pole pitch Bav) / (Maximum flux density in the gap Bg)
Where Bav = Flux per pole / area per pole = Ǿ / ((Π D / p) * L)

Q5) Mention the different types of duties of a machine.

The following are the types of duty “Specification for rotating electric machinery”
 S1 = Continuous duty
 S2 = Short time duty
 S3 = Intermittent periodic duty
 S4 = Intermittent periodic duty with starting
 S5 = Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking
 S6 = Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
 S7 = Continuous duty with starting and braking
 S8 = Continuous duty with periodic speed changes

Q6) What are the major considerations to evolve a good design of electrical machine?
The major considerations to achieve a good electrical machine are
 Specific electric loading
 Specific magnetic loading
 Temperature rise
 Efficiency
 Length of air gap
 Power factor

Q7) List the different types of slots that are used in rotating machines.
The different types of slots are
1- Parallel sided slots with flat bottom
2- Parallel sided slots with circular bottom
3- Tapered slots with flat bottom
4- Tapered slots with circular bottom
5- Circular slots
Q7) State the parameters governing slot utilization factor or slot space factor.
The following factors decide the slot utilization factor:
 Voltage rating
 Thickness of insulation
 Number of conductors per slot
 Area of cross-section of the conductor
 Dimensions of the conductor

DC machine
Let the different factors affecting the choice of number of poles be discussed based on
the use of more number of poles.
1. Frequency
2. Weight of the iron used for the yoke
3. Weight of iron used for the armature core (from the core loss point of view)
4. Weight of overhang copper
5. Armature reaction
6. Overall diameter
7. Length of the commutator
8. Flash over
9. Labour charges(Labor Fees) ‫رﺳﻮم اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬

Q) What is the advantage of large number of poles?

1. weight of iron parts decreases
2. weight of copper part decreases
3. length of commutator reduces
4. overall length of machine reduces
5. Distortion of field form becomes less at full load condition.

Q) What are the effects of armature reaction?

1 Reduction in emf
2 Increase in iron loss
3 Sparking and ring fire
4 Delayed commutation
Q) What purpose is served by the pole shoe in a D.C. machine?
The pole shoes serve the following purposes:
1. They spread out the flux in the air gap.
2. Since they are of larger cross section, the reluctance of the magnetic path is
reduced.
3. They support the field coils.

Q) What are the factors to be considered for the selection of number of poles in dc
machine?
The factors to be considered for the selection of number of poles in dc machine are:
1 Frequency
2 Weight of iron parts
3 Weight of copper
4 Length of commutator
5 Lab our charges
6 Flash over and distortion of field mmf

Q) Mention guiding factors for the selection of number of poles.

1 The frequency should lie between 25 to 50 Hz.
2 The value of current per parallel path is limited to 200A, thus the current per
brush arm should not be more than 400A.
3 The armature mmf should not be too large. The mmf per pole should be in the
range 5000 to 12,500 AT.
4 Choose the largest value of poles which satisfies the above three conditions.

Transformer
What is a function of a transformer?
1-It increases or decreases the voltage at same frequency.
2- It transforms energy from one winding to other winding at constant frequency.
3-It is used in electronic circuits with rectifying units to convert ac to dc.
4- It provides isolation between to electrical circuits.

Name the types of transformer.

Based upon construction, the types are
1- Core type and
 2- Shell type transformer

Based on applications, the types are

1- Distribution transformers
2- Power transformers
3- Special transformers
4- Instrument transformers
5- Electronics transformers

Based on the type of connection, the types are

1- Single phase transformer
2- Three phase transformer

Based on the frequency range, the types are

1- Power frequency transformer
2-Audio frequency transformer
3- UHF transformers
4- Wide band transformers
5-Narrow band transformer
6- Pulse transformer

Based on the number of windings, the types are

1- Auto transformer
2-Two winding transformer

Methods of cooling of Transformers.

1. Air natural
2. Air blast
3. Oil natural
4. Oil natural – air forced
5. Oil natural water forced
6. Forced circulation of oil
7. Oil forced – air natural
8. Oil forced – air forced
9. Oil forced – water forced
What is the cause of noise in transformer?
1- Mechanical forces developed during working
2- Loosening of stampings in the core
3- Expansion and contraction of oil level
8. What are the properties of transformer oil?
1- High dielectric strength
2- High resistivity and density
3- Low viscosity
4- Low impurity
5- Reasonable cost and flash point

Mention the important characteristics desirable in transformer oil.

Electric strength
Resistance to emulsion ‫ﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺤﻠﺐ‬
Viscosity
Purity
Flash point
Sludge formation ‫ﺗﻜﻮﯾﻦ اﻟﺤﻤﺄة‬

Name the factors to be considered to choose the type of winding for

a core type transformer.
1- Current density
2- Short circuit current
3- Surge voltage
4- Impedance
5- Temperature rise
6- Transport facilities

List the assumptions made for calculation of leakage flux and

leakage reactance.
1-The primary and secondary windings have an equal axial length
2-The flux paths are parallel to the windings along the axial height
3-Primary winding mmf is equal to secondary winding mmf
4-Half of the leakage flux in the duct links with each winding
5-The length of the mean turn of the windings are equal
6-The reluctance of flux path through yoke is negligible
What type of steel is commonly used for the core of transformer?
The hot rolled and cold rolled silicon steel with 3 to 5%silicon are used for the
laminations of the core of transformers. The hot rolled silicon steel allows a maximum
flux density of 1.45 Wb/m2 and the cold rolled silicon steel permits a maximum flux
density of 1.8 Wb/m2.

What is tertiary winding?

Some three phase transformers may have a third winding called tertiary winding
apart from primary and secondary. It is also called auxiliary winding or stabilizing
winding.
The tertiary winding is provided in a transformer for any one of the following reasons:
1- To supply small additional load at a different voltage
2- To give supply to phase compensating devices such as capacitors which work at
different voltage
3- To limit short circuit current
4- To indicate voltage in high voltage testing transformer

Induction motor
The advantages and disadvantages of larger air gap length.
Advantages:
(i) Increased overload capacity
(ii) Increased cooling
(iii) Reduced unbalanced magnetic pull
(iv) Reduced in tooth pulsation
(v) Reduced noise
Disadvantages
(i) Increased Magnetizing current
(ii) Reduced power factor

Selection of number of rotor slots:

The number of rotor slots may be selected using the following guide lines.
(i) To avoid cogging and crawling: (a)Ss Sr (b) Ss - Sr ±3P
(ii) To avoid synchronous hooks and cusps in torque speed characteristics ±P, ±2P, ±5P.
(iii) To noisy operation Ss - Sr ±1, ±2, (±P ±1), (±P ±2)
 The rotors with closed slots are giving better performance to the motor in the
following way.
1- As the rotor is closed the rotor surface is smooth at the air gap and hence the motor
draws lower magnetizing current.
2- Reduced noise as the air gap characteristics are better
3- Increased leakage reactance and
4- Reduced starting current.
5- Over load capacity is reduced
6- Undesirable and complex air gap characteristics. From the above it can be concluded
that semiclosed slots are more suitable and hence are employed in rotors

Why the low voltage winding is placed nearer to the core and the high voltage winding
in case of a core type transformer?
1- Insulation required will be less
2- Less possibility for fault occurrence
3- Easy to provide tapings

Stepped core section is preferred to a square section for transformer, give reason?
1-Diameter of circumscribing circle can be reduced giving use of less copper
2-Due to increase in core area flux density can be reduced which results less iron loss.

What are the ranges of efficiency and power factor in induction motor?
Squirrel cage motor: Efficiency = 72 to 91% Power factor= 0.66 to 0.9
Slip ring motor: Efficiency = 84 to 91% Power factor= 0.7 to 0.92.

Name the methods used for reducing harmonic torques.

1- Chording
2- Integral slot winding
3- Skewing and
4- Increasing the length of air gap

What is Skewing?
Skewing is twisting either the stator or rotor core. The motor noise, vibrations,
cogging and synchronous cusps can be reduced or even entirely eliminated by
skewing either the stator or the rotor.

What are the problems that occur in induction motor due to certain combinations
of stator and rotor slots?
The problems in induction motor due to certain combinations of stator and rotor slots
are:
1-The motor may refuse to start
2-The motor may crawl at some sub-synchronous speed
3-Severe vibrations are developed and so the noise will be excessive

What are the special features of the cage rotor of induction machine?
1-The cage rotor can adopt itself for any number of phases and poles
2-It is suitable for any type of starting method except using rotor resistance starter
3- It is cheaper and rugged
4-Rotor over hang leakage reactance is lesser which results in better power factor,
greater pull out torque and over load capacity.

What is crawling and cogging?

Crawling is a phenomenon in which the induction motor runs at a speed lesser than
sub synchronous speed.
Cogging is a phenomenon in which the induction motor refuses to start.

What is harmonic induction torque and harmonic synchronous torque?

Harmonic induction torques are torques produced by harmonic fields due to stator
winding and slots.
Harmonic synchronous torques are torques produced by the combined effect of same
order of stator and rotor harmonic fields.

Mention the factors that govern the design of field system of alternator.
1-Number of poles and voltage across each field coil
2-Amp-turn per pole
3-Copper loss in field coil
4-Dissipating surface of field coil
5-Specific loss dissipation and allowable temperature rise

What are the factors that are affected due to SCR.?

1-Voltage regulation
2-Stability
3-Short circuit current
4-Parallel operation
 Synchronous machines
Specific magnetic loading:
Following are the factors which influences the performance of the machine.
(1)Iron loss: A high value of flux density in the air gap leads to higher value of flux in
the iron parts of the machine which results in increased iron losses and reduced
efficiency.
(2) Voltage: When the machine is designed for higher voltage space occupied by the
insulation becomes more thus making the teeth smaller and hence higher flux density
in teeth and core.
(3) Transient short circuit current: A high value of gap density results in decrease in
leakage reactance and hence increased value of armature current under short circuit
conditions.
(4) Stability: The maximum power output of a machine under steady state condition is
indirectly proportional to synchronous reactance. If higher value of flux density is
used it leads to smaller number of turns per phase in armature winding. This results
in reduced value of leakage reactance and hence increased value of power and hence
increased steady state stability.
(5) Parallel operation: The satisfactory parallel operation of synchronous generators
depends on the synchronizing power. Higher the synchronizing power higher will be
the ability of the machine to operate in synchronism. The synchronizing power is
inversely proportional to the synchronous reactance and hence the machines designed
with higher value air gap flux density will have better ability to operate in parallel
with other machines.
Specific Electric Loading:
Following are the some of the factors which influence the choice of specific electric
loadings.
(1) Copper loss: Higher the value of q larger will be the number of armature of
conductors which results in higher copper loss. This will result in higher temperature
rise and reduction in efficiency.
(2) Voltage: A higher value of q can be used for low voltage machines since the space
required for the insulation will be smaller.
(3) Synchronous reactance: High value of q leads to higher value of leakage reactance
and armature reaction and hence higher value of synchronous reactance. Such
machines will have poor voltage regulation, lower value of current under short circuit
condition and low value of steady state stability limit and small value of synchronizing
power.
(4) Stray load losses: With increase of q stray load losses will increase. Values of
specific magnetic and specific electric loading can be selected from Design Data Hand
Book for salient and non-salient pole machines.

Short circuit ratio

 Hence, choice of air gap length is very critical in case of synchronous machines.
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of larger air gap.
Advantages:
(i)Stability: Higher value of stability limit
(ii)Regulation: Smaller value of inherent regulation
(iii)Synchronizing power: Higher value of synchronizing power
(iv)Cooling: Better cooling
(v)Noise: Reduction in noise
(vi)Magnetic pull: Smaller value of unbalanced magnetic pull
Disadvantages:
(i)Field MMF: Larger value of field MMF is required
(ii)Size: Larger diameter and hence larger size
(iii)Magnetic leakage: Increased magnetic leakage
(iv)Weight of copper: Higher weight of copper in the field winding
(v)Cost: Increase overall cost.

Design of damper winding

1-Damper windings are provided in the pole faces of salient pole alternators. Damper
windings are nothing but the copper or aluminum bars housed in the slots of the pole
faces.
2-The ends of the damper bars are short circuited at the ends by short circuiting rings
similar to end rings as in the case of squirrel cage rotors.
3-These damper windings are serving the function of providing mechanical balance;
provide damping effect, reduce the effect of over voltages and damp out hunting in
case of alternators.
4-In case of synchronous motors they act as rotor bars and help in self-starting of the
motor.

The advantages and disadvantages of double layer windings.

Advantages:
(i) Better waveform: by using short pitched coil
(ii) Saving in copper: Length of the overhang is reduced by using short pitched coils
(iii) Lower cost of coils: saving in copper leads to reduction in cost
(iv) Fractional slot windings: Only in double layer winding, leads to improvement in
waveform
Disadvantages:
(i) Difficulty in repair: difficult to repair lower layer coils
(ii) Difficulty in inserting the last coil: Difficulty in inserting the last coil of the windings
(iii) Higher Insulation: More insulation is required for double layer winding
(iv) Wider slot opening: increased air gap reluctance and noise
The following points are to be considered for the selection of number of
slots.
Advantages:
(i) Reduced leakage reactance
(ii) Better cooling
(iii) Decreased tooth ripples
Disadvantages:
(1) Higher cost
(2) Teeth becomes mechanically weak
(3) Higher flux density in teeth
(4) Slot loading must be less than 1500 ac/slot
(5) Slot pitch must be within the following limitations
(a) Low voltage machines 3.5 cm
(b) Medium voltage machines up to 6kV 5.5 cm
(c) High voltage machines up to 15 kV 7.5 cm

A suitable value of current density has to be assumed considering

Advantages of higher value of current density:
(i) reduction in cross section
(ii) reduction in weight
(iii) reduction in cost
Disadvantages of higher value of current density
(i) Increase in resistance
(ii) increase in cu loss
(iii) increase in temperature rise
(iv) reduction in efficiency
Hence higher value is assumed for low voltage machines and small machines. Usual
value of current density for stator windings is 3 to 5 amps/mm2.

How to reduce the harmonic effects?

1-Short pitch winding
2-Distributed winding
3-Fractional slot winding
4-Large air gap length

Mention the factors to be considered for the selection of number of armature slots?
1-Balanced windings
2-Cost
3-Host spot temperature in winding
4-Leakage reaction
5-Tooth losses
6-Tooth flux density

Mention the advantages of fractional slot winding.

1-In low speed machines with large number of poles, the fractional slot winding will
reduce tooth harmonics.
2-A range of machines with different speeds can be designed with a single lamination.
3-The fractional slot winding reduces the harmonics in mf and the leakage reactance
of the windings.
4-The fractional slot winding allows only short chorded winding. Therefore the length
of mean turn of a coil reduces which results in shorter end connections and so saving
in copper.

What are the advantages of large air gap in synchronous machines?

The advantages of large air gap are:
1-Reduction in armature reaction
2-Small value of regulation
3-Higher value of stability
4-Better cooling
5-Lower tooth pulsation losses
6-Smaller unbalanced magnetic pull
 CH3: Heat and cooling of electrical machine
EX 3.12
A 50 MVA turbo-alternator has a total loss of 1500 KW. Calculate the
volume of air required per second and also the fan power if the temperature
rise in the machine is to be limited to 30 º C. the other data given is: Inlet
temperature of air =25 º C, Barometric height = 760 mm
Pressure = 2KN/m2 , fan efficiency = 0.4 Assume that: Specific heat of air
at constant pressure Cp = 995 J/Kg- º C, Volume of 1 kg of air at (N.T.P) V =
0.775 m3
Solution
Q =1500 KW , θº =25 º C , θ = 30 º C , H = 760mm.
𝑸𝑸 𝜽𝜽°+𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
Va =0.78 × × m3/s
𝜽𝜽 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐+𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
Va = × 0.78 × × = 42.6 m3/s
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕

EX 3.17
A 500 MW direct water-cooled turbo-alternator has a stator copper loss of
800 KW the water inlet temperature is 38 º C and the outlet temperature is
68 º C calculate amount of water required per second. And also calculate the
area of water duct in each sub conductor if there are 48 slots with 2
conductors per slot and each conductor is subdivided into 32 sub-
conductors. The velocity is not to exceed 1 m/s
The pumping pressure is 300 KN/m2, calculate the power of
water pump if its efficiency is 60%.
Solution
Temperature rise of water θ = 68 – 38 = 30 º C.
The volume of water required
.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝑸𝑸 𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ×𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
Vw = = = 6.4 litre /sec = 6.4 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏-3 m3 /s
𝜽𝜽 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

Total number of stator conductors = 2 × 48 = 96

Total number of sub-conductors = 96 × 32 = 3072
The volume of water required for each sub-conductors
𝟎𝟎.𝟒𝟒
= = 0.00208 L/s
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯/𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 ×.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Area of each duct = = ≈ 2mm2
𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯 𝟏𝟏
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟔𝟔.𝟒𝟒×𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Pumping power = × 10-3 =3.2 KW.
𝟎𝟎.𝟔𝟔

CH4: Magnetic circuits

Ex 4.2
Calculate the mmf required for the air gab of a machine having core length
= 0.32m including 4 duct of 10mm each pole arc = 0.19 m , slot pitch =
65.4mm , slot opening =5mm , air gap length = 5mm , flux per pole
=52mWb. Given carter’s co-efficient is 0.18 for opening /gap =1 , and is 0.28
opening /gap = 2.
Solution
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓
Ratio = =1
𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓

Carter’s co-efficient for slots Kcs = 0.18.

This is a salient pole machine with semi-enclosed slots.
𝐘𝐘𝐘𝐘
Gap contraction factor for slots Kgs =
𝐘𝐘𝐘𝐘−𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊∗𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔.𝟒𝟒
= =1.014
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔.𝟒𝟒−𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟓𝟓
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 𝟏𝟏
Ratio = = 2.
𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓

Carter’s co-efficient for ducts Kcd =0.28

𝐋𝐋
Gap contraction factor for ducts Kgd =
𝐋𝐋−𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊∗𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖
𝟎𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
= =1.036
𝟎𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑−𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐×𝟒𝟒×𝟏𝟏×.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Total gap contraction factor Kg = Kgs* Kgd=1.014*1.036 =1.05
𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟/𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩
Flux density at the centre of pole Bp =
𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚∗𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥
.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
= =0.0854 Wb/m2
𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟎𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

Mmf required for air gap = 800,000 Kg Bp lg

= 800,000 * 1.05 * 0.854 * 5 *10-3
= 3587
Ex 4.4
A 175 MVA, 20 pole water wheel generator has a core of length 1.72 m and
diameter of 6.5m. the stator slots (open) have a width of 22 mm , the slot
pitch being 64 mm and air gap length at the centre of the pole is 30 mm.
there are 41 radial ventilating ducts each 6 mm wide. The total mmf per pole
is 27000 A. the mmf required for the air gap is 87% of the total mmf per
pole. Estimate the average flux density in the air gap if the field form factor
is 0.7. The carter’s co-efficient can be calculated from the following
relationship
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏
Kc= 𝛑𝛑 [tan-1( y) - 𝐲𝐲 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 �𝟏𝟏 + 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 ]

Where: y = Ws /lg for slots

= Wd/2 lg for ducts
Where Ws, Wd are width of slot and duct respectively and lg is length of air
gap
Solution
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Ratio =y= = 0.367
𝟐𝟐(𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍) 𝟐𝟐∗𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏
Carter’s co-efficient for slots Kcs = [tan-1( y) - 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 �𝟏𝟏 + 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 ]
𝛑𝛑 𝐲𝐲
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏
= [tan-1( 0.367) - 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 √𝟏𝟏 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐 ] =.176
𝛑𝛑 𝟎𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
 𝐘𝐘𝐘𝐘 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
Gap contraction factor for slots Kgs= =
𝐘𝐘𝐘𝐘−𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊∗𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔−𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∗𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

= 1.1064
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 𝟔𝟔
Ratio =y= = 0.1
𝟐𝟐(𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍) 𝟐𝟐∗𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏
Carter’s co-efficient for ducts Kcd= [tan-1( y) - 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 �𝟏𝟏 + 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 ]
𝛑𝛑 𝐲𝐲
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏
= [tan-1( 0.1) - 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 √𝟏𝟏 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 ] =.05
𝛑𝛑 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏

𝐋𝐋
Gap contraction factor for ducts Kgd =
𝐋𝐋−𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊∗𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍∗𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
= = 1.007
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎∗𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒∗𝟔𝟔

Total gap expansion factor Kg = 1.1064 * 1.007 = 1.114

Mmf required for air gap A Tg = 0.87 * 27000 = 23490 A
But A Tg = 800,000 Kg B lg
𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
B= = = 0.8786 Wb/m2
𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖,𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖,𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎∗𝟏𝟏.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∗𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑∗.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

Average flux density in the air gap

Bavg = Ks B = 0.7 * 0.8786 = 0.615 Wb/m2
Ex 4.12
A specimen of cold rolled grain oriented 0.3 mm thick stampings has a
resistivity of 0.5 * 10-6 Ωm. the published hysteresis loop is essentially
rectangular in form with a co-ercive force of 1 A/m for all values of peak flux
densities up to 1.6Wb/m2. The manufacture quotes the iron loss in the
material as 1.2 W/kg with a sinusoidal flux density 1.0 Wb/m2 (peak) at 100
Hz. Calculate the loss in the material from its properties and compare it with
the quote value. The mass density is 7650kg/m2
Solution
Material is subjected to a peak Flux density of 1Wb/m2 and therefore the
value of co-ercive ‫ ﻗﮭﺮي‬force is 12 A/m for all values of flux densities to
which the material is subjected the hysteresis loop is thus a rectangle with
sides 2 * 12 =24 A/m and 2* 1 =2Wb/m2
Loss per cycle = area of hysteresis loop = 24 * 2 = 48 W.s/m2
Hysteresis loss at 100Hz,
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒∗𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Ph = = 0.627W/kg
𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
𝟐𝟐 𝐥𝐥𝟐𝟐
𝛑𝛑𝟐𝟐 𝐟𝐟 𝟐𝟐 𝐁𝐁𝐦𝐦 𝟐𝟐 𝐥𝐥𝟐𝟐
𝛑𝛑𝟐𝟐 𝐟𝐟 𝟐𝟐 𝐁𝐁𝐦𝐦
Pe = W/m3 = W/kg
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔∗𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕

𝛑𝛑𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟐 (𝟎𝟎.𝟑𝟑∗ .𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)𝟐𝟐

= = 0.387 W/kg
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔⋅𝟓𝟓×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟔𝟔 ×𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
total specific iron losses Pi = 0.627+0.387 = 1.014 W/kg
The calculated iron loss is smaller than the quote
Ex 4.14
A laminated iron cylinder is rotated in a magnetic field. The iron losses is 250
w at 600 rpm and 312 w at 712 rpm. Find the loss if the limitation where
twice as thick, the induction density increased by 20 % and the speed were
720 rpm take stinmetz coefficient as 1.6.
Solution
The frequency of pulsations is proportional to rotational speed let N be the
speed in rpm and Vi be is a volume of iron
𝛑𝛑𝟐𝟐 𝐟𝐟 𝟐𝟐 𝐁𝐁𝐦𝐦
𝟐𝟐 𝐥𝐥𝟐𝟐
Eddy current losses Pe = * Vi
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔

𝛑𝛑𝟐𝟐 𝐀𝐀𝟐𝟐 𝐍𝐍𝟐𝟐 𝐁𝐁𝐦𝐦

𝟐𝟐 𝐥𝐥𝟐𝟐
= * Vi = Ks` N2
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
Where f = AN and A is a constant since is a frequency of flux pulsations is
the directly proportional to speed of rotation
 Ph = Kh f B1.6 Vi = Kh AN B1.6 Vi = Kh` N
Total iron loss Pi = Ks`N2 + Kh`N
500 = Ks` (480)2 + Kh` (480) …( i )
312 = Ks` (600)2 + Kh` (600) …( ii )
From relation ( i ) and ( ii )
Ks` = 0.00104 , Kh` = 0.5425
The hysteresis loss increases in Direct proportional frequency (which is
proportional to speed in this case) flux density raised to power 1.6 and is
independent of thickness of limitation the eddy current loss on the other
hand increases in proportional to flux density squared frequency squared
and square of thickness of limitations.
Total loss B increased by 20 %, thickness increase to twice the original
value and N = 720 rpm
Pi = 0.00104 (720)2 *1.22 *2 + 0.5425 * (720) * 1.21.6 = 3622 W

EX 4.15
A 75 KW, 50Hz, 2 pole machines with sinusoidally distributed flux has the
following designed data:
Axial length of core =0.2 m, stator bore = 0.5 m, length of air gap = 5 mm.
peak magnetizing mmf per pole = 4500 A. calculate
I.Magnitude pull per pole when the rotor is symmetrically centred,
II.Unbalanced magnetic pull if the rotor axis is displaced by 1mm,
III.Ratio of unbalanced magnetic pull to useful force. Neglected saturation
Solution
Since there is no saturation the entire magnetizing MMF per pole is used for
air gap
𝝁𝝁𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒∗𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟕𝟕 ×𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
Peak value of flux density Bm = =
𝑳𝑳𝒈𝒈 𝟓𝟓×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑
 =1.13Wb/m2

(i) The flux distribution in sinusoidal,

𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝒎𝒎
Magnetic pull per pole = 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫
𝟑𝟑𝝁𝝁𝒐𝒐

𝟏𝟏⋅𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 ×𝟎𝟎⋅𝟓𝟓×𝟎𝟎⋅𝟐𝟐
= = 33900 N = 33.9 KN
𝟑𝟑×𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟕𝟕

(ii) Unbalanced magnetic pull per pair of poles:

𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟏
Pp = 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫
𝟒𝟒𝝁𝝁𝒐𝒐 𝒍𝒍𝒈𝒈

𝝅𝝅∗𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓∗𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏
= * (1.13)2 * =16000N =16 KN
𝟒𝟒∗𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟕𝟕 𝟓𝟓
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐∗𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
(iii) Speed = = = 50 r.p.s
𝒑𝒑 𝟐𝟐
𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
Useful torque T = = 23807 N.m
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∗𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
𝑻𝑻 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟕𝟕
Useful force F = = = 954.8 N ≈ 0.95 KN
𝑫𝑫/𝟐𝟐 .𝟓𝟓/𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Ratio of Unbalancing magnetic ball to use the full Force =
.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗

=16.8
 CH6: Armature windings
Ex 6.15
Find out whether the following windings are symmetrical or not :
(a) 6 pole, 37 slot, 2 coil sides per slot, simplex wave winding.
(b) 4 pole, 30 slot, 2 coil sides per slot, simplex wave winding.
(c) 8 pole, 126 slot, 6 coil sides per slot, duplex wave winding.
(d) 10 pole, 81 slot, 6 coil sides per slot, duplex wave winding.
Solution
(a) Numbers of coils C =0.5 * u * s = 0.5 * 2 * 37 = 37
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐±𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐∗𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 ±𝟐𝟐
ys = = = 12, (an integer ).
𝒑𝒑 𝟔𝟔

There are no dummy coils also p/a = 3 (integer) as a =2 therefore, it is a

symmetrical winding.
(b) Numbers of coils C =0.5 * u * s = 0.5 * 2 * 30 = 30
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐±𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐∗𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 ±𝟐𝟐
ys = = = not an integer .
𝒑𝒑 𝟒𝟒

So simplex wave winding is not possible.

Making one coil as dummy C = 29 ys = 15, 14.
(c) Numbers of coils C =0.5 * u * s = 0.5 * 6 * 126 = 378
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐±𝟒𝟒 𝟐𝟐∗𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 ±𝟒𝟒
For duplex ys = = = 95,94 ( an integer ).
𝒑𝒑 𝟖𝟖

No dummy coils are used

For duplex wave winding a= 4 .
Applying conditions of symmetry, 2S/a =2*126/4=53(integer)
p/a= 8/4=2 (integer).
Therefore the winding is symmetrical
(d) Number of coils C = 0.5 * 6 * 81= 243
For duplex wave winding
 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐±𝟒𝟒 𝟐𝟐∗𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ±𝟒𝟒
ys = = = 49 (integer).
𝒑𝒑 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
There for, no dummy coils are used. Applying conditions of symmetry: p/a =
10/4= 2.5, not an integer. Therefore, the winding is not symmetrical.
EX 6.24
Draw a winding diagram for a 4 pole, 24 slots, and 3 phases much connected
Armature.
Solution
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Slots per pole per phase = =2
𝟑𝟑∗𝟒𝟒

Coil span = 24/4 = 6 slots. This is an even number and hence winding is not
possible with a coil span of slots. A coil span of 5 slots is used,
The slots allotted to various phases are:
R 1,2 7,8 13,14 19,20
B 3,4 9,10 15,16 21,22
R 5,6 11,12 17,18 23,24
 EX 6.34
The flux distribution curve of Smooth core, 4 pole, 1500 r.p.m synchronous
generator is :
B = sin(θ) +0.25 sin(3θ) + 0.2 sin(5θ) + 0.1 sin(7θ) Wb/m2
Where θ is measured from interpolar axis. The pole pitch is 0.4 m and the core
length is 0.3 m determine the equation of induced EMF per turn and its RMS
value if
The coil are full pitch,
The coil are chorded by 4/5 of pole pitch comment on the result obtained
Solution
Area of each pole (fundamental) A1 = pole pitch * core length = 0.4 * 0.3 = 0.12
m2
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
Fundamental component of flux per pole = Bm1 A1 = *1*0.12 =0.0764 Wb
𝝅𝝅 𝝅𝝅

the distribution Factor for fundamental and harmonics is 1 as we are

considering only one turn.
Kd1 = Kd3 = Kd5 = Kd7 = 1.
(i) For full pitch coils, the pitch factor for fundamental and all the harmonics is
1. Or Kp1 = Kp3 = Kp5 = Kp7 = 1.
Winding Factor for fundamental and all harmonics is 1.
Or Kw1 = Kw3 = Kw5 = Kw7 = 1.
E1 = 4.44Ф f Kw1 =4.44 * 0.0764 * 50 * 1 = 17 v
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
Nth harmonic induced emf per turn Etn = Et1
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∗𝟏𝟏
Et3 = Et1 = 17 = 4.25 v
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟏∗𝟏𝟏
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐∗𝟏𝟏
Et5 = Et1 = 17 = 3.40 v
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟏∗𝟏𝟏
 𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏∗𝟏𝟏
Et7 = Et1 = 17 = 1.7 v
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟏∗𝟏𝟏

The equation of induced emf in a turn is

=√𝟐𝟐 [17 sin (wt) +4.25 sin (3wt) + 3.4 sin (5θwt) + 1.7 sin (7wt)]

Rms value of induced emf per turn =�𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟑𝟑 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟓𝟓 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟕𝟕

=√𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 + 𝟒𝟒. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟐 =17.93 v

(ii) coil span = 4/5 *180º = 144º
Angle of chording a =180-144º = 36º
Pitch factor for fundamental Kp1 = cos (a/2) =cos 18º = 0.951
Pitch factor for harmonics Kpn = cos (n a/2)
Kp3 = cos (3*18º) = 0.5878
Kp5 = cos (5*18º) = 0.0
Kp7 = cos (7*18º) = -0.5878
Winding factors for the fundamental and harmonics are:
Kw1 = Kd1 Kp1 = 0.95, Kw3 = Kd3 Kp3 = 0.5878,
Kw5 = Kd5 Kp5 = 0.0, Kw7 = Kd7 Kp7 = -0.5878
Proceeding as in part (i)
E1 = 4.44Ф f Kw1 =4.44 * 0.0764 * 50 * 0.9511 = 16.1 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∗𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
Et3 = Et1 = 16.1 = 2.49 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟏∗𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐∗𝟎𝟎
Et5 = Et1 = 16.1 =0V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟏∗𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏∗𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
Et7 = Et1 = 16.1 = 0.995 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟏∗𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
The equation of induced emf in a turn is
√𝟐𝟐 [16.1 sin(wt) +2.49 sin(3wt) + 0 sin(5θwt) – 0.995sin(7wt)]

Rms value of induced emf per turn =�𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟑𝟑 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟓𝟓 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟕𝟕

=√𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟐𝟐 =16.35 V

EX 6.35
A 3 phase 4 pole 50 Hz machine has an armature with diameter of 0.25 m and
length 0.3 m. the equation for flux density distribution is:
B =0.15 sin (θ) +0.03 sin (3θ) + 0.02 sin (5θ) Wb/m2
Double layer winding is used for the armature which has 60 coil with 10 turns
per coil this phase spread is 60 º
(a) Determine the voltage generated per coil and per phase for full pitch coils
(b) The voltage generated per coil and the per phase if coils have span of 13/15
of a pole pitch
(c) Determine the voltage between terminals for star connection for the above
Solution
𝝅𝝅
Area of each pole (fundamental) A1 = *0.25 * 0.3 =0.0589m2
𝟒𝟒
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
Fundamental flux per pole Ф1 = Bm1 A1 = *0.15 *0.0589 =0.00562 Wb
𝝅𝝅 𝝅𝝅

(a) Et1 = 4.44Ф1 f Kp1 Kd1

Now Kd1 = Kdn = 1 when considering a turn or a coil and Kp1 = Kpn = 1 for full
pitch coils,
Et1 = 4.44 * 0.00562 * 50 * 1 =1.25 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
3rd harmonic emf per turn Et3 = Et1 = 1.25 = 0.25 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
5th harmonic emf per turn Et5 = Et1 =1.25 =0.166 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
 Total Rms value of induced emf per turn =�𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟑𝟑 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟓𝟓

=√𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 =1.28 V

Voltage per coil = turns per coil * voltage per turn= 10 *1.28= 12.8V
Number of coils per phase = 60/3 =20 for double layer the number of slots is
equal to the number of coils and hence the number of slots is 60
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
Number of slots per pole phase q= =5
𝟑𝟑∗𝟒𝟒
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝛉𝛉/𝟐𝟐) 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔/𝟐𝟐)
Distribution factor for fundamental Kd1 = = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 0.957
𝒒𝒒𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝛉𝛉/𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) 𝟓𝟓 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬( )
𝟐𝟐∗𝟓𝟓

𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑/𝟐𝟐) 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝟑𝟑∗𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔/𝟐𝟐)
Distribution factor for 3rd harmonic Kd3 = = 𝟑𝟑∗𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 0.647
𝒏𝒏𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑/𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) 𝟑𝟑 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬( )
𝟐𝟐∗𝟓𝟓

𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓/𝟐𝟐) 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝟓𝟓∗𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔/𝟐𝟐)
Distribution factor for 5th harmonic Kd5 = = 𝟓𝟓∗𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 0.2
𝒏𝒏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓/𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐) 𝟓𝟓 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬( )
𝟐𝟐∗𝟓𝟓

Tph = coils per phase * turns per coil = 20 * 10 = 200

Fundamental frequency voltage per phase
Eph1 = 4.44 Ф1 f Tph Kp1 Kd1
= 4.44 * 50 * 0.00562 *200 * 0.957 * 1 = 239 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎∗ 𝟎𝟎.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
Eph3 = Eph1 =239 * = 32.3 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∗𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎∗ 𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐
Eph5 = Eph1 =239 * = 6.66 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∗𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗

Voltage per phase =�𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟑𝟑 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟓𝟓 =√𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐 + 𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟐𝟐 =241.3 V

(b) coil span (13/15) * 180 =156 º.

Angle of chording a = 180 – 156 = 24 º
Kp1 = cos (a/2) = cos(12) = 0.978 = 1.22 V
Fundamental frequency emf in each turn Et1 = 4.44Ф1 f Kp1 Kd1
 = 4.44 * 0.00562 * 50 * 0.978 * 1 =1.22 V

𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎∗ 𝟎𝟎.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖

Et3 = Et1 =1.22 * = 0.202 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∗𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎∗ 𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓
Et5 = Et1 =1.22 * = 0.0832 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∗𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗

Total effective emf per turn =�𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟑𝟑 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟓𝟓

= √𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟐 = 1.244 V

Voltage per coil = 1.244 *10 = 12.44 V
Fundamental frequency voltage per phase with coil pitch of 13 /15 pole pitch
Eph1 = 4.44 Ф1 f Tph Kp1 Kd1
= 4.44 * 50 * 0.00562 *200 * 0.957 * 0.978 = 233 v
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎∗ 𝟎𝟎.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔∗𝟎𝟎.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
Eph3 = Eph1 =233* = 26.1 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∗𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗∗𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎∗ 𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐∗ 𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓
Eph5 = Eph1 =233 * = 3.32 V
𝑩𝑩𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∗𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗∗𝟎𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗

Voltage per phase =�𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝟑𝟑 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝟓𝟓

=√𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐 =234 V

(c) With the star connection the third harmonic voltage doesn’t appear across
the line terminals even though they are present in the phase voltage.
With coil pitch = 13 /15 pole pitch,

Voltage per phase =�𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝟓𝟓 =√𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐 =233 V

Line voltage =√𝟑𝟑 * 233 = 404 V

EX 6.37
The MMF developed by the field coils of a 4 pole DC generator is 2,000 ampere
per pool. Its armature is wave connected and has 43 slots with 12 conductors
per slot the ratio of pole are to pole pitch is 0.7 and the total armature current is
50 A. Calculate the armature MMF and the resultant MMF at (i) the interpolar
axis, (ii) the pole tips and (iii) the pole centre also calculates the flux density at
two pole tips and the centre of pole if the length of air gap is 4 mm. neglect the
MMF required for iron parts of magnetic circuit and also for fringing effects.
Solution
The field MMF distribution is shown. It has a constant value of 2000 A over the
pole arc and is zero in the interpolar region.

Amplitude of armature MMF per pole(Ia/a) (z/2p) = (50/2) (516 / 2 * 4) = 1600

A.
The armature MMF is triangular in wave shape with an amplitude of 1600 at
the interpolar axis and zero at the pole Centre.
The different MMF at the inter bowler axis are:
 Armature MMF = 1600 A, field MMF = zero and therefore resultant MMF
1600 A.
(ii) Armature MMF at pole tips equal = 2000A.
at pole tip A the armature and field MMF are opposite in sign, therefore,
resultant MMF At pole tip A = 2000 – 1120 = 880 A.
at pole tip B, the armature and field MMF are both of same sign, therefore,
resultant MMF at bull tip B = 2000 + 1120 = 3120A.
(iii) the different MMF at pole Centre are : armature MMF = zero, field MMF =
2000A.
resultant MMF = 2000A
now MMF required for the air gap = 800000 Bg Lg
flux density in the air gap under pole tip A =
= (resultant mmf at A)/800000Lg = 880/(800000*0.004) = 0.275Wb/m2
Similarly,
flux density in the air gap under pole tip B = (resultant mmf at B)/800000Lg
= 3120 / (800000*0.004) = 0.975Wb/m2
flux density in the air gap at pole centre
= 2000/(800000*0.004) = 0.625Wb/m2
 Transformer
EXAMPLE 7.1
Estimate the reduction in volume, expressed as percentage of original volume of
(i) Iron core
(ii) Conductors, in a transformer when hot rolled silicon steel laminations worked at a
flux density of 1.2 Wb/m2. Circular coils are used and the thickness of windings negligible
as compared with diameter of circumscribing circle, the length of flux path, area of
conductor and the number of turns are the same for both cases.
Solution.
Lit Aic and Aih b the net iron areas with hot rolled and cold rolled lamination
respectively.
The iron area is inversely proportional to Flux density.
Aic =(1.2/1.8) Aih=0.667 Aih
Hence reduction is πd net iron area = (1-0.667)*100=33.3%
Let DH and DC Be that diameter of circumscribing Circle with hot rolled and cold
rolled lamination respectively. Diameter of circumscribing is proportional to √𝑨𝑨𝒊𝒊
dc =√𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 dc =0.817 dh
The length mean of turn is a therefore lens of mean turn of conductors one on cold
rolled Steel is 0.817 times that of conductors wound on hot rolled Steel. Since the number
of Turns and the area of each conductor are the same in both cases, the reduction in
volume of conductors with the use of cold rolled Steel is (1-0.817)*100=18.3%.

EXAMPLE 7.6
The ratio of flux to fold load mmf in a 400 kVA, 50 Hz, single phase core type power
transformer is (4.4x10-6). Calculate the net iron area and the window area of the
transformer. Maximum flux density in the core is 1.3 Wb/m2, current density 2.7
A/mm2 and Windows space Factor 0.26. Also calculate the full load mmf.

Solution. From Eqn 7.13,

K=�1.44𝑓𝑓(Ⴔ𝑚𝑚 /𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) ∗ 103 =√4.44 ∗ 50%2.4 ∗ 10-6 ∗ 103 = 0.732

Voltage per turn Ei = K �𝑸𝑸 =0.732 √400= 14.64 V

 Et 14.64
Flux Ⴔ𝑚𝑚 = = = 0.066 Wb.
𝟒𝟒.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒∗𝒇𝒇 4.44∗50

Ⴔm 14.64
Net iron area At = = = 0.066 m2.
Bm 4.44∗50
Window area of single phase transformer

Q 14.64
At = = = 0.066 m2 .
2.22 Bm kw δ Ai * 10 -2
4.44∗50
400
= = 0.0777 m2 .
2.22∗50∗1.3∗0.26∗2.7∗106 ∗0.0507∗ 10-3
Ⴔm 0.066
Full load mmf AT = = = 27500 A.
2.4 * 10-6 2.4 * 10-6

EXAMPLE 7.10
Calculate the ratio of weight of iron to weight of copper, net iron area, voltage per turn and the constant
K (where voltage per turn Et = K √𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ) for a 500 KVA, 50 Hz. Single phase Power transformer for
(i) Maximum efficiency to occur at 90% of full load
(ii) Minimum cost
(iii) minimum weight
(iv) minimum volume
Assume maximum flux density 1.5 Wb/m2 ; current density = 2.75 A/mm2 ; resistivity of copper at 75o C
= 2.1 * 10-3 Ωm ; density of iron = 7.65 * 103 kg/m3 ; density of copper = 8.9 * 103 kg/m3 ; Ratio of a
specific cost of copper to specific cost of iron for built up cores = 4 ; Ratio of length of mean length of
turn of Windings to length of flux path = 0.5 ; stray load loss = 10 % of full load copper loss ; iron loss
per kg for 1.5 Wb/m2 =1.23 W. Assume an extra loss for joints = 20 % of total iron loss
Solution.
Specific iron loss Pi = 1.2 * 1.23 = 1.475
2 (𝟐𝟐.𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕∗106 )2 𝟐𝟐.𝟏𝟏∗103
δ *ρ
Specific copper loss = = = 17.8 W/kg
𝟖𝟖.𝟗𝟗∗10 3 𝟖𝟖.𝟗𝟗∗10 3
Specific copper loss including stray load loss Pc = 1.1 * 17.8 = 19.6 W/kg.
Ratio of weight of iron to weight of copper to given maximum efficiency at 90% full load

Gi x2 pc
= = (0.9)2 * 1.475
19.6
= 10.57.
Gc pi
𝟏𝟏 Lmi gc
Now, c=( ∗ ∗ ∗ 103 )0.5
𝟐𝟐.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 Li gi
 𝟏𝟏 8.9 * 103
= (
𝟐𝟐.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
∗ 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 ∗
𝟕𝟕.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 ∗ 103
∗ 103 )0.5 = 16
𝑸𝑸 Gi
Net iron area Ai = C ( 𝑭𝑭 Bm δ Gc
. )0.5 = 16 (
𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓∗1.5*2.75 * 106
∗ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 )0.5 =0.0819 m2

Voltage per turn Et = 4.44 j Bm Ai =4.44 * 50 * 1.5 * 0.0819 = 27.27 V

Et 27.27
Constant K = = = 1.22
�𝑸𝑸 √𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓

Gi 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪
(ii) Ratio weight of iron to weight of copper to give minimum cost is = =4
Gc 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪
𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
Net iron area Ai = 16 ( ∗ 𝟒𝟒 )0.5 =0.05 m2
𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓∗1.5*2.75 * 106

Et = 4.44 j Bm Ai =4.44 * 50 * 1.5 * 0.05 = 16.65 V

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
K=
√𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
= 0.745
(iii) Minimum weight
Ai
= 0.025 m
2
Et = 8.34 V k=0.375
(iv) minimum volume
Gi 𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 𝟕𝟕.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
= = = 0.86
Gc 𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 𝟖𝟖.𝟗𝟗
2
Ai = 0.023 m Et = 7.7 V k=0.344

EXAMPLE 7.13
A 300 KVA, 6600/400, 50 Hz,alternator 3 phase core transformer has the following
data:Width of h.v.winding = 25 mm; width of L.v.winding = 16mm; height coils=0.5m;
length of mean turn = 0.9 m ; h.v.winding turns = 830 ; width of duct between h.v and
l.v.winding = 15mm.
(a) calculate the leakage reactance of the transformer revealed to the H.v.side
(b) If the L.v. coil is split into two parts with one part on each side of the h.v.coil, calculate
the leakage reactance referred to the two h.v.side. Assume that there is a duct 15mm wide
between each h.v. winding and each part of L.v.winding

Solution. Leakage reactance referred to the primary side

 Lmi bp+bs
Xp =2πfµo Tp 2 (a+ )
Lc 3
0.9 0.025+0.016
= 2π *50*4π*10-7 *(830)2 * ( 0.015+ ) =14 Ω.
0.5 3
(b) The L.v.winding divided into two parts, one on each side of h.v.winding and therefore
Eqn 7.79 is used.
Lmi bp+bs
Xp =π f µo Tp2 (a + )
Lc 3
0.9 0.025+0.016
= π *50*4π*10-7 *(830)2 * ( 0.015+ ) =5.36 Ω.
0.5 6

EXAMPLE 7.14
A 100KVA. 2000/400 V, 50Hz, single phase shell type transformer has sandwich coils
there are two full h.v.coils one full L.v.coil and two half L.v.coil calculate the value of
leakage reactance referred to h.v.side. Also calculate p.u leakage reactance. The data
given is
Depth of h.v.coil =40mm, depth of l.v.coil=36 mm,
Depth of duct between h.v and l.v=19mm,
Width of winding = 0.12 m; length of mean turn = 1.5m
The number of turns in h.v.winding are 200.

Solution. From Eqn 7.80, leakage reactance referred to h.v.side,

Lmi Tp 2 bp+bs
Xp = π f µo (a + )
W n 6
1.5 (200)2 0.04+0.036
= π *50*4π*10 * -7
* ( 0.016+ ) =1.41 Ω.
0.12 𝟐𝟐 6
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∗𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
H.V.winding current at full load = = 50 A .
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓∗𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
P.u leakage reactance = = 0.0353.
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

EXAMPLE 7.15
Estimate the per unit regulation and full load at 0.8 power factor lagging, for a 300KVA , 50 Hz,
6600/400 V, 3 phase, delta/star, core type transformer. The data given is:
H.V.winding: Outside diameter = 0.36 m, inside diameter =0.29 m, area of conductor=5.4 mm2
L.V.winding: Outside diameter = 0.26 m, inside diameter =0.22 m, area of conductor=170 mm2
Length of colis = 0.5 m, voltage per turn = 8V, resistivity = 0.21 Ω/m/mm2
400
Solution. L.V per phase Vs = = 231 V.
√𝟑𝟑
Vs 231
L.V. turns per phase Ts = = = 29. H.V per phase Vp = 6600 V.
Et 𝟖𝟖
6600
H.V. turns per phase Tp = * 29 = 826.
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
0.26+0.22
Mean diameter of l.v.winding = = 0.24 m.
𝟐𝟐

Length of mean turn of L.v.winding =π*0.24=0.752 m.

0.021*29*0.752
Resistance of l.v.winding rs = = 0.00269 Ω.
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
0.6+0.29
Mean diameter of h.v.winding = = 0.352 m.
𝟐𝟐

Length of mean turn of h.v.winding =π*0. 352 =1.02 m.

0.021*826*1.02
Resistance of h.v.winding rs = = 3.28 Ω.
𝟓𝟓.𝟒𝟒

Resistance of transformer referred to primary Rep =3.28+0.00269*(826/29)2 =5.47 Ω.

300*1000
H.V.winding current per phase Ip = = 15.1 A.
𝟑𝟑∗𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟏𝟏*5.47
P.U. Resistance Ԑr = = 0.0126.
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔

Mean diameter = (0.36+0.22)/2 = 0.29 m.

Length of mean turn Lmi = π *0.29 = 0.91 m.
Width of L.V.winding bs =(0.26-0.22)/2 = 0.02 m.
Width of H.V.winding bp=(0.36-0.29)/2 = 0.035 m.
width of duct = (0.29-0.26)/2 = 0.015 m.
Leakage reactance of transformer referred to primary side
 Lmt bp + bs
Xep =Xp+X’s=2π f µo Tp2 (a + )
Lc 3

0.91 0.035+0.02
Xp=2π *50*4π*10-7 *(826)2 * ( 0.015+ ) =17.3 Ω.
0.5 3
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟏𝟏*1.73
P.U. Resistance Ԑx = = 0.0395.
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
From Eqn. 7.81.per unit regulation

Ԑ= Ԑr cosႴ + Ԑx sinႴ =0.0126*0.8+0.0395*0.6=0.0338.

EXAMPLE 7.22
An 11KV, 25 Hz transformer has I2R, hysteresis and eddy current losses 1.6, 0.6 and 0.4
percent of the output. What will be the percentage losses if the transformer is connected
to 22KV, 50 Hz supply assuming the full load current to remain the same?

Solution. Subscript 1 refers to case with 11KV and 25 Hz,

Subscript 2 refers to case with 22KV and 50 Hz.
(a) I2R loss as the full load current is same in both the cases, the copper loss remains the
same. I2R losses = Pc2=Pc1=1.6 percent of output with 11KV
The transformer is assumed to be single phase.
E1 = 4.44 f1 Ⴔm1 T and E2 = 4.44 f2 Ⴔm2 T

E2 f2Ⴔm2 22 Ⴔm2 50
= OR = *
E1 f1Ⴔm1 11 Ⴔm1 25

Or Ⴔm2 = Ⴔm1 Bm2 = Bm1

Kh Bm2 2 f2 f2
(b) Hysteresis loss Ph=Kh Bm2f OR
Ph2
Ph1
= =
Kh Bm12 f1 f1
50
Or Ph2 = 0.6 * = 1.2% of output with 11KV.
25

Ke Bm2 2 f22 f22

(C) Eddy current loss. Pe=Ke Bm2 f2 OR
Pe2
Pe1
= 2
= 2
502
Ke Bm12 f1 f1
 502
Or Pe2 = 0.4 * = 1.6% of output with 11KV.
252
The output with 22 kv is double that with 11kv as the current is the same in both the cases. Therefore, I2R
hysteresis and eddy current losses are respectively 0.8%, 9.6% and 0.8% of output with 22kv.
EXAMPLE 7.23
A 40 Hz transformer is to be used on a 50 Hz system assuming the steinmetz’s coefficient as 1.6 and
losses at lower frequency 1.2%, 0.7% and 0.5% for I2R, hysteresis and eddy currents respectively. Find
(a) losses on 50 Hz for the same supply voltage and current (b) output at 50 Hz for the same total losses
as on 40 Hz.

Solution. (a) The voltage and current at both 40 Hz and 50 Hz are the same and therefore the output
in both the cases is the same. Subscript 1 refers to 40 Hz and Subscript 2 refers to 50 Hz.
The current at both 40 Hz and 50 Hz is the same and therefore the I2R loss is the same in both cases.
Pc2=Pc1=1.2%.
E2
We have, = 4.44f Ⴔ
4.44f Ⴔ
2 m2 𝑻𝑻

m1 𝑻𝑻
and as E2 = E1
E1 1

Ⴔm2 = Ⴔm1 * Ⴔm1 = 0.8 Ⴔm1 = (0.8*B

f1 40
= or Bm2 m1)
f2 50
Kh Bm2 1.6 f2 (0.8*Bm1)1.6 f2
Now, hysteresis loss Ph=Kh Bm1.6 f or
Ph2
Ph1
= =
Kh Bm11.6 f1 Bm11.6 f1

50
Ph2 = Ph1 * (0.8)1.6 *
40
= 0.875 * Ph1 =0.875 * 0.7 = 0.61%

Ke Bm22 f22
Eddy current loss Pe=Ke Bm 2
f2 2 Pe2
Pe1
= = (0.8)2 (
50 2
40
) =1
Ke Bm12 f12

(b)if the rating of the transformer is changed, eddy current and hysterics losses remain
the same while there is a change in I2R loss
Total loss in 1st case = 1.2+0.7+0.5 = 2.4%
Total loss in 2nd case = 1.2+0.61+0.5 = 2.31%.
 Ex 8.2:
(a)The output coefficient of 1,250 kVA , 300 rbm synchronous generator is 200 kVA /m3
–rps (a). Find the values of main dimensions (D,L) of machine if the ratio of length
diameter is 0.2. Also calculate the value of main dimensions
if : b) Specific loading are decreased by 10% each with speed remaining the same;
c) Speed is decreased to 150 RBM with specific loading remaining the same as in part (a)
Assume the same ratio of length to diameter comment upon the results.
Solution
a) speed = 360/60 = 5 r.p.s
𝐐𝐐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
from eqn 8.18 D2 L = = = 1.25 m3
C O∗ n s 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∗𝟓𝟓
but L/D = 0.2 0.2 D3 = 1.25 D = 1.842 m L = 0.368
b) from eqn 8.19 This means that the output coefficient c is directly proportional to
the product of specific electric and specific magnetic loadings the specific loading are
each decrease by 10% therefore new value of output co-efficient is C = 0.9 * 0.9 * 200
=162.
𝐐𝐐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Hence D3 L = = = 155 m3
C O∗ n s 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏∗ 𝟓𝟓
0.2 D3 = 1.55 D = 1.98 L = 0.4 m
The result Indicate the size of the machine increase with decrease any specific loadings.
c) speed ns = 150/60 = 2.5 and output co-efficient C = 200
𝐐𝐐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
D3 L = = = 2.5 m3 0.2 D3 = 2.5
C O∗ n s 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∗𝟐𝟐.𝟓𝟓
D = 2.3 m L = 0.46 m.
The result show that the size of machine increase with decrease in operating speed.

Ex 8.3 :
Prove that in a DC machine the volume of active bots is proportional torque of the
machine.
 Solution
𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐄𝐄∗𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈
Torque = =
𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯 𝟐𝟐 𝛑𝛑 𝐧𝐧
Ф 𝐙𝐙 𝐧𝐧 𝐩𝐩/𝐚𝐚 𝟏𝟏 𝐩𝐩
=
𝟐𝟐 𝛑𝛑 𝐧𝐧 . I a= Ф Ia z
𝟐𝟐 𝛑𝛑 𝐚𝐚
But Φ = BavπDL/p,
Iz = Ia / d and Iz Z=π D αc
𝟏𝟏 𝛑𝛑 𝐃𝐃 𝐈𝐈 𝛑𝛑
T= (Bav ) p (π,D ac)= Bav acD2 L
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐩𝐩 𝟐𝟐

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
0r D2 L=
Bav∗𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚
𝛑𝛑 𝐓𝐓
Volume of active parts of machine = D2 L=
𝟒𝟒 𝟐𝟐 Bav∗𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚
Since Bav and ac are constant, the volume of active parts is proportional to the torque.

Example 8.4: Prove that for a ‘m’ phase synchronous machine, the effective rotor
volume is given by:
Q*103
(a) Volume =
√2π2 Bav ac n
(b) A rough estimate of the dimensions and windings of 100 MVA, 11KV , 3000 rps star
connected 3 phase turbo-alternator is required , the maximum value of flux density ,air
gap of machine is to be limited to 10 Wb/m2 the specific electric loading is 80,000
ampere conductors per meter.
(i) Determine the approximate volume of the cylindrical part of the rotor.
(ii) The peripheral speed of rotor is to be limited to 200 m/s. Estimate the required
meter and length.
(iii) Calculate the number of turns per phase.
Solution.
KVA rating Q = m Eph Iph * 10-3
Voltage per phase Eph = 4.44 Tph Ⴔ f Kw =√𝟐𝟐 π Tph Ⴔ f Kw

Q= m *√𝟐𝟐 π Tph Ⴔ f Kw Iph * 10-3

 𝝅𝝅 𝑫𝑫 𝑳𝑳 𝝅𝝅 𝑫𝑫 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
Ⴔ = Bav *
pns
Putting Iph Tph and f = , we have :
𝒑𝒑 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐

pns 𝝅𝝅 𝑫𝑫 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
Q= m *√𝟐𝟐 π (Bav
𝝅𝝅 𝑫𝑫 𝑳𝑳
)( )( ) Kw *10-3
𝒑𝒑 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
π2
= ( Bav ac ns Kw * 10-3 ) D2 L
𝟐𝟐 √𝟐𝟐
2 �2 Q* 103
D2 L =
π2 Bav 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 ns Kw
π π 2 √2 Q* 103 Q* 106
Volume of rotor = 2
D L = * =
𝟒𝟒 𝟒𝟒 π2 Bav 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 ns Kw √𝟐𝟐 π2 Bav 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 ns
As value of winding factor kW may be assumed as 1.

(b) Assuming a sinusoidal flux distribution: Bav =(2/ π) Bm =(2/ π) *1 = 0.637 Wb/m2
Q* 106 100000* 106
(i) Volume of rotor = = = 2.75 m3
√𝟐𝟐 π2 Bav 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 ns √𝟐𝟐 π2 𝟎𝟎.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔∗𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖∗𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓

(ii) Peripheral speed = π D ns = 200 m/s (given)

200
Maximum permissible rotor diameter = = 1.275 m.
π *50

Taking rotor diameter D=1.25 m.

200
Core length = * 2.75 = 2.24m.
π *(1.25)2
2f 2*50
(iii) Number of poles = = =2.
ns 50

Flux per pole Ⴔ = Bav *

𝝅𝝅 𝑫𝑫 𝑳𝑳 𝝅𝝅 𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∗𝟐𝟐.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
= 0.637 * =2.8 Wb.
𝒑𝒑 𝟐𝟐

Voltage per phase Eph = 11000/√𝟑𝟑 =6350 V.

Now Eph = 4.44 Tph Ⴔ f Kw or 6350 = 4.44 Tph 2.8 *50 * 1
Turn/phase = 10

Example 8·18:
A 500 kW, 375 rpm d.c generator is designed with 𝑩𝑩𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝟎𝟎 ⋅ 𝟔𝟔 Wb/m2 and ac=35000
ampere conductors per metre and ratio pole arc to pitch=0.66.the armature is lap
connected and single turn coils are used. Find suitable values for diameter and length of
armature if the maximum value of voltage between adjacent segments is not to exceed
30 V at full load and the peripheral speed is not to exceed 30 m/s. Assume the maximum
value of gap density at full load to be 13 times the maximum value of flux density al no
load. Efficiency at full load=0.91
Solution.
Neglecting rotational losses, power developed by armature at full load
𝑷𝑷 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂 = = = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓.
𝜼𝜼 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
Speed 𝒏𝒏 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑/𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 rps
Output co-efficient 𝑪𝑪𝟎𝟎 = 𝝅𝝅𝟐𝟐 𝑩𝑩𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 × 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝟑𝟑 = 𝝅𝝅𝟐𝟐 × 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝟑𝟑 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓
𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂 𝟓𝟓.𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
Now 𝑫𝑫𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝑳 = = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 .
𝑪𝑪𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝒏 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟓𝟓×𝟔𝟔.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

Taking peripheral speed 𝑽𝑽𝒂𝒂 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒎/𝒔𝒔

𝑽𝑽𝜶𝜶 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Diameter 𝑫𝑫 = = = 𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑳𝑳 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒.
𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅 𝝅𝝅×𝟔𝟔.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝑩𝑩𝒂𝒂 𝟎𝟎.𝟔𝟔
Maximum value of flux density at no load 𝑩𝑩𝒈𝒈 = = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾/𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐
𝝍𝝍 𝟎𝟎.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔

Maximum value of flux density at load 𝑩𝑩𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 =1.3* 0.9 = 1.17 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾/𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐

Maximum voltage between adjacent segments at full load

Ecm = 2 𝑩𝑩𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 L Va Tc=2*1.17*0.42*25*1=24.6 V Within limits.