Introduction

1
1.1 Introduction
Ground improvement is required, wherever problematic soils/rocks are encountered.
The basic purpose is to make the subsurface conditions suitable for construction pur-
poses. There are various methods of ground improvement available and the selection
of a technique or a combination of techniques depends upon several factors. The dif-
ferent purposes of ground improvement and a brief description of the different
methods and their selection criteria is presented in this chapter.

1.1.1 Purpose of ground improvement

Ground-improvement methods are those that are capable of improving certain char-
acteristics (e.g. increase in bearing capacity, reduction in total as well as differential
settlement, reduction in permeability, slope stability, prevention of soil erosion caused
by piping and seepage, reduction of uplift pressure, decrease in liquefaction potential
of soil, reduction of swelling and cracking of soils, identification of suitability of site
to facilitate construction works, etc.) of poor ground for civil engineering construc-
tions and various infrastructure developments. So a ground improvement method
or technique is required to alter the state, nature, or mass behaviour of ground mate-
rials in a controlled manner in order to achieve an expected and satisfactory response
to existing or projected environmental and engineering actions.
There are alternate options to ground improvement as well. These are
a. to remove and replace the soil mass with another type of soils or other geomaterials of a
suitable quality for the construction work
b. to bypass the poor soil with the help of a suitable technique like pile foundation
c. to alter the design (height and configuration) of structures to overcome the ground
limitations
d. to change the construction site and look for a new one.

However, due to the scarcity of land in present conditions, heavy loading structures,
competitive design, the need for speedy construction, and various political and eco-
nomic issues, a ground-improvement technique may be the only feasible option for
civil engineering constructions. This situation is outlined in Fig. 1.1, which demon-
strates that when the ground is problematic in most of the cases we need to improve
the soil mass by selecting a proper ground-improvement technique(s). The selection of
ground-improvement techniques depends upon various factors like the cost and time

Geotechnical Investigations and Improvement of Ground Conditions. [Link]

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2 Geotechnical Investigations and Improvement of Ground Conditions

Problematic cases
Collapsible soil
Liquefiable soil Options available
Filling materials 1. Remove and replace Constraints
2. Bypass Technical, practical, political
Loose deposits
3. Change site location and economical issues
Swelling soil 4. Design alteration
Soft and marshy ground
Karst topography Selection criteria
Nonuniform soil/rock strata Cost, time, purpose, volume
Potential for slope instability of treatment area, soil
5. Improve in situ soil properties properties, accessibility,
Excessive seepage
(ground improvement) availability of materials,
High lift pressure equipment and manpower,
Erosion, piping environmental factor, local
experience and preference

Fig. 1.1 Necessity and selection of ground-improvement techniques for construction projects.

available to complete the project, reasons for improving the ground, extent and depth
of ground to be treated, geotechnical properties of the existing in situ soils/rocks,
accessibility to the project site, availability of materials, equipments and manpower
required to improve the ground, environmental factors, local experience, and prefer-
ence of contractors and engineers.

1.1.2 Preliminary evaluation for ground improvement

As mentioned previously, the requirement for and selection of various ground-
improvement techniques are purely site and project specific. It is essential that the site
characterization is completed before implementation of the ground-improvement pro-
cess. First, it needs to be decided whether ground improvement is required for the spe-
cific project at the particular site or not? In order to decide this we need to analyze the
various parameters related to the ground that affect the stability and serviceability of
the structures. A simple example of a preliminary evaluation for ground improvement
to construct a building has been presented as a flow chart in Fig.1.2. Similar matrices
can be formed for different structures to be constructed in different sites to evaluate the
necessity of ground improvement.

1.1.3 Methods of ground improvement

A classification of various ground-improvement techniques can be done based upon
their basic principles and this is presented in Table 1.1.
All of the techniques mentioned in Table 1.1 have one or more than one of the fol-
lowing main functions:
a. To increase the bearing capacity
b. To control deformations and accelerate consolidation
c. To provide lateral stability
Introduction 3

Fig. 1.2 Necessity of ground-improvement: preliminary evaluation.

d. To form seepage cut-off and environmental control

e. To increase liquefaction resistance
f. To facilitate the working site conditions.
Depending upon the specific project requirements, it is necessary to select one, or
more than one, of the ground-improvement techniques for a particular site by consid-
ering other factors like time and cost, volume and depth of work, etc., as mentioned in
the previous section. Some of the common methods along with their basic purposes
are summarized in Table 1.2.
It is worth mentioning that a particular ground-improvement technique can be used
only for a particular type or a group of soils, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
4 Geotechnical Investigations and Improvement of Ground Conditions

Table 1.1 Classification of ground-improvement techniques based upon their basic

principles

Basic principles Some of the methods

Consolidation Wick drains or prefabricated vertical drains (PVD),

vacuum consolidation, preloading, surcharge fill,
electro-osmosis
Densification Vibro-compaction, vibro-flotation, dynamic compaction,
blasting
Reinforcement Application of geosynthetic materials and natural fibres,
retaining walls, soil nailing, soil anchoring, micropiles,
stone columns
Chemical stabilization by Chemical lime and cement piles
deep mixing methods
Chemical stabilization by Permeation grouting with particulate or chemical grouts,
grouting compaction grouting, jet grouting, hydro-fracture
grouting, etc.
Thermal stabilization Ground freezing, vitrification
Electro-treatment Electro-kinetic remediation, electro-heating,
electro-kinetic fencing, bioelectro-kinetic injection
Load reduction Use of EPS (expanded polystyrene) geofoams, crumb
rubber tire, sawed lumber waste, foam glass aggregates,
clam shells, LECA (lightweight expanded clay
aggregate), expanded shell clay and slates, cellular
concrete, pumice and industrial wastes like slag, etc.

Similarly, the maximum effective depth and the economical size of the treatment
area varies from method to method, as summarized in Table 1.3.

1.1.4 Scope
l
Developing new machinery to execute the work in less time, particularly for deep
compaction
l
Automation of equipment for in situ monitoring and quality check
l
Development of proper guidelines so as to enhance the effectiveness of different ground-
improvement techniques. Also, the regular revision of the existing guidelines is required,
based upon new site condition, climatic conditions, and new challenges
l
Innovating new construction materials, particularly from different wastes
l
Development of new cost-effective techniques to replace the expensive ones, like freezing,
electro-osmosis, vacuum consolidation, etc. Interdisciplinary work to explore new methods
like nanotechnology and microbial geotechniques, bio rock formations, invention of catalyst
and enzymes that can convert soil into rocklike materials, etc.
l
To make these technologies more environmentally friendly
l
Analysis of the effect of climate change on performance of different soil stabilizers, etc.
Introduction 5

Table 1.2 Purposes of some of the common methods for ground improvement

Improve
bearing Settlement Lateral Environmental Liquefaction
Methods capacity control stability control resistance

Vibro- √ √ √
compaction,
blasting,
preloading
Dynamic √ √ √ √
compaction
Soil nailing √
Mechanical √ √ √
stabilization,
micropiles, fibre-
reinforcement
Vacuum √ √
consolidation,
electro-osmosis
Lightweight fill √
Stone columns √ √ √ √
Permeation √ √ √
grouting
Electro-heating √ √
Jet grouting, deep √ √ √ √ √
soil mixing, lime
column
Ground freezing √ √
Vitrification √
6 Geotechnical Investigations and Improvement of Ground Conditions

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Vibro-compaction

Vibro-displacement compaction

Particulate grout

Chemical grout

Displacement grout

Preloading

Dynamic compaction

Electro-osmosis

Reinforcement

Thermal treatment

Remove and replace

Prewetting

10 1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

Particle size (mm)

Fig. 1.3 Various ground-improvement methods as per their applicability to different soil mass.
Based on Mitchell, J.K., 1981. Soil improvement: state of the art report. In: Proceedings of 10th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm, 4,
pp. 509–565.

Table 1.3 Maximum effective depth and economical size of treatment area for some of the
ground-treatment methods

Maximum effective Maximum effective depth

depth/economical size of and economical size of
Method treatment area Method treatment area

Blasting About 20–25 m but not Preloading Economical for small area
near to ground surface/
small area
Vibratory 3 m/any size Dynamic 30 m/large area
roller compaction
Grouting Unlimited/small area Vibro- 30 m/large area
flotation
Electro- 20 m/small area Stone 20 m/medium to large area
osmosis columns
Heating/ 15 m/small area Chemical 45 m/medium to large area
freezing lime piles